Vector Calculus

Chap 10 SM Page 427 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM
10
Vector calculus
CSF coverage
Area of study
Units 3 & 4 Vectors in two
and three
dimensions
In this chapter
10A Position, velocity and
acceleration
10B Cartesian equations and
antidifferentiation of
vectors
10C Applications of vector
calculus
10D Projectile motion
428
Specialist Mathematics
Vector calculus
When any object from a golf ball to an athlete travels in two or more dimensions,
vectors must be used if we are to fully record and study its motion. The general principles of kinematics still apply; but the position, velocity and acceleration of the object
are vector quantities and these involve both magnitude and direction.
In addition, it is worth recalling the following.
1. The dot product or scalar product of two vectors b and c where
b = bx i + by j and c = cx i + cy j is given by b c = c b = bx cx + by cy

2. The magnitude or length of a vector, b is given by
b = b = b b = b 2x + b 2y

3. The dot or scalar product of two vectors b and c is related to their respective
magnitudes and the angle between them:

b
c =
b c cos

4. Two non-zero vectors are perpendicular when b
c = 0. This is because
c =
b c cos

= 0 if and only if cos = 0
that is, if = 90 and hence b and c are perpendicular.
Position, velocity and acceleration

Position
Let us first consider a particle which moves
A
along the curved path ABCD as shown at
B
right.
The point O is the origin. The position of
~r(T )
the particle from the origin at any time, t, is
C
given by the vector r ( t ) . At a time T, the
D
particle is at the point B on the curve and at O

~r(T + t )
a later time, T + t, the particle has moved
to the point C. The position vector at time T, when the particle is at B, is r ( T ) ; like
wise, at C it is r ( T + t ) .
Displacement
The displacement of a particle is the change of its position over a given time interval.
The displacement of the particle in the diagram above during the time interval t is
given by:
displacement = r ( T + t ) r ( T )
which is the difference between the final position at the time T + t and the initial
position at time T.
C h a p t e r 1 0 Ve c t o r c a l c u l u s
429
Distance
The distance from the origin of a particle at any time, t, is given by the magnitude of
r(t) :
r( t) = r( t) = r( t) r( t)
WORKED Example 1
Find the distance from the origin of the body described by the position vector
r ( t ) = 2ti + ( t 2 1 ) j 5k at t = 2.
THINK
WRITE
1
2
3
4
Substitute t = 2 into r (t) to find r (2).
Evaluate r (2) = r ( 2 ) r ( 2 ) to find

from the
origin.
the distance
Simplify the surd.

State the distance from the origin when
t = 2.
r ( 2 ) = 4i + 3 j 5k
r ( 2 ) = 4 2 + 3 2 + ( 5 )2
= 50
= 5 2
The body is 5 2 units from the origin when
t = 2.
Average velocity
The average velocity v av during the time interval t is given by the displacement
vector divided by the magnitude

of the time interval. Thus:
r ( T + t ) r ( t )
v av = -------------------------------------
t
WORKED Example 2
Find the average velocity of the body with position vector
r( t) =
THINK
1
Find r when t = 0 and when t = 3.
Simplify r ( 3 ) r ( 0 ) .
Calculate the average velocity by

r(3) r(0)
simplifying -------------------------
-.
30
State the average velocity.
t
t + 1 i ---- j + 5k between t = 0 and t = 3.
3
WRITE
r ( 0 ) = i + 5k
r ( 3 ) = 2i 3 j + 5k
r ( 3 ) r ( 0 ) = ( 2 1 )i + ( 3 0 ) j + ( 5 5 )k
= i 3j
i 3j
v av = ------------30
i 3j
= ------------3
= 1--3- i j

The average velocity is
1
--3
i j.

430
Instantaneous velocity
To obtain the instantaneous velocity, v(T), of the particle at the point B, we apply a
limit and make t 0. Thus the instantaneous velocity of the particle at time T is:
r ( T + t ) r ( T )
v ( T ) = lim ---------------------------------------
t
t 0
dr
= -----dt
This means that the instantaneous velocity vector v ( t ) is given by the time derivative
of the position vector r ( t ) . As t 0 the point Capproaches B and so the velocity
vector has a direction parallel

to the tangent of the curved path of the particle.
The direction of motion of a particle is in the direction parallel to the velocity vector.
Rules for differentiating vectors

There are four intuitively obvious results which are used in differentiating vector
quantities.
Rule 1. The derivative of a unit vector equals zero:
dj
di
----- = 0 ; ----- = 0 .
dt
dt
Since both the unit vectors i and j have constant magnitude and direction they are
equals zero.
constants and hence their derivative
Rule 2. The derivative of a constant vector ai equals zero. Using the product rule:
d ( ai )
di da
----------- - = a ----- + ------ i
dt
dt
dt
= a0+i0
= 0
Rule 3. The derivative of a vector xi whose scalar coefficient x(t) is a function of time
is given as
d ( xi )
di
dx
----------- - = x ----- + ------ i
dt
dt
dt
dx
= 0 + ------ i
dt
dx
= ------ i
dt
Rule 4. The derivative of the sum of two vectors is the sum of the derivative of each
vector. In the case of the position vector r = x ( t )i + y ( t )i :
d ( xi + y j )
dr
----- = -----------------------dt
dt
dx dy
= ------ i + ------ j
dt dt
= v(t )
Speed
The speed of a particle is a scalar quantity; that is, it has magnitude but not direction.
Therefore, the speed of a particle is the magnitude of the velocity vector.
Speed = v ( t ) =
v( t) v( t) = v( t)
431
WORKED Example 3
An object has a position vector in metres r ( t ) = ( 3t 2 sin t )i + ( e t + 2t ) j ; t 0 seconds.
a Find the velocity vector v ( t ) .
b Find the velocity of the object at t = 2 s.

c Find the speed of the object at t = 2 s.
d Find the average velocity in the first 2 seconds of the bodys motion.
THINK
a
2
3
WRITE
dr
The velocity vector v ( t ) = ----- is found
dt
by differentiating each vector

component of r ( t ) with respect to
time.
State the velocity.
The velocity at time t = 2 is found by
substitution into the expression for v ( t ) .
Simplify the value of v ( 2 ) .
State the velocity.
dr
a v ( t ) = -----
dt
d
= ----- [ ( 3t 2 sin t )i + ( e t + 2t ) j ]
dt
= ( 6t cos t )i + ( e t + 2 ) j
The velocity of the body is given by

v ( t ) = ( 6t cos t )i + ( e t + 2 ) j .
b v ( 2 ) = ( 12 cos2 )i + ( e 2 + 2 ) j
1
= ( 12 )i + 2 ----2- j
The velocity of the object at a time t = 2 s

1
is v ( 2 ) = ( 12 )i + 2 ----2- j .
e

The speed of the object at time t = 2 is

given by the magnitude of the vector
v ( 2 ) that is, the speed is equal to
v(2) v(2) .
Calculate the speed using the velocity

vector, v ( 2 ) , found in part b.
Evaluate, correct to 2 decimal places.

State the approximate speed.
c speed, v ( 2 ) =
2
3
4
v ( 2 )
1 2
( 12 ) 2 + 2 ----2-
9.05
The speed of the object is 9.05 m/s.
The average velocity in the first 2 seconds d v av = [ r ( 2 ) r ( 0 ) ] 2
is the displacement of the object divided by

the time interval (that is, 2 seconds).
The displacement is given by r ( 2 ) r ( 0 ) ,
1
of
= ( 12 )i + 2 ----2- j ( 0i + 1 j ) 2
this being the difference in the position
the object from t = 0 until t = 2.
Simplify.
Calculate each component correct to

3 decimal places.
State the approximate average velocity.
v(2)
1
= ( 12 )i + 1 ----2- j 2
4.429 i + 0.432 j
The average velocity in the first two

seconds is v av = 4.429i + 0.432 j m/s.
432
Acceleration
We can, in a similar way to that shown in the previous section, obtain a vector which
describes the acceleration of an object from the instantaneous velocity vector. Consider
a particle travelling on the path ABCD, as before. At the point B the object has a
velocity given by v ( T ) . At a later time, T + t, the body is now at the point C with a
velocity v ( T + t ) . This situation is shown below.
A
v(T )
~
B
~at
v(T
~ )
v(T+t )
~
C
v(T+t )
~
Average acceleration
The average acceleration of the object, a av , is given as the change in velocity, v ,
divided by the time interval, t. Thus:

v ( T + t ) v ( T )
a av = ---------------------------------------
-.
t
Instantaneous acceleration
To obtain the instantaneous acceleration, a ( T ) , of the particle at the point B, we
apply a limit and make t 0. Thus, the instantaneous acceleration of the particle at
time T is:
v ( T + t ) v ( T )
a ( T ) = lim ---------------------------------------
t
t 0
dv
= -----dt
This means that the instantaneous acceleration vector a ( t ) is given by the time
derivative of the velocity vector v ( t ) .
WORKED Example 4
Find the acceleration vector a ( t ) for the object whose position vector is
r ( t ) = e 2t i ( t 3 + t ) j + ( t log e t )k .
THINK
WRITE
1
Find v ( t ) by differentiating each vector
component
of r ( t ) with respect to time.
Find a ( t ) by differentiating each vector
component
of v ( t ) with respect to time.
v ( t ) = 2e 2t i ( 3t 2 + 1 ) j + ( 1 + log e t )k
1
a ( t ) = 4e 2t i 6t j + --- k
433
WORKED Example 5
A body moves in such a way that its position in metres at an instant t seconds is given by:
r ( t ) = ( 15t 1--2- t 2 + 1 )i + ( 12t 1--3- t 3 ) j , t 0.
Find:
a the velocity vector r( t )
b the acceleration vector r
c the angle between the velocity vector and the acceleration vector of the body at a time
t = 1 s, to the nearest degree
d the time when the body has an acceleration of magnitude 9.8 m/s2.
THINK
WRITE
a
The velocity vector r is the time
derivative of the displacement

r(t) .
Simplify.
The acceleration vector r is the time

derivative of the velocity r( t ) .
Simplify.
Calculate the velocity vector when

t = 1, r( 1 ) .
Calculate the acceleration vector when

t = 1, r( 1 ) .
The angle, , between the two vectors

r( 1 ) and r( 1 ) is found using the
equation:
r( 1 ) r( 1 ) = r( 1 ) r( 1 ) cos .
Substitute r( 1 ) and r( 1 ) into the
equation.
2
3
Simplify the equation.
dr
a r( t ) = -----
dt
d
= ----- ( 15t 1--2- t 2 + 1 )i + ( 12t 1--3- t 3 ) j
dt
= ( 15 t )i + ( 12 t 2 ) j
dv
b r( t ) = -----dt
d
= ----- ( 15 t )i + ( 12 t 2 ) j
dt
= i 2t j
c r( 1 ) = 14i 11 j
r( 1 ) = i 2 j
r( 1 )
r( 1 ) =
r( 1 ) r( 1 ) cos
( i 2 j ) ( 14i 11 j )
2
= ( 1 ) + ( 2 ) 2 14 2 + ( 11 ) 2 cos
14 + 22 =
5 317 cos
1585 cos
8
cos = ---------------1585
= 0.200 94
= cos1(0.200 94)
78.
The angle between the two vectors is
approximately 78.
8 =
7
8
9
Express cos as the subject of the

equation.
Express as the subject of the equation.
Give the angle to the nearest degree.
State the solution.
Continued over page
434
THINK
d
WRITE
State the acceleration, r( t ) at any time, t.
Obtain an expression for the magnitude

of the vector r( t ) and equate to 9.8.
Square both sides of the equation.
Make t2 the subject of the equation.
Solve the equation for t by taking the

square root of both sides. Note that only
positive solutions for t are allowed.
State the solution.
1
2
r( t ) = i 2t j
r( t ) = 1 + 4t 2 = 9.8
1 + 4t2 = 9.82
= 96.04
2
4t = 95.04
t2 = 23.76
t 4.87, (t 0)
When t = 4.87 s the magnitude of the
acceleration is 9.8 m/s2.
Vector functions of time
Graphics Calculator tip! derivatives
The path of an object is given by r = 2t i + (10 t2) j , t 0. Find r when t = 2.
1. Make sure the MODE settings are for parametric plotting and GT. Also press 2nd
[FORMAT] and select ExprOff (this avoids a cluttered screen when in GT mode).
2. Press Y=. At X1T= enter 2T, and at Y1T= enter 10 T2.
3. Press WINDOW and set Tmin= to 0, Tmax= to 4, Tstep= to 0.1 and press GRAPH
(you may need to alter the other WINDOW settings to get a good view this window
uses ZStandard).
4. Press TRACE and scroll along the graph until
T = 2. This shows that r = 4 i + 6 j when t = 2.
to be seen
GT mode allows the graph and table
simultaneously and gives the i and j components
of the vector as t changes.

5. Press 2nd [CALC], select 4: dx/dt and press
ENTER (you may need to press ENTER a second time). See the left screen shown
below.
6. Then press 2nd [CALC], select 3: dy/dt and press ENTER (twice). See the right
screen shown below. This shows that r = 2 i 4 j when t = 2.
remember
remember
435
1. Two non-zero vectors a and b are perpendicular when a b = 0 .

a b
2. The angle between two vectors is given by cos = ----------- - where a and b are
a b

vectors.
3. Position r ( t ) , velocity v ( t ) and acceleration a ( t ) are vector quantities. In two
dimensions they can be written as:

r ( t ) = xi + y j
dr
dx dy
v ( t ) = v x i + v y j [Note: v ( t ) = r( t ) = ----- = ------ i + ------ j ]
dt
dt dt
d2r
d2 x d2 y
a ( t ) = a x i + a y j , respectively. [Note: a ( t ) = r( t ) = -------2- = -------2- i + -------- j ]
dt
dt dt
r ( t + t ) r ( t )
4. The average velocity during the time interval t is v av = -----------------------------------
-.
t
dr
dx dy
5. The instantaneous velocity v ( t ) = r( t ) = ----- = ------ i + ------ j .
dt
dt dt
6. The instantaneous speed is given by v v = v x2 + v y2 which is the

magnitude of the velocity vector v .
7. The direction of motion is in the direction parallel to the velocity vector.

dv x dv y
dv
d2 x d2 y
8. The instantaneous acceleration a ( t ) = ------ = -------- i + -------- j = -------2- i + -------2- j .
dt
dt dt
dt dt
10A
WORKED
Example
1 For the body described by the following position vectors, find the distance from the
origin at the times listed using distance =
a r(t)
b r(t)
c r(t)
d r(t)
WORKED
Example
2
Example
3a
= r .
= 3i + 2t 2 j at t = 2
= t i ( 2t + 1 ) 2 j + 4k at t = 3
= cos 4t i sin 4t j at t = 3
= 2t 2 i + log e (10t + 1 ) j ( 2t 1 )k at t = 1
2 Find the average velocity of the bodies described in question 1 from t = 0 to the given
time.
3 Find the velocity vector for each of the following position vectors:
a r ( t ) = 3i 2t j
b r ( t ) = t 2 i + ( 2t + 1 ) j + t 3 k
Math
cad
WORKED
Position, velocity and

acceleration
Kinematics
vectors
436
r(t)
d r(t)
e r(t)
f r(t)
g r(t)
WORKED
Example
3b,c,d
= sin 3t i + 4 cos ( 2t ) j
= 4e 2t i 2t 1 j
= log e ( t 1 )i + ( 3t 3 + 2t ) j ( 4 t 2 )k
= t 2 sin t i + te t j
= 3 cos2t i + 3 sin 2t j
4 Find, by calculating v v , the speed of the objects having the following position

vectors. In addition, calculate:
i the speed at t = 2 in each case
ii the average velocity in the first 2 seconds of the objects motion.
a r(t)
b r(t)
c r(t)
d r(t)
WORKED
Example
= t 2 i ( 2t + 1 ) j
= ( t 3 t )i 2t j + t 2 k
= log e ( 3t + 1 )i 4t j
= cos 4t i sin 4t j
5 Find the acceleration vector a ( t ) for the following objects whose position vectors
are:
a r ( t ) = 3i 2t j
b r ( t ) = t 2 i ( 2t + 1 ) j + 12tk
c r ( t ) = sin 3t i + 4 cos ( 2t ) j ( t 3 + t )k
d r ( t ) = 4e 2t i 2t 1 j
1
e r ( t ) = log e ( t 1 )i + ( 3t 3 + 2t ) j --- k
t
f r ( t ) = sin t i + te j
6 multiple choice
The position of an object is given by r ( t ) = t 2 i 6t j .
a The velocity at t = 2 is equal to:

A 52
B 4i 12 j
C 4i 6 j
D 2i 3 j
b The average velocity for the interval [0, 2] is:

c
A 2i 3 j
B 2i 6 j
C 13
The acceleration at any time, t, is equal to:

A 2t i 6 j
B 2i 6 j
C 2i
E 4 10
D 4i 12 j
E 4i 6 j
D 2
E i 3j
7 multiple choice
9
The velocity of a particle at any time, t, is given by r( t ) = 2 sin t i + -----------------2- j .
(t + 1)
a The acceleration at t = 2 is equal to:
A 3 j
B 2i 3 j
C 2 i + 3 j
D 2i + 3 j
E 2 i 2--3- j

437
b The angle between the velocity vector and acceleration vector when t = 2, to the
nearest degree, is:
A 96
B 90
C 64
D 146
E 34
8 An object moves with a position vector r ( t ) = ( t 3 t )i + 2t 1 j for t > 0.
a At t = 3, determine the position vector and hence the distance of the object from
the origin.
b Find the velocity vector v ( t ) .
c Find the speed of the object at t = 2.

d At what time is the object travelling parallel to the unit vector j ?
9 An object moves with a position vector r ( t ) = sin 3 t i + t j for t 0.

the origin.

d What is the maximum speed of the object?
10 An object moves with a position vector r ( t ) , expressed in metres, at a time, t seconds:
1
r ( t ) = ----------- i + t j for t 0
t + 1
the origin.

d Show that after a long time the body travels at a speed of 1 m/s parallel to the unit
vector j .
WORKED
Example
11 The position of an object at any time, t, is given as follows: r ( t ) = 3t 2 i + t 3 j 6tk .
Find:
a the velocity vector v ( t )
b the acceleration vector a ( t )
c the angle between the velocity and acceleration vectors when t = 1

d when the object is moving in a direction parallel to the unit vector k .
12 A body moves with a velocity r( t ) = 4 cos 3t i + 4 sin 3t j .
a Show that the speed is constant.

b Find the magnitude of the acceleration at any time, t.
When is the velocity first equal to 2 2i + 2 2 j ?
d Find the angle between r( t ) and r( t ) when t = --- .

6
438
Cartesian equations and

antidifferentiation of vectors
Cartesian equations
We sometimes need to know the equation for the path of a body being described by its
position vector r ( t ) . The equation for the path y(x) is established from the position vector
r ( t ) = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j . The function y(x) will be referred to as the Cartesian equation for
motion. The
functions
the
x(t) and y(t) are referred to as parametric equations.
Generally, three steps are followed in order to obtain the Cartesian equation.
1. From the parametric equation x(t), express x as a function of t.
2. Substitute t(x) into the parametric equation y(t) to obtain y(x).
3. Simplify.
WORKED Example 6
Find the Cartesian equation for the path of the object with position vector given by
r ( t ) = 5ti + ( t 2 4t ) j .
THINK
WRITE
x(t) = 5t
1 Write down the parametric equation for x(t).
x
t = --2 Express t as a function of x.
5
2
Write
down
the
parametric
equation
for
y(t).
y(t)
=
t
4t
3
4
x
Substitute t = --- into this equation to
5
obtain the Cartesian equation.
Simplify the equation for y(x).
State the solution.
x 2 4x
y = --- ----- 5
5
or
x 2 4x
y = ------ -----25 5
x 2 4x
The Cartesian equation is y = ------ ------ ; that is,
25 5
the trajectory of the object is parabolic.
WORKED Example 7
A body moves with a position vector r ( t ) = ( 5 + 10t )i + ( 2t t 2 ) j , t [0, 4].
a Find the initial position, velocity and acceleration of the body.

b Find the Cartesian equation for motion and show that it is a parabola.
c Plot the trajectory stating the domain and range for y(x).
THINK
WRITE
Write the equation.
Substitute t = 0 into r ( t ) to find the
initial position.
r ( t ) = ( 5 + 10t )i + ( 2t t 2 ) j
r ( 0 ) = 5i
THINK
3
4
5
6
7
Write down the parametric equation for

x(t).
Express t as a function of x.
Write down the parametric equation for

y(t).
WRITE
v ( t ) = 10i + ( 2 2t ) j
v ( 0 ) = 10i + 2 j
Find v ( t ) by differentiating r ( t ) .
Substitute t = 0 into v ( t ) to find the
initial velocity.
Find a ( t ) by differentiating v ( t ) .
Substitute t = 0 into a ( t ) to find the

initial acceleration.
State the solution.
a ( t ) = 2 j
a ( 0 ) = 2 j
The initial position is 5i , the initial

velocity is 10i + 2 j and the initial
acceleration is 2 j.
b x(t) = 5 + 10t
x5
t = ----------10
y(t) = 2t t2
2( x 5 ) ( x 5 )2
y ( x ) = -------------------- -----------------10
10 2
x5
Substitute t = ----------- into this equation to
10
20x 100 x 2 + 10x 25

= --------------------------------------------------------------100
( x 2 30x + 125 )
= ------------------------------------------100
The graph of y(x) is a parabola since
it is of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c ,
where a, b and c are real constants.
State the type of function of the graph

of y(x).
( x 2 30x + 125 )
The function y ( x ) = ------------------------------------------100
can be plotted on a graphics calculator or
computer application.
y
0
10
(5, 0)
20
5
2
3
4
The domain and range are found from

the time interval t [0, 4].
For the domain find x when t = 0 and
t = 4 by direct substitution into x(t).
The domain is [5, 45] since
x(t) = 5 + 10t is an increasing linear
function.
The range is found by inspection of the
graph y(x). The maximum value for y
occurs when x = 15 and has the value y = 1.
439
30 40
(45, 8)
Using t [0, 4]
x(0) = 5
x(4) = 45
Domain is [5, 45]
Range is [8, 1] (by inspection of the

graph over the domain [5, 45]).
440
Antidifferentiation of vectors
You will recall from the work that you have done in calculus that each time you antidifferentiate a scalar function you introduce a constant called the integration constant.
Additional information is required to find the value of this constant. The same thing
happens when you antidifferentiate a vector function of acceleration a ( t ) to obtain the
position vector
velocity v ( t ) , or antidifferentiate a velocity vector function to find the
r ( t ) . However, the constant is a vector and generally, but not always, describes the
initial
conditions. This situation is summarised below.
Position vector: ~r(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate and determine constant
Figure 4
Velocity vector: ~v(t)
Differentiate
Antidifferentiate and determine constant
Acceleration vector: ~a(t)
WORKED Example 8
For the velocity vector v ( t ) = 3e 3t i 3t 2 j + 10tk with r (0) = i + 2 k , determine
expressions for:
a r( t)
b a( t) .
THINK
WRITE
a
The position vector is obtained by

antidifferentiating v ( t ) with respect to
time.
Antidifferentiate and include the

constant vector of integration,
c = c x i + c y j + ck k .
Substitute t = 0 into r ( t ) and equate to
the result that r ( 0 ) = i + 2k .
Determine c by equating the
components of i , j and k .

Solve for cx, cy and cz.
Substitute the values for cx, cy and cz
into the expression for r ( t ) .
Simplify
.
r
(
t
)
7
b The acceleration vector is obtained by

differentiating v ( t ) with respect to time.
a v ( t ) = 3e 3t i 3t 2 j + 10tk
3t
2
r ( t ) = ( 3e i 3t j + 10tk ) dt
= e 3t i t 3 j + 5t 2 k + c x i + c y j + c z k
r ( 0 ) = i + c x i + c y j + c z k = i + 2k
1 + cx = 1, 0 + cy = 0, 0 + cz = 2
cx = 0,
cy = 0,
cz = 2
r ( t ) = e 3t i t 3 j + 5t 2 k + 2k
r ( t ) = e 3t i t 3 j + ( 5t 2 + 2 )k
dv
b a ( t ) = ------ = 9e 3t i 6t j + 10k
dt
441
WORKED Example 9
6
Given that the acceleration vector for an object is a ( t ) = -----------------3- i 12t 2 j with
(t + 2)
v ( 0 ) = 3--4- i and r ( 0 ) = 2i + 3 j , find:
a v( t)
b r( t) .
THINK
WRITE
The velocity vector is obtained

by antidifferentiating the
acceleration with respect to
time.
6
a ( t ) = -----------------3- i 12t 2 j
(t + 2)
v(t ) =
- i 12t j dt
(----------------t + 2)
constant vector c .
Evaluate v ( 0 ) and equate to the
given result that v ( 0 ) = 3--4- i .
v ( 0 ) = 3--4- i + c x i + c y j + c z k = 3--4- i
Solve for c .
3--4- + c x = 3--4- , cy = 0, cz = 0
3
= -----------------2- i 4t 3 j + c x i + c y j + c z k
(t + 2)
cx = cy = cz = 0
5
3
v ( t ) = -----------------2- i 4t 3 j
(t + 2)
State the velocity vector v ( t ) .
The position vector is obtained

by antidifferentiating the
velocity with respect to time.
r(t) =
State the position vector r ( t ) .
r ( 0 ) = 3--2- i + d x i + d y j + d z k = 2i + 3 j
Evaluate r ( 0 ) and equate to the
given result that r ( 0 ) = 2 i + 3 j .
Solve for d .
3
= ----------- i t 4 j + d x i + d y j + d z k
t + 2
constant vector d . (Since c was
used in part a.)

3
- i 4t j dt
(----------------t + 2)
3
--2
+ d x = 2, d y = 3, d z = 0
d x = 1--2-, d y = 3, d z = 0
3
1
r ( t ) = ----------- + --- i + ( 3 t 4 ) j
t + 2 2
442
WORKED Example 10
An object is thrown off a building (t = 0 s) on a windy day. The acceleration of the object
t
------
1
- i 9.8e 10 j . At a time, t = 1, the object has a velocity in m/s of
in m/s2 is given by a ( t ) = ----12
v ( 1 ) = 2i 3 j . The building is 50 m above the ground and hence the initial position of
the object is taken to be r = 0i + 50 j .
a What is the initial acceleration of the object?

b Determine the velocity vector v ( t ) for all times t 0.
c Determine the position vector r ( t ) for all times t 0.
THINK
WRITE
a Substitute t = 0 into a ( t ) to find
the initial acceleration.

b 1 The velocity vector v ( t ) is
found by integrating the
acceleration a ( t ) with
respect to time.
1
------ i
12
a a(0) =
b v(t ) =
v(t ) =
9.8 j
a ( t ) dt + c
1
(-----12-i 9.8e j) dt + c
t
-----10
t
-----t
= ------ i + 98e 10 j + c x i + c y j
12
t
-----t
= ------ + c x i + ( 98e 10 + c y ) j
12
Evaluate the vector constant

of integration using the fact
that v ( 1 ) = 2i 3 j .
1
v ( 1 ) = ------ + c x i + ( 98e 0.10 + c y ) j
12
= 2i 3 j
1
-----12
+ cx = 2 and
cx =
State the velocity vector.

The position vector r ( t ) is
found by integrating the
velocity v ( t ) with respect to
time.
23
-----12
98e0.10 + cy = 3
and cy 3 88.674 = 91.674
t
-----t 23
v ( t ) = ------ + ------ i + ( 98e 10 91.674 ) j
12 12
c r(t) =
r(t) =
v ( t ) dt + d
t
-----t 23
----- + ------ i + ( 98e 10 91.674 ) j dt + d
12 12
t
-----t 2 23
= ------ + ------ t + d x i + ( 980e 10 91.674t + d y ) j
24 12
Evaluate the vector constant

of integration using the fact
that r ( 0 ) = 0i + 50 j .
r ( 0 ) = d x i + ( 980 + d y ) j = 0i + 50 j
dx = 0 and 980 + dy = 50
dx = 0 and
dy = 1030
State the position vector.
t
-----t 2 + 46t
r ( t ) = ------------------i + ( 980e 10 91.674t + 1030 ) j
24
443
remember
remember
1. The velocity vector v ( t ) can be found from the acceleration vector a ( t ) by
antidifferentiation provided
the velocity is given at a particular time,t;
generally this is at time t = 0 so that the vector c can be found. Thus:
v ( t ) = a ( t ) dt + c
2. The position vector r ( t ) can be found from the velocity vector v ( t ) by
antidifferentiation provided
the position is given at a particular time,
t;
generally this is at time t = 0 so that the vector c can be found. Thus:
r ( t ) = v ( t ) dt + c
3. If the position vector is r ( t ) = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j then the parametric equations for

are x(t) and
y(t). The Cartesian equation for the
the coordinates of the path
motion of the particle is y(x) which can be obtained from the parametric
equations x(t) and y(t).
10B
WORKED
Example
WORKED
1 Find the Cartesian equation for the paths of objects with position vectors given below.
a r ( t ) = 2t i + t j

b r ( t ) = 30t i + ( 10t 2 20t ) j
1
--2
c r ( t ) = ( 2t 1 )i + t j
d r ( t ) = log e 2t i + ( 4t 1 ) j
e r ( t ) = e 2t i + t j

f r ( t ) = sin 2t i + cos 2t j
2 A particle travels in a path so that its position at any time, t, is given by

r ( t ) = 2t i + ( 1 4t ) j ; t [ 0, 5 ]
Kinematics
a Find the initial position, initial velocity and initial

acceleration of the particle.
vectors
b Find the Cartesian equation for the motion.
t
---
3 A body moves so that its position vector is r ( t ) = e 2 i + 2t j ; t [ 0, 4 ] .
a Find the initial position, initial velocity and initial acceleration.

b Find the Cartesian equation for the motion.
4 multiple choice
An object moves so that its position at any time, t, is r ( t ) = log e ( 3t + 1 )i 3t j ; t 0 .
a The initial position of the particle is:

B 3 j
C i 3j
E 2i + j
D 0
A i
Math
cad
Example
Cartesian equations and

antidifferentiation of vectors
444
b The Cartesian equation for motion is:

B y = 1 ex
C y = ex 1
A y = loge x
2
D y = loge (x + 1)
E y=x +x
c Which one of the following graphs best shows the particles trajectory?
A y
B
C y
y
0
x
5 multiple choice
The acceleration of an object which is initially at rest, in m/s2, is:
r( t ) = 6t i + ( t + 1 ) 2 j .
a The velocity vector of the object is:

A r( t ) = 6i 2 ( t + 1 ) 3 j
B r( t ) = t 2 i + ( t + 1 ) 1 j
C r( t ) = 3t 2 i 2 ( t + 1 ) 1 j
D r( t ) = t 3 i 2 ( t + 1 ) 1 j
E r( t ) = 3t 2 i + t ( t + 1 ) 1 j
b If r ( 1 ) = i , then the distance the object is from the origin when t = 2 is nearest to:
A 8.02 m
B 7.92 m
C 9.1 m
D 3.03 m
E 3.01 m
WORKED
Example
WORKED
Example
6 For the following velocity vectors, determine expressions for i r ( t ) and ii a ( t ) .
a v ( t ) = 3t i + 5 j + 2k
r ( 0 ) = 2i 3 j + k
b v ( t ) = 3 sin t i + cos 2t j
r ( 0 ) = 5 i + 3 j
r ( 0 ) = 2i + j
c v ( t ) = 3t 2 i + 5t j ( 2t + 1 ) 1 k
d v ( t ) = e 3t i + 5e t j
r(0) = i
e v ( t ) = 3t i + 5 j
r ( 1 ) = 5i + j
1
r ( 2 ) = 2i 3 j + 3k
f v ( t ) = ----- i + 5t j + 4k
2t
g v ( t ) = sin 3t i + 4 cos ( 2t ) j
r(0) = 2 j
7 For the following acceleration vectors a ( t ) , find i v ( t ) ii r ( t ) .
a a ( t ) = 5i with r ( 0 ) = 0 and v ( 0 ) = 7i + 10 j
b a ( t ) = 4.9i + t j with v ( 0 ) = 0 and r ( 0 ) = i + j
2
c a ( t ) = -----------------2- i + 6t j with v ( 0 ) = 0 and r ( 0 ) = i + j
(t + 1)
d a ( t ) = e 4t j with v ( 0 ) = 3i and r ( 0 ) = 0
e a ( t ) = 25 cos 5t i 25 sin 5t j with v ( 0 ) = 5 j and r ( 0 ) = 5i
445
Example
10
------
8 The acceleration of an object is given by r( t ) = 0.1i 9.8e 10 j . If the initial velocity
is r( 0 ) = 3i + 2 j and the initial position is r ( 0 ) = 20 j , then find:
a the initial acceleration

b the velocity vector at any time, t
c the position vector at any time, t.
9 The acceleration of an object is

given by r( t ) = 10 j . If
+ 5 j and r( 1 ) = 12i + 16 j ,
r ( 0 ) = 20i
then:
a determine the velocity vector r( t )

b determine the position vector r ( t ) .
ET
SHE
Work
WORKED
10.1
446
Applications of vector calculus

Vector calculus may be used to solve a variety of problems. The example below
illustrates some of the methods employed. In general, each problem in this exercise
requires you to interpret the question and use appropriate techniques.
WORKED Example 11
A golf ball is struck so that its position vector, in metres, at any time, t seconds, is given by
t
------
a
b
c
d
e
r ( t ) = 30ti + ( 25t 5t 2 ) j + e 10 k ; t [ 0, 5 ] .
Find an expression for the velocity at any time, t.

Find an equation y(x) for the path of the golf ball and sketch it if 0 t 5.
(Ignore the k component of r ( t ) for this part of the question.)
State the velocity

vectors at t = 0 and t = 2.
Find the speed and direction of the golf ball at t = 0 and t = 2. (Give the direction as an
angle from the unit vector, i .)
Find an expression for the acceleration of the golf ball at time t, and find its initial
magnitude.
THINK
WRITE
a Differentiate r ( t ) with respect to time to obtain
the velocity vector

v(t ) .
a r ( t ) = 30t i + ( 25t 5t 2 ) j + e 10 k
Write r ( t ) = 30t i + ( 25t 5t 2 ) j .
Write down the parametric equation for x(t).
Express t as a function of x.
Write down the parametric equation for y(t).
6
7
8
9
10
x
Substitute t = ------ into this equation to
30
Since t [0, 5], the domain of the Cartesian
equation needs to be determined.
Find x when t = 0 and t = 5.
State the domain.

Use a graphics calculator to obtain the sketch
of the trajectory using x [0, 150].
t
------
t
------
v ( t ) = 30i + ( 25 10t ) j + 0.1e 10 k
b r ( t ) = 30t i + ( 25t 5t 2 ) j
x(t) = 30t
x
t = -----30
y(t) = 25t 5t2
or
x
x 2
y = 25 ------ 5 ------
30
30
5x x 2
y = ------ --------6 180
When t = 0, x = 30(0)
= 0.
When t = 5, x = 30(5)
= 150.
x [0, 150]
y
(75, 31.25)
150 x
THINK
c
1
2
WRITE
Evaluate v ( 0 ) .
Evaluate v ( 2 ) .
Evaluate v ( 0 ) to determine the speed

when t = 0.
Give the speed correct to 2 decimal

places.
Use the angle-between-two-vectors

a b
rule: cos = ----------- - to find the angle
a b

between v ( 0 ) and i .
Simplify with the appropriate values

found previously.
Express as the subject of the equation

and evaluate correct to 1 decimal place.
State the speed and angle required
when t = 0.
Evaluate v ( 2 ) to determine the speed
when t = 2.
Give the speed correct to 2 decimal

places.
Use the angle-between-two-vectors rule

to find the angle between v ( 2 ) and i .
Simplify with the appropriate values

found previously.
10
11
12
447
Express as the subject of the equation

and evaluate correct to 1 decimal place.
State the speed and angle required
when t = 2.
c v ( 0 ) = 30i + 25 j + 0.1k
v ( 2 ) = 30i + 5 j + 0.122k
d When t = 0,
speed = v ( 0 ) = 30 2 + 25 2 + 0.1 2
39.05
v(0) i
cos = ------------------
v(0) i
( 30i + 25 j + 0.1k ) i
cos = -----------------------------------------------------
39.05 1
30
= ------------39.05
= cos 1 0.7682
= 39.8
Therefore, the golf ball is initially moving
with a speed of 39.05 m/s at an angle of
39.8 to the unit vector i .
When t = 2,
speed = v ( 2 )
= 30 2 + 5 2 + 0.122 2
30.414
v(2) i
cos = ------------------
v(2) i
( 30i + 5 j + 0.122k ) i
cos = --------------------------------------------------------
30.414 1
30
= ---------------30.414
= cos 1 0.9864
= 9.5
Therefore when t = 2 the golf ball is
moving at 30.41 m/s at an angle of 9.4 to
the unit vector i .
Continued over page
448
THINK
e
WRITE
Determine a ( t ) by differentiating v ( t )
with respect to time.
t
------
a ( t ) = 10 j + 0.01e 10 k
a ( 0 ) = 10 j + 0.01 k
Evaluate a ( 0 ) to determine the

vector when t = 0.
acceleration
Evaluate a ( 0 ) = a ( 0 ) to determine
of the acceleration when
the magnitude
t = 0.
State the solution.
a ( 0 ) = ( 10 ) + ( 0.01 )
= 10.0
Therefore the initial
magnitude of the
acceleration is
10.0 m/s2.
Collisions
If two objects are to collide then they must
be at the same point at the same time.
Using vector notation, the two objects must
share the same position vector at a
specific time.
449
WORKED Example 12
A body moves with a velocity of 2i j and is at a position i + 2 j when a second body,

t = 0.
moving with a velocity of i + j , is at a position 2i 4 j at time
a Determine the position vectors

for both objects attime t.
b By finding the time at which the two position vectors are equal, show that the two
objects will collide.
c When and where do they collide?
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Let v 1 ( t ) = 2i j represent the
a Let v 1 ( t ) = 2i j

of thefirst
object.
velocity
2
4
5
3
4
5
6
Antidifferentiate v 1 ( t ) with respect

to time to obtain r 1 ( t ) .
Use the result that r 1 ( 0 ) = i + 2 j
to evaluate the constant vector of

antidifferentiation.
Write the position vector for the first
object, r 1 ( t ) at any time, t.
Let v 2 ( t) = i + j represent the
second
of the
velocity
object.
Antidifferentiate v 2 ( t ) with respect
to time to obtain r 2 ( t ) .
Use the result that r 2 ( 0 ) = 2i 4 j
to evaluate the constant vector of

antidifferentiation.
Write the position vector for the
second object, r 2 ( t ) , at any time, t.
Set the two position

vectors r 1 ( t )
and r 2 ( t ) equal.
Equate their i components to find

the time when the objects have the
same x position.
Solve for t.
Equate their j components to find
the time when the objects have the
same y position.
Solve for t.
Since both values of t are equal, the
two objects occupy the same
position at this time.
The two objects collide when t = 3.
r 1 ( t ) = ( 2i j ) dt + c
= 2t i t j + c x i + c y j
r1(0 ) = cx i + cy j
= i + 2 j
cx = 1 and cy = 2
r 1 ( t ) = ( 2t 1 )i + ( 2 t ) j
Let v 2 ( t ) = i + j

r 2 ( t ) = ( i + j ) dt + d
= ti + t j + dxi + dy j
r2(0) = d x i + d y j
= 2i 4 j
dx = 2 and dy = 4
r 2 ( t ) = ( t + 2 )i + ( t 4 ) j
b If r 1 ( t ) = r 2 ( t )
then ( 2t 1 )i + ( 2 t ) j = ( t + 2 )i + ( t 4 ) j
2t 1 = t + 2 ( i component)
t=3
and 2 t = t 4 ( j component)
2t = 6
t=3
The two objects have the

same position when t = 3.
Continued over page
450
THINK
c
1
2
3
WRITE
Substitute t = 3 into r 1 ( t ) (or r 2 ( t ) ) to
find where the two objects

collide.
Simplify r 1 ( 3 ) .
State the solution.
r 1 ( 3 ) = ( 2 3 1 )i + ( 2 3 ) j
= 5i j

The two objects collide when their
position vectors are 5i j at t = 3.

WORKED Example 13
Two boats, A and B, start at a common point (0, 0) and move with velocity vectors
v A ( t ) = ti + ( t 2 t ) j and
v B ( t ) = ti + ( t 2 + t ) j ; t [0, 4].
Distance is measured in metres and time in seconds.

a How far apart are they at t = 2?
b What is the angle between their respective directions at t = 2?
c At what time, if any, are the acceleration vectors of the two boats perpendicular to
each other?
THINK
a
1
2
4
5
6
7
9
10
Express r A ( t ) as the antiderivative

of v A ( t ) with respect to time.
Antidifferentiate v A ( t ) and express
the constant of antidifferentiation

vector, c A , as c A x i + c A y j .
it to the
Simplify r A ( 0 ) and equate
given result that r ( 0 ) = 0i + 0 j .
Solve for the vector constants c A x

and c A y .
State the position vector of boat A,
rA(t ) .
Express r B ( t ) as the antiderivative

of v B ( t ) with respect to time.
Antidifferentiate v B ( t ) and express
the constant of antidifferentiation

vector, c B , as c B x i + c B y j .
it to the
Simplify r B ( 0 ) and equate
given result that r ( 0 ) = 0i + 0 j .
WRITE
a
rA =
[ ti + ( t 2 t )j ] dt + c A
t2
t3 t2
r A = ---- + c A x i + ---- ---- + c A y j
2
3 2
r A ( 0 ) = cA x i + cA y j
= 0i + 0 j
cAx = 0 and cAy = 0

t2
t3 t2
r A = ---- i + ---- ---- j
2 3 2
rB =
[ ti + ( t 2 + t )j ] dt + c B
t3 t2
t2
r B = ---- + c B x i + ---- + ---- + c B y j
2
3 2
Solve for the constants c B x + c B y .
r B ( 0 ) = cB x + cB y
= 0i + 0 j
cBx = 0 and cBy = 0
State the position vector of boat B,

rB(t ) .
t3 t2
t2
r B ( t ) = ---- i + ---- + ---- j
2 3 2
THINK
11
(Optional) Represent r A ( 2 ) and r B ( 2 )
on a vector diagram.
2
r A ( 2 ) = 2i + --- j
3
14
r B ( 2 ) = 2i + ------ j
WRITE
j
4.66 ~
~rA ~rB
~rB
0.66
13
14
15
Find the vector r A ( 2 ) r B ( 2 ) which
gives their separation at time t = 2.
~rA
2
2
12
451
------ j )
r A ( 2 ) r B ( 2 ) = 2i + 2--3- j ( 2i + 14
Simplify.
Their distance apart at t = 2 is the
magnitude of the vector r A ( 2 ) r B ( 2 ) .
State the solution.
~i
rA rB
= 4i 4 j
= 4 2 + ( 4 )2
5.66
The two boats are separated by about
5.7 m at a time t = 2 s.
The direction in which each of the boats b

travels is parallel to the velocity vector for
each of the boats, namely v A and v B
respectively.
Evaluate the velocity of boat A at t = 2,
vA ( 2 ) .
Calculate the magnitude of vector v A ( 2 ) ,
in order to find the angle between the

velocity vectors.
Evaluate the velocity of boat B at t = 2,
vB ( 2 ) .
Calculate v B ( 2 ) .
v A ( 2 ) = 2i + 2 j
vA ( 2 ) =
22 + 22
8
= 2 2
v B ( 2 ) = 2i + 6 j
vB ( 2 ) =
( 2 )2 + 6 2
40
= 2 10
6
(Optional) Represent v A ( 2 ) and v B ( 2 )
on a vector diagram.
~vB
j
~
~vA
~i
Continued over page
452
THINK
7
WRITE
The angle between the boats at t = 2 is

vA ( 2 ) . vB ( 2 )
-.
given by cos = --------------------------------vA ( 2 ) vB ( 2 )
Solve the equation for .
State the solution.
Find the acceleration vector for boat A,

a A ( t ) , by differentiating v A ( t ) with
respect
to time.
Find the acceleration vector for boat B,
a B ( t ) , by differentiating v B ( t ) with
respect
to time.
Evaluate a A ( t ) . a B ( t ) .
Set a A ( t ) . a B ( t ) equal to zero since two

are perpendicular
vectors
if their dot
product is equal to zero.
Solve for t, taking only solutions where
t [0, 4].
State the solution.
Using the dot product

v A . v B = v A v B cos

vA ( 2 ) . vB ( 2 )
cos = --------------------------------vA ( 2 ) vB ( 2 )
4 + 12
= -----------------------------2 2 2 10
8
= ---------8 5
0.447
= cos10.447
= 63.4 (to 1 decimal place).
The angle between the direction in which
each of the boats is travelling is 63.4.
c a A ( t ) = i + ( 2t 1 ) j
a B ( t ) = i + ( 2t + 1 ) j
a A ( t ) . a B ( t ) = 1 + ( 2t 1 ) ( 2t + 1 )
= 4t 2 2
For perpendicular vectors,
aA ( t ) . aB ( t ) = 0
If 4t2 2 = 0
t2 =
1
--2
1
t = ------2
0.71 s, taking only positive
solutions since t [0, 4].
At time t = 0.71 s the boats have
accelerations which are perpendicular.
remember
remember
1. Read each question carefully so that it is interpreted correctly and the question
being asked is answered.
2. Apply vector calculus methods to analyse curvilinear motion where the vectors
r , r and r are functions of time.
inexact solutions give your answers to an appropriate number of decimal
3. For
places.
4. If two objects are to collide then they must be at the same point at the same time.
10C
WORKED
11
Applications of vector
calculus
1 A ball is released from a cliff at time t = 0. It moves so that its position is given by
r ( t ) = 10t i 5t 2 j , t 0
Kinematics
a Find an expression for the velocity at a time, t.

vectors
b Find an equation y(x) for the path of the ball and sketch it for 0 t 2.
c State the velocity vectors at t = 0, 1 and 2 and consequently find the speed and
direction of the ball at those times. (Give the direction as an angle to the nearest
degree from the unit vector i .)
d Find an expression for the acceleration

of the ball at time t, and describe the type
of acceleration.
2 A particle moves so that its position, r (metres) at time t (seconds) is given by:
r ( t ) = log e ( t + 1 )i + e 2t j , t 0
a Find the distance of the particle from the origin at times t = 0, 1 and 2.
b Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration at time t.
c Find the angle, to the nearest degree, between the velocity and acceleration vectors
at times t = 0, 1 and 2.
Math
cad
Example
453
454
3 An object has a position vector r ( t ) = ( t cos t )i + sin t j for 0 t 2.
a Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration.

b At what time is the speed a minimum?
c What is the position of the object at this minimum speed?
d What is the acceleration at this minimum speed?
e Explain why this does not correspond to a time when the acceleration is zero.
4 The position of an object is given by r ( t ) = ( 1 + 2 cos 4t )i + ( 5 + 2 sin 4t ) j .
a Show that the velocity vector is always perpendicular to the acceleration vector.
b Show that the velocity vector and acceleration vectors are both constant in
magnitude.
c Explain why the speed is a constant and yet the acceleration is not equal to zero.
5 The position of an object, r (metres) at time t, (seconds) is given by:
r ( t ) = 2 cos 3t i + 2 sin 3t j
a Show that the velocity vector is always perpendicular to the acceleration vector.
b Show that the velocity vector and acceleration vectors are both constant in
magnitude.
c Show that the acceleration vector is parallel to the position vector at all times.
d Show that the object moves in a circular path of radius 2 m.
e Show that the object moves with a constant speed and find that speed.
1
6 An object has a position vector given by r ( t ) = --- i + 4t j, t > 0 .
t
a Find the instantaneous velocity vectors at t = 1 and 2.

b Find the average velocity vector during the time interval t = 1 to t = 2.
c Find the instantaneous acceleration vectors at t = 1 and 2.
d Find the average acceleration vector during the time t = 1 to t = 2.
7 An object has a position vector given by r ( t ) = ( 2t 1 )i 3t 2 j, t 0 .
a Find the instantaneous velocity vectors at t = 2 and 3.

b Find the average velocity vector during the time interval between
t = 2 and t = 3.
c Find the instantaneous acceleration vectors at t = 2 and 3.
d Find the average acceleration vector during the time interval between
t = 2 and t = 3.
e Find the angle between the acceleration vector and the velocity vector at t = 3.
8 A body moves with a velocity given by:
1
r( t ) = ----------- i + t j , 0 t 10, r ( 0 ) = 0i + 2 j
t
+
1
a Find the displacement of the body during the time t = 0 to 10.

b From part a find the average velocity of the body for t [0, 10].
c Find the time when the speed is a minimum.
(Hint: Use calculus and/or a graphics calculator to find the approximate value of t
which gives the minimum of the expression for the square of the speed.)
WORKED
Example
12
455
9 The velocity of an object is given by the vector r( t ) = 3e t i + 4e 2t j , t 0 and the
initial position is r ( 0 ) = i + j .

a Find the position vector for the object and hence the distance of the object from
the origin at t = 1, 10 and 100.
b Show that the object will eventually stop and give the final position of the object.
c Find the angle between the position vector and velocity vector at t = 1.
d Find the Cartesian equation for the motion given by r ( t ) .
1
10 A body moves with a position given by r ( t ) = ----------- i + t j , t 0.
t + 1
a Find the displacement of the body during the time interval t = 0 to t = 10.
b From part a find the average velocity of the body for t [0, 10].
c Show that the body will eventually travel at a constant velocity parallel to the unit
vector j .
11 A body has a constant velocity of 3i + 2 j and is at r = 4 j when a second body
t = 0.
commences moving from 4i with avelocity
of 2t i + j at time

a Determine the position vectors for both objects at time t.
b By finding the time at which the two position vectors are equal, show that the two
objects will collide.
c When and where do they collide?
d What is the acceleration of the second object at time t?
e At what time is the second body travelling at twice the speed of the first body?
f Find the Cartesian equations for the paths of both bodies and sketch them using
either a graphics calculator or graphing application for a computer.
12 Two toy boats start from the origin and move with velocity vectors
WORKED
Example
13
v 1 = ( t 2 1 )i + 2t j and
v 2 = ( t + 1 )i + t 2 j ; t [0, 5]. Velocity is in m/s.
a By obtaining the position vectors for both toy boats, calculate their distance apart
when t = 2.
b What is the angle between their respective directions at t = 2?
c At what time, if at all, are the acceleration vectors of the two bodies perpendicular
to each other?
13 Two ferries, A and B, travelling at constant velocities, have position and velocity
vectors at 10 am given by:
v A = 2i + 3 j
r A = 6i 3 j
r B = 2i + j
v B = 2i + j
The distance is measured in kilometres and the time in hours.

a Show that the ferries will collide if they maintain their current velocities.
b Determine the time of the collision.
14 Two boats, A and B, have positions (in km) given by the coordinates (1, 3) and (2, 7)
respectively. Boat A is travelling with the velocity 3i + 5 j km/h. Boat B sets off to
speed.
meet boat A at time t = 0. Both boats travel at the same

a When will the boats meet?
b What is the velocity vector for boat B?
456
Projectile motion
The term projectile motion refers to the motion of a particle thrown or projected
through the air. The motion can be modelled and analysed.
Examples include the motion of a golf ball or basketball through the air, a bullet
from a gun aimed at a target and a car that is airborne during an action sequence in an
adventure movie.
In studying projectile motion it is necessary to make some simplifying assumptions.
Firstly we assume that the projectile is a point and has no spin. Secondly we assume
that the force due to air resistance is negligible.
Finally we consider only projectiles moving close to the Earths surface. These three
assumptions mean that the only force acting on the projectile is the constant force due
to gravity and hence the acceleration of the projectile is constant in both magnitude and
direction. This motion can be summarised as in the diagram below.
The initial velocity v(0) can be considered to have two components, one in the i
direction and one in the j direction. The acceleration due to gravity close to the surface
to be 9.8 j m/s2.
of the Earth will be taken
j
~
~i
~v(0)
V sin j
~
g = 9.8 j m/s2
~
~
~r(t)
V cos ~i
The initial velocity v ( 0 ) = V cos i + V sin j where V is the initial speed and is
the launch angle of the projectile. The vector r ( t) gives the position of the projectile at
time t. The vector g represents the acceleration of the projectile due to the force of
gravity alone. The projectile

will be in the air for a time, T, and thus the domain for the
model is 0 t T. During that time the projectile will travel a horizontal distance, R,
called the range.
Acceleration
The acceleration a ( t ) is due solely to the weight force acting on the particle. Thus:
a ( t ) = 0i g j
We can write a ( t ) in component form:
a( t) = ax i + a y j
where ax and ay are the components of acceleration in the i and j directions
respectively.
The above equation simply states that the acceleration in the i direction is zero
while the acceleration in the j direction is a constant, equal to g.

near the surface of the Earth.
Note: g = 9.8 m/s2 downwards
457
Velocity
To obtain the velocity vector v ( t ) we simply need to antidifferentiate the acceleration
vector with respect to time. The constant of integration will be the initial velocity of the
projectile v ( 0 ) as shown in the previous diagram.
v ( t ) = a ( t ) dt + v ( 0 )
= ( g j ) dt + ( V cos i + V sin j )
= V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j
We can write v ( t ) in component form: v ( t ) = v x ( t )i + v y ( t ) j where vx(t) and vy(t)
are the components of velocity in the i and j directions respectively.
We can write these components explicitly:

vy(t) = V sin gt.
vx(t) = V cos
This tells us that the horizontal component of the velocity is a constant equal to V cos
and that the vertical component is given by the expression V sin gt. The speed of the
projectile is given by the magnitude of the velocity vector v ( t ) . v ( t ) or v ( t ) or v(t).
The projectile will be at the apex (top) of its flight when the vertical component of
the velocity is zero and thus we can determine the time after launch when this occurs:
vy(t) = V sin gt = 0
V sin
t = -----------------g
In general, the time that the projectile will be in the air will be twice this amount,
provided that the launching point and the impact point are at the same height.
Position
To obtain the vector equation for the position of the projectile as a function of time,
r ( t ) , the velocity vector needs to be further antidifferentiated with respect to time. The
integration constant here is the initial position of the projectile. In general, but not
always, the initial position is taken to be the origin: r ( 0 ) = 0i + 0 j .
v ( t ) dt + r ( 0 )
= [ V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j ] dt + r ( 0 )
r( t) =
= Vt cos i + ( Vt sin 1--2- gt 2 ) j
As we have seen, we can write r ( t ) in component form:
r ( t ) = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j
where x and y are the components of the position in the i and j directions, respec
tively, as functions of time.

x(t) = (V cos ) t
y(t) = (V sin )t 1--2- gt2
These two equations give the parametric equations for projectile motion.
458
WORKED Example 14
A golf ball is hit so that it leaves the ground at 15 to the horizontal at a speed of 60 m/s
over a horizontal fairway.
a What are the horizontal and vertical components of the balls initial velocity?
b What is the speed of the ball, to the nearest m/s, one second after being struck?
c Determine the position vector, r ( t ) , for the motion and consequently find the distance
one second after being struck.
of the ball from its initial position
THINK
1
Make the unit vector i be directed

horizontally right andthe unit vector
j be directed vertically up.
(Optional) Draw a vector diagram of
the hit-off taking the position of
hit-off as r ( 0 ) = 0i + 0 j .
1
2
3
4
2
3
1
2
3
4
WRITE
j
~ V = 60 m/s
j
~
~i
15
~i
Let r ( 0 ) = 0i + 0 j .
a
vx = V cos
The horizontal component of the

velocity vector is vx(t) = V cos .
Evaluate vx(0) where V = 60 and
vx(0) = 60 cos 15
= 57.96
= 15.
The vertical component of the
velocity is vy = V sin gt.
vy = V sin gt
Evaluate vy(0) where V = 60, g = 9.8,
vy(0) = 60 sin 15 9.8(0)
= 15.53
= 15 and t = 0.
Use the components that were found b
v ( t ) = 57.96i + ( 15.53 9.8t ) j
in part a to write down the velocity

vector
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j .
Evaluate v ( 1 ) .
v ( 1 ) = 57.96i + 5.73 j
Calculate v ( 1 ) .
v ( 1 ) = 57.96 2 + 5.73 2
= 58.24
State the speed when t = 1.
Express r ( t ) as the antiderivative,
to t, of v ( t ) .
with respect

constant vector of integration,
c = cx i + cy j .
Substitute t = 0 into r ( t ) and equate

to the initial position 0i + 0 j .
the
Determine cx + cy by equating
components of i and j .
Simplify the position vector r ( t ) .
The speed of the golf ball after 1 second is

58.24 m/s.
c r ( t ) = [ 57.96i + ( 15.53 9.8t ) j ] dt + c
= 57.96t i + ( 15.53t 4.9t 2 ) j + c x i + c y j
r ( 0 ) = c x i + c y j = 0i + 0 j
cx = 0 and cy = 0
r ( t ) = 57.96t i + ( 15.53t 4.9t 2 ) j
THINK
6
7
459
WRITE
r ( 1 ) = 57.96i + 10.63 j
r ( 1 ) r ( 0 ) = 57.96i + 10.63 j ( 0i + 0 j )
= 57.96i + 10.63 j
r ( 1 ) r ( 0 ) = 57.96 2 + 10.63 2
= 58.93
The distance of the ball from its hit-off
position after 1 second is 58.93 m.
Evaluate r ( 1 ) .
Calculate the displacement in the first

second r ( 1 ) r ( 0 ) .
The distance from hit-off is the

magnitude of r ( 1 ) r ( 0 ) .
State the distance.
WORKED Example 15
20
A golf ball is hit so that it leaves the tee at a speed of 35 m/s at an angle of 20 to the
horizontal.
a State the initial velocity vector of the ball.
b Find v ( t ) , the velocity of the ball as a function of time.
c Determine the maximum height that the ball reaches and the location of the maximum
height from the tee.
d Find the time that the ball is in the air.
e Find the horizontal distance (range) covered by the golf ball.
THINK
WRITE
Make the unit vector i be directed

vector j be
horizontally and the unit
directed vertically upwards.

(Optional) Draw a vector diagram of
the situation at tee-off.
~v
vy j = V cos j
~
~
vx ~i = V sin ~i
Note: V = |v|
~ = speed
Continued over page
460
THINK
3
5
6
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
WRITE
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j
Write down the general rule for the

velocity of a projectile at any time, t:
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j .
Substitute V = 35, = 20 and t = 0

to find the initial velocity.
Evaluate v ( 0 ) with the components
correct to 1 decimal place.
State the initial velocity.
Write the general rule for the
velocity of a projectile.
v ( 0 ) = 35 cos 20i + 35 sin 20 j
v ( 0 ) 32.9i + 12.0 j m/s
The initial velocity is approximately

32.9i + 12.0 j .
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j
b
Substitute V = 35, g = 9.8 and = 20

and evaluate.
Since the maximum height is
reached when the vertical velocity,
v y , is zero, set v y to zero.
Solve for t to determine the time

when the golf ball reaches its
maximum height.
Express r ( t ) as the antiderivative of
v ( t ) with respect to time.
Antidifferentiate.
Simplify r ( 0 ) and set it equal to the
0i + 0 j .
given result
Solve for the integration

constant.
Give the position vector of the golf
ball at any time, t.
Evaluate r ( 1.225 ) to determine the
position of the maximum height.
For r ( 1.225 ) the i component gives
the horizontal
displacement
of the
golf ball and the j component gives
the vertical component

of the
maximum height position.
Write down the position vector of
the golf ball, r ( t ) .
State the vertical component of r ( t ) ,
y(t).
Set y(t) = 0 to find the times when
the golf ball is at ground level.
v ( t ) = 32.9i + ( 12.0 9.8t ) j m/s
v y = 12.0 9.8t
= 0
t 1.225 s.
r(t) =
v ( t ) dt + c
= ( 32.9t + c x )i + ( 12.0t 4.9t 2 + c y ) j
r ( 0 ) = c x i + c y j = 0i + 0 j
cx = cy = 0.
r ( t ) = 32.9t i + ( 12.0t 4.9t 2 ) j
r ( 1.225 ) 40.3i + 7.35 j metres
The coordinate for the turning point of the

projectile trajectory, taking the tee-off position
as the origin O (0, 0) is (40.3, 7.35). The ball
reaches a maximum height of 7.35 m above the
ground 40.3 m horizontally away from the
point where the ball was struck.
d r ( t ) = 32.9t i + ( 12.0t 4.9t 2 ) j
y(t) = 12.0t 4.9t2

Golf ball is at ground level when y(t) = 0.
(12 4.9t)t = 0
THINK
4
Solve for t.
461
WRITE
12.0
t = 0 or ---------- ( 2.45 s)
4.9
The ball is in the air for 2.45 seconds.
The difference between the two

times, t = 0 and t = 2.45, gives the
time that the golf ball is in the air.
Note: We could have obtained the same result simply by multiplying the time taken to reach
the apex of the balls flight (see part c) by 2 since symmetry dictates that the time to rise is
the same as the time to fall when only acceleration due to gravity is considered.
5
Write down the i (horizontal)

component of r (t ) , x(t).
to determine the
Evaluate x(2.45)
range of the golf ball.
e x(t) = 32.9t
R = x(2.45)
= 32.9 2.45
= 80.6 m
State
the
range.
The
range
is 80.6 metres.
3
Note: Alternatively, we could have achieved the answer by simply multiplying the
x-ordinate for the apex, namely x = 40.3, by 2 again because of the symmetry of the path
taken by the golf ball. Any small differences in the two answers result from rounding errors
in evaluating cos 20 and sin 20.
2
WORKED Example 16
A projectile is fired at a time t = 0 from the top of a

v(0)
Projectile ~
cliff whose base is taken to be the origin, as shown
at right.
j
The position vector r ( t ) (metres) at a time, t
~
(seconds), of the projectile

is given by
Cliff
r ( t ) = 20ti + ( 50 + 25t 4.9t 2 ) j .
~i
How high
is the cliff top above
its base?
a
b Give an expression for the velocity vector of the
O
projectile.
c Find the initial speed and launch angle of the projectile.
d Find the speed and angle at which the projectile strikes the ground.
e Find the distance between the launching point and the point where the projectile hits
the ground.
THINK
WRITE
a
1
2
1
2
Write down the initial position of the a r ( 0 ) = 0i + 50 j
projectile, r ( 0 ) .
The j component of r ( 0 ) gives the

The top of the cliff is 50 m directly above its
initial height of the projectile.

base.
Write down the position vector,
b r ( t ) = 20t i + ( 50 + 25t 4.9t 2 ) j
r(t) .
The velocity vector, v ( t ) , is obtained
v ( t ) = 20i + ( 25 9.8t ) j
by differentiating r ( t ) with respect

Continued over page
to time.
462
THINK
c
Evaluate v ( t ) when t = 0 to
determine the initial velocity of the
projectile.
Evaluate v ( 0 ) to determine the
of the projectile.
initial speed
v(0) = v(0) .v(0)
= 20 2 + 25 2
32 m/s.
Substitute vx = 20 and vy = 25 to
determine the launch angle of the
projectile.
25
= tan 1 -----20
State the launch speed and angle.

r(t) .
Give the vertical position

( j component), y(t), of the position
vector.
Set y(t) equal to zero to determine

when the projectile reaches the
ground.
Solve for t using the quadratic

formula.
Give the (first) positive value for t

only.
State when the projectile strikes the

ground.
Write down the velocity vector,

v ( t ) , of the projectile.
Evaluate v (6.64) to find the velocity
of the projectile
on impact.
The speed is
v
= tan 1 ----y
vx
Evaluate correct to 1 decimal place.
c v ( 0 ) = 20i + 25 j
The launch angle (angle of

elevation) is determined from the
velocity vector v ( t ) = v x i + v y j
vy
1
using the tan rule, = tan ---- .
vx
WRITE
Determine v ( 6.64 ) to find the

speed of theprojectile on impact.
51.3
The projectile was launched at a speed of
32 m/s at an elevation angle of 51.3.
d r ( t ) = 20t i + ( 50 + 25t 4.9t 2 ) j
y ( t ) = 50 + 25t 4.9t 2
Projectile hits the ground when y(t) = 0.

50 + 25t 4.9t 2 = 0
25 25 2 ( 4 4.9 50 )
t = ----------------------------------------------------------------------2 4.9
t = 6.64
The projectile strikes the ground 6.64 seconds
after launch.
v ( t ) = 20i + ( 25 9.8t ) j
v ( 6.64 ) = 20i 40.07 j
v ( 6.64 ) = 20 2 + ( 40.07 ) 2
= 44.8
THINK
10
11
12
13
WRITE
State the solution.
63.5
Evaluate correct to 1 decimal

place.
The negative sign indicates that
the angle of impact is a depression
angle, below the horizontal as
would be expected.
State the impact speed and angle
of the projectile.
40.07
= tan 1 ----------------
20
The impact angle is found using

v
= tan 1 ----y where vx = 20 and
vx
vy = 39.7.

r(t) .
Evaluate r ( 6.64 ) to find the impact
position of the projectile.

Evaluate r ( 0 ) to find the launch
position of the projectile (found in

part a).
Evaluate r ( 6.64 ) r ( 0 ) to
determine the displacement of the

projectile.
Determine r ( 6.64 ) r ( 0 ) to find
the distance between the launch

point and the impact point.
Evaluate.
463
The projectile strikes the ground at 44.8 m/s at

an angle of 63.5.
The negative sign indicates that the angle of
impact is a depression angle below the
horizontal, as you would expect.
e
r ( t ) = 20t i + ( 50 + 25t 4.9t 2 ) j
r ( 6.64 ) = 132.8i + 0 j
r ( 0 ) = 0i + 50 j
r ( 6.64 ) r ( 0 ) = 132.8i 50 j
r ( 6.64 ) r ( 0 ) =
132.8 2 + ( 50 ) 2
= 141.9
The distance between the point of launching
and landing point is 141.9 metres.
The Cartesian equation for the path of a projectile

In many cases it is useful to know the path that a projectile takes. For example, we may
want to determine whether a basketball (thrown from a particular position with a
known initial velocity) will pass cleanly through the hoop; or whether a ball struck with
a cricket bat will result in a six. It is necessary to plot the y-ordinate as a function of the
x-ordinate to obtain the Cartesian equation for the projectile. In the previous section we
established the parametric equations x(t) and y(t) for the motion:
x ( t ) = Vt cos
y ( t ) = Vt sin 1--2- gt 2
464
The diagram at right illustrates the projecy

tile trajectory with position vector
r ( t ) = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j .
Using the
first of these parametric
~r(t) = xi~ + yj
equations, namely x = Vt cos , we can write
~
t as the subject:
x
R x
O
t = --------------Range (R)
V cos
and substitute this into the second equation to obtain y in terms of x:
y ( t ) = Vt sin 1--2- gt 2
x
where t = --------------V cos
Vx sin
gx 2
y ( x ) = ------------------- ----------------------V cos 2V 2 cos 2
gx 2
= x tan -----------------------2
2V cos 2
gx
y ( x ) = x tan ----------------------2
2V cos 2
The above equation tells us that the trajectory followed by a projectile, under the
assumptions outlined earlier, is a parabola. The equation is a quadratic function of the
b
form bx ax2 = x(b ax). The Cartesian graph has solutions x = 0 and --- and a
a
g
b
- and b = tan .
stationary point, which is a maximum at x = ------ where a = ----------------------2a
2V 2 cos 2
The non-zero solution tells us the range of the projectile, R, that is, the horizontal
distance covered by the projectile. Thus:
b
R = --a
2V 2 cos 2 tan
= ------------------------------------g
2
2V cos sin
= ---------------------------------g
and since sin 2 = 2 cos sin
V 2 sin2
R = -------------------g
The range, R, can therefore be found directly from the launching conditions of the
projectile, namely the initial speed, V, and launch angle, . The horizontal ordinate for
the apex of the flight occurs at precisely half the range. As an example of the above
equation consider a golf ball struck from a tee with a speed V = 70 m/s and launch
angle = 15. The range of the golf ball would be calculated to be:
V 2 sin 2
R = ---------------------g
70 2 sin 30
= --------------------------9.8
= 250
Thus the ball would land 250 m away from the tee having a maximum height at a
horizontal distance from the tee of 125 m. The assumption here is that the tee and point
where the ball returns and hits the ground are at the same altitude.
Further, golf balls have significant air resistance and spin forces acting on them such
that the paths they take through the air differ from purely parabolic trajectories.
465
WORKED Example 17
An object is launched at the origin at a speed of V m/s and angle of to the horizontal. It
passes through the point (60, 80); that is, 60 m horizontally from the launch point and
80 m vertically up at time t = 3 s.
a Find the initial velocity vector, v ( 0 ) m/s, for the object.
for the trajectory of the object.
b Find the Cartesian equation, y(x),
c Find the range, R, of the object.
d Find the maximum height above the launching point reached by the object.
THINK
WRITE
3
4
5
6
7
8
Equate the j components.
Solve for V sin .

Write down the general rule for
v ( 0 ) of a projectile.
Substitute
V cos = 20 and
V sin = 41.4 into the rule.
Find the initial speed v ( 0 ) of the
projectile.
Calculate the projection angle using

v
= tan 1 ----y .
vx
Write the general rule for y(x).
4
5
Write the general rule for the

position of a projectile, r ( t ) .
Evaluate r ( 3 ) and equate to the
given position
when t = 3,
r ( 3 ) = 60i + 80 j .
Equate the i components.
Solve for V cos .
9g
r ( 3 ) = 3V cos i + 3V sin ------ j
2

= 60i + 80 j
3V cos = 60
V cos = 20
9g
3V sin ------ = 80
2
V sin 41.4.
v ( 0 ) = V cos i + V sin j
= 20i + 41.4 j
b v ( 0 ) = 20 2 + 41.4 2 46 m/s
41.4
The projection angle is tan 1 ---------- 64 .
20
gx 2
y ( x ) = x tan ----------------------- in general.
2V 2 cos 2
9.8
- x2
= x tan 64 -------------------------------------2
2 ( 46 ) cos 2 64
Substitute V = 46, = 64 and g = 9.8

into the equation.
Simplify.
Write the general rule for the range
of a projectile.
Substitute = 64, V = 46 and g = 9.8

and evaluate.
State the range.
r ( t ) = Vt cos i + ( Vt sin 1--2- gt 2 ) j
y ( x ) = 2.05x 0.012x 2
c
V 2 sin 2
R = ----------------------g
46 2 sin 128
= -----------------------------9.8
170
The range is 170 m.
Continued over page
466
THINK
WRITE
1
2
Write the Cartesian equation for this

projectile.
The maximum height occurs when x
is half the value of the range, that is,
x =
3
4
170
--------2
= 85 .
Evaluate y(85).
State the maximum height.
y(x) = 2.05x 0.012x2
Maximum height occurs when

R
170
--- = --------2
2
= 85
y(85) = 87.6
The maximum height is 87.6 metres.
Distance travelled along a curve

The distance travelled by a particle along a curved path between t = a and t = b can
be calculated by evaluating
a v ( t ) dt , where v ( t ) is the velocity of the particle.
Note: The derivation of this rule is not provided here but is left for further
investigation.
A particle is moving such that its position vector, in metres, at time t seconds is
given by
r(t ) = t3i + t2 j
1 Find the distance between the positions of the particle at t = 0 and t = 2.

2 Find the distance travelled by the particle at t = 0 and t = 2.
3 Establish the Cartesian equation for the motion of the particle and state the
domain and range if t [0, 2].
4 Use graphing software to produce a suitable graph (ensure equal scales on both
axes) of the Cartesian equation. Use this graph to measure the length of the path
directly and compare it to answer 2.
remember
remember
1. Projectiles launched close to the surface of the Earth (assuming that air
resistance is negligible) have an acceleration given by
a ( t ) = 9.8 j
where the unit vector j is in the vertically upwards direction.
2. Projectiles launched with a speed of V, at an elevation angle of , have an initial

velocity vector of
3. The instantaneous velocity, v ( t ) , at time t, is
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j where g = 9.8 m/s2
4. The position r ( t ) , at any time t, is
r ( t ) = ( Vt cos + x 0 )i + ( Vt sin 1--2- gt 2 + y 0 ) j
where (x0, y0) are coordinates of the initial position of the projectile. In most
instances this is the origin (0, 0).
10D
WORKED
14
Projectile motion
Use g = 9.8 m/s2 downwards for questions in this exercise (unless otherwise indicated).
1 A golf ball is hit with a two-iron so that it leaves the tee at 10 to the horizontal with
a speed of 80 m/s over a horizontal fairway.
Projectile
a What are the horizontal and vertical components of the balls initial velocity?
motion
b What is the speed of the ball one second after being struck?
c Determine the position vector, r ( t ) , for the motion and consequently find the dis second after being struck.
tance of the ball from the tee one
2 A bullet is fired into the air from a gun at
ground level at a speed of 150 m/s at an
angle of 60 to the horizontal.
a Give an expression for the velocity
vector, v ( t ) .
b Calculate the speed of the bullet after

2.0 seconds.
c Give an expression for the position
vector, r ( t ) .
d Calculate the distance of the bullet from

the gun at t = 2.0 s.
e Find the time when the bullet is at the
apex of its motion.
WORKED
Example
15
3 A clay disc is fired at an elevation angle of

12 with a speed of 45 m/s. The disc is used
as a moving target for rifle practice.
a State the initial velocity vector of the
clay disc.
b Find v ( t ) , the velocity of the ball as a
of time.
function
c Determine the maximum height the clay
disc reaches and the location of the
maximum height from the firing point.
d Find the time during which the clay disc
is in the air.
e Find the horizontal distance (range) of
the clay disc.
4 A football is kicked into the air at an angle of 30 to the horizontal so that it reaches
a maximum height in 0.50 s.
a Find the maximum height reached by the ball.
b Find the speed at which the ball was kicked.
c Find the horizontal distance that the ball travels before striking the ground.
d Find the speed at which the ball strikes the ground.
e Find the angle at which the ball strikes the ground.
Math
cad
Example
467
468
5 A baseball player
hits a ball to the
outfield 50 m
away. The ball
was in the air for
1.8 seconds.
a At what
angle to the
horizontal was
the ball hit?
b At what speed
was it hit?
6 An object is thrown such that its position, r ( t ) , is given by the vector
r ( t ) = 30t i + ( 50t 4.9t 2 ) j

in metres and time in seconds.
where distances are measured

a Find the position of the object at t = 3.
b Find the velocity vector, v ( t ) , and hence the speed of the object at t = 3.
a(t ) .
c Find the acceleration vector,
vector is perpendicular to the acceleration vector
d Find the time when the velocity
and explain where this occurs in the objects motion.
WORKED
Example
16
WORKED
Example
17
7 A projectile is thrown across a horizontal field such that its position, r ( t ) , is given by
the vector
2
r ( t ) = 4.9t i + ( 1 + 22 t 4.9t ) j
in metres
and time in seconds.
where distances are measured

a From what height is the projectile thrown?
b Give an expression for the velocity vector of the projectile.
c Find the initial speed and launch angle of the projectile.
d Find the speed and angle at which the projectile strikes the ground.
e Determine how far from the launching site the projectile lands.
8 A projectile is launched at the origin at a speed V m/s and angle to the horizontal.
It passes through the point (50, 60.4) after 2 seconds.
a Find the initial velocity vector, v ( 0 ) , for the projectile.
for the trajectory of the projectile.
b Find the Cartesian equation, y(x),
c Find the range, R, of the projectile.
d Find the maximum height above the launching point made by the projectile.
9 A rock is thrown with a velocity vector
~v = 10i~
v = 10i off a cliff as shown at right. The rock
in the air for 3 seconds before it lands in the
is
sea at a point, S. Take the initial position of the
rock to be the origin.
a How high is the cliff above sea level?
g = 9.8j
b How far out from the cliff does the rock
~
~
strike the sea?
c At what speed and angle does the rock hit
O
the sea?
d Find the position vector, r ( t ) , for the rock, t [0, 3.0].
for the motion of the rock.
e Find the Cartesian equation
j
~
~i
469
10 An archer shoots an arrow at a horizontal speed of

160 m/s directly at a target positioned 30 m away. The
arrow was aimed directly at the target centre.
a How far below the centre will the arrow hit the target?
b If the arrow is to hit the target centre, at what angle
to the horizontal should the arrow be aimed?
11 A student skateboarding at a constant speed of

y
5.0 m/s throws a ball vertically into the air at
g = 9.8j
~
~
4.0 m/s. She catches the ball as it returns to
~r(t)
the ground. Let the ball be released from her
hand at time t = 0, the moment she passes a
marker, as shown at right.
a What is the initial velocity of the ball?
x
b Show that the ball will follow a parabolic
Ball released at
path and give the position vector, r ( t ) .
(0, 0) at t = 0
c How long is the ball in the air?

d How far past the marker is the student when she catches the ball? (Assume she
catches the ball at the same height above the ground that she threw the ball.)
12 Show for a projectile with a range R and a time of flight T that:
gT 2
tan = --------- where is the initial angle of projection.
2R
13 j
f
fi
50 m
A cannonball is fired out to sea from a gun located on a cliff 50 m above the ocean.
The cannon has the position vector r = 0i + 50 j . The initial velocity of the cannon + 50
j.
ball is given by the velocity vector v = 120i
the cannonball.
a Give the Cartesian equation for the trajectory of
b Find the maximum altitude of the cannonball above the surface of the water.
c How far out to sea is the cannonball when it hits the water?
d For how long is the cannonball in the air?
e At what angle does the cannonball strike the water?
14 A golf ball passes horizontally through its maximum point 20 m above a horizontal
fairway 98 metres from where it was struck. Find the Cartesian equation that
describes the trajectory and the total time that the ball is in the air.
470
summary
Position, velocity and acceleration
Position, r ( t ) , velocity, v ( t ) and acceleration, a ( t ) , are vector quantities. In two
dimensions they can be written as:

r ( t ) = xi + y j
dr
dx dy
v(t ) = vx i + vy j
[Note: v ( t ) = r( t ) = ----- = ------ i + ------ j ]
dt
dt dt
d2r
d2 x d2 y
a ( t ) = a x i + a y j , respectively. [Note: a ( t ) = r( t ) = -------2- = -------2- i + -------- j ]
dt
dt dt
r (t + t ) r (t )
The average velocity during the time interval t is v av = -----------------------------------
-.
t
dr
dx dy
The instantaneous velocity v ( t ) = r( t ) = ----- = ------ i + ------ j .
dt
dt dt
The instantaneous speed is given by v . v = v x2 + v y2 which is the magnitude of

the velocity vector v .
The direction of motion is in the direction parallel to the velocity vector.

dv x dv y
dv
d2 x d2 y
The instantaneous acceleration a ( t ) = ------ = -------- i + -------- j = -------2- i + -------2- j .
dt
dt dt
dt dt
Two non-zero vectors, a and b , are perpendicular when a . b = 0 .

a . b
---------- The angle, , between two vectors is given by cos = - where a and b are
a b

vectors.
Cartesian equations and antidifferentiation of vector functions

If the position vector is r ( t ) = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j then the parametric equations for the
coordinates of the path are x(t) and y(t). The Cartesian equation for the motion of
the particle is y(x) which can be obtained from the parametric equations x(t) and
y(t).
The velocity vector, v ( t ) , can be found from the acceleration vector, a ( t ) , by
antidifferentiation provided that the velocity is given at a particular time, t.

Generally this is at time t = 0 so that the vector c can be found. Thus:
v ( t ) = a ( t ) dt + c
The position vector, r ( t ) , can be found from the velocity vector, v ( t ) , by
antidifferentiation provided that the position is given at a particular time, t.

Generally this is at time t = 0 so that the vector c can be found. Thus:
r ( t ) = v ( t ) dt + c
471
Applications of vector calculus

Read each question carefully so that it is interpreted correctly and the question
being asked is answered.
Apply vector calculus methods to analyse curvilinear motion where the vectors r ,
r and r are functions of time.
For inexact solutions give your answers to an appropriate number of decimal

places.
If two objects are to collide then they must be at the same point at the same time.
Projectile motion
Projectiles launched close to the surface of the Earth (assuming that air resistance is
negligible) have an acceleration given by a ( t ) = 9.8 j where the unit vector, j , is
in the vertically upwards direction.

Projectiles launched with a speed V, at an elevation angle , have an initial velocity
vector:
The instantaneous velocity is v ( t ) :
v ( t ) = V cos i + ( V sin gt ) j where g = 9.8 m/s2
The position of the projectile, r ( t ) , is:
r ( t ) = ( V cos t + x 0 )i + ( V sin t 1--2- gt 2 + y 0 ) j
where (x0, y0) are the coordinates of the initial position of the projectile. In most
instances this is the origin, (0, 0).
472
CHAPTER
review
Multiple choice
10A
1 The position vector of an object is given by r ( t ) = 2t i + t 2 j . The average velocity in the
time interval [1, 2] is:

B 3i + 2 j
C 3i 3 j
D 2i + 3 j
E 3i 2 j
A 3i + 3 j
10A
2 The position vector of an object is given by r ( t ) = ( t 3 t )i + ( t t 2 ) j . The magnitude of
the velocity at t = 2 is:

A
112
40
130
10A
3 If r ( t ) = t i ( 3t 2 + cos t ) j then r( 2 ) is equal to:
B (6 + 2) j
A ( 2 6) j
D (6 2) j
E (6 2) j
10A
4 Two objects, M and N, have position vectors given by:
D 32
153
C (6 2) j
r M = ( 4t + 6 )i 1--2- t 2 j
r N = ( 2t 1 )i + 3t j
The nearest whole angle between their respective directions at t = 2 is:

A 37
B 53
C 127
D 143
E 83
10B
5 The acceleration of a ball at any time, t, is given by a ( t ) = 5i + ( 4t 1 ) j with the initial
velocity of the ball v = 2 j . At time t = 6 the velocity vector is:
B 30i + 12 j
C 5i + 72 j
D 30i + 72 j
E 30i + 68 j
A 4j
10B
6 The velocity vector of a moving object is given by the expression:
10C
7 A tennis ball is launched with a speed of 20 3 m/s at an angle of 30 to the horizontal. If i
is the unit vector in the horizontal and j is the unit vector vertically upwards in the plane of
motion of the ball, the initial velocity (in m/s) is:
v ( t ) = 25 sin 4t i + t 2 j
When the component of the velocity in the i direction first equals 25 m/s, the value of the
instantaneous acceleration is:

25
2
2
25 2
A --- j
C --------- i + --- j
B --------- i + ----- j
D ----- j
E ----- j
4
2 2
2 4
4
2
A 30i + 15 j
D 15i + 45 3 j
B 15 3i + 45 j
E 30i + 10 3 j
C 45i + 10 3 j
473
8 A particle starts at position i + j and moves so that its velocity at time t is 2t i j . The

position of the particle at any time t, r ( t ) , is given by:
A ( t 2 1 )i + ( 1 + t ) j
B ( t 2 1 )i + ( 1 t ) j
C ( t 2 + 1 )i + ( 1 t ) j
D ( t 2 + 1 )i + ( 1 + t ) j
E ( t 2 1 )i ( 1 + t ) j
10C
9 The position vector of a projectile at time t is r ( t ) = 10t i + ( 19.6t 4.9t 2 ) j (metres)
where i is horizontal and j is vertically upwards. The maximum height of the projectile is:
A 4.9 m
B 9.8 m
C 19.6 m
D 29.4 m
E 39.2 m
10D
10 An object is launched with a velocity v ( t ) = 40i + 15 j m/s. The horizontal range of the
object, to the nearest ten metres, is:

A 110 m
B 120 m
C 130 m
D 140 m
E 150 m
10D
Short answer
1 The velocity of a projectile in m/s is given by v ( t ) = ( 4t 2 6t )i 8 cos 7 t j . Find the
magnitude of the acceleration of the projectile at time t = 3 s.
10A
2 A body moves according to x( t ) = 9.8 j for all times t 0. It starts at the point (0, 20) with
an initial velocity x( 0 ) = 20i + 49 j . Find the position vector, x ( t ) , for all times t 0.
10B
3 The velocity vector of a particle at time t seconds is given by r( t ) = 5 cos 3t i + 12 sin 3t j (m/s).
Find:
a the position vector, r ( t ) , given that r = 4 j at t = 0
b the acceleration vector, a ( t )
c the times when the position vector is perpendicular to the velocity vector
d the Cartesian equation for the path
e the maximum speed of the particle. [Hint: Find an expression for the square of the speed
and find its maximum value.]
10B,C
4 Two bodies, A and B, move with position vectors x A = 3t 3 i + 4t 2 j and x B = 3t 2 i 4t j
respectively. At time t = 2 determine the distance between the two bodies.
10C
5 An object moves with a velocity in m/s given by v ( t ) = 8 cos 2 t i + 8 sin 2 t j .
a Show that the speed is a constant and state its value.

b Show that the acceleration and velocity vectors are perpendicular at all times.
10C
6 An object moves with the following position vector:

r ( t ) = ( 3e 2t + 1 )i + ( 2e 4t 1 ) j
a Find the initial position, velocity and acceleration vectors describing the motion of the
object.
b Find the angle between the initial velocity and the initial acceleration of the object.
c Show that the object will eventually stop moving and find the rest position of the object.
d By finding the Cartesian equation of the object, sketch the trajectory labelling the initial
and final position of the object.
10C
474
10C
7 Particles A and B move with position vectors:

r A = 4t i 2t j
r B = 4 sin t i + 4 cos t j where is a positive constant.
Distance is measured in metres and time in seconds.

a Find the speed of B at any time, t.
b Find the Cartesian equations of the paths of A and B.
c On the same set of axes, sketch the paths of A and B indicating the directions of travel.
d Find the coordinates for the points where the paths of A and B intersect.
e Find the least value of , correct to 2 decimal places, for which A and B will collide.
10D
8 Two projectiles, R and S, are launched in the same plane, at the

y
g = 10j m/s2
~
~
same time, a horizontal distance of 40 metres apart as shown.
j
Projectile R is launched with an initial speed of 20 m/s at an
~
20 m/s
elevation of 45 from a height of h metres.
R
~i
Projectile S is launched with an initial speed of 30 m/s at an
30 m/s
45
elevation of 30.
S
h
30
a Find the position vectors, r and s , for the projectiles, R and S
O
40 x
respectively, at any time, t.

b Find the time at which the projectiles collide and the value of h, to the nearest centimetre,
for a collision to occur.
Analysis
1 Two particles, R and S, move so that their position vectors, r and s , are given by
r = ( 2 2 sin t )i + ( 1 + cos t ) j
s = cos t i + 2 sin t j
respectively, where t seconds (t > 0) is the time elapsed since the start of their motions.
a Find r . s and determine the exact time that the position vectors of the two particles are

first at right angles.
b Show that the particles are always moving perpendicular to each other.
c
i Find the Cartesian equation of the path of S.
ii Find the Cartesian equation of the path of R.
d Sketch the Cartesian equations of the paths of S and R on the same set of axes, indicating
the directions of motion.
e Use the graph to verify that the motion of the particles is perpendicular when t = 0 and
t = --- .
2
2 An object is launched from the origin (x = 0, y = 0) and passes through the coordinates
(60, 80) and (120, 80). Distances are measured in metres and time in seconds. The
acceleration of the object is given by a ( t ) = 10 j at all times.
a Find the initial velocity vector for the trajectory.

b Find the range and the time of flight for the trajectory.
CHAPTER
test
yyourself
ourself
10
A second object is located at (20, 0) and can be launched at the same speed as the first one. It
is planned that the second object collide with the first at the coordinates (120, 80).
c At what angle to the horizontal should the second object be launched to pass through the
point (120, 80)?
d What time delay in the launching of the second object is required so that the two objects
collide at the point (120, 80)?

Vector Calculus

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vector Calculus

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chap 10 SM Page 427 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

Chap 10 SM Page 428 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

2. The magnitude or length of a vector, b is given by

magnitudes and the angle between them:

4. Two non-zero vectors are perpendicular when b

that is, if = 90 and hence b and c are perpendicular.

Position, velocity and acceleration

particle is at the point B on the curve and at O

Chap 10 SM Page 429 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

Substitute t = 2 into r (t) to find r (2).

Evaluate r (2) = r ( 2 ) r ( 2 ) to find

Simplify the surd.

vector divided by the magnitude

Find r when t = 0 and when t = 3.

Calculate the average velocity by

State the average velocity.

Chap 10 SM Page 430 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

vector has a direction parallel

Rules for differentiating vectors

Chap 10 SM Page 431 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

An object has a position vector in metres r ( t ) = ( 3t 2 sin t )i + ( e t + 2t ) j ; t 0 seconds.

a Find the velocity vector v ( t ) .

b Find the velocity of the object at t = 2 s.

by differentiating each vector

Simplify the value of v ( 2 ) .

State the velocity.

The velocity of the body is given by

The velocity of the object at a time t = 2 s

The speed of the object at time t = 2 is

Calculate the speed using the velocity

Evaluate, correct to 2 decimal places.

is the displacement of the object divided by

the object from t = 0 until t = 2.

Calculate each component correct to

The average velocity in the first two

Chap 10 SM Page 432 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

velocity v ( T + t ) . This situation is shown below.

divided by the time interval, t. Thus:

derivative of the velocity vector v ( t ) .

Find v ( t ) by differentiating each vector

Find a ( t ) by differentiating each vector

Chap 10 SM Page 433 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

b the acceleration vector r

The velocity vector r is the time

derivative of the displacement

The acceleration vector r is the time

Calculate the velocity vector when

Calculate the acceleration vector when

The angle, , between the two vectors

Substitute r( 1 ) and r( 1 ) into the

Simplify the equation.

Express cos as the subject of the

Continued over page

Chap 10 SM Page 434 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM

State the acceleration, r( t ) at any time, t.

Obtain an expression for the magnitude

Square both sides of the equation.

Make t2 the subject of the equation.

Solve the equation for t by taking the

Vector functions of time

Graphics Calculator tip! derivatives

The path of an object is given by r = 2t i + (10 t2) j , t 0. Find r when t = 2.

of the vector as t changes.

Chap 10 SM Page 435 Thursday, October 12, 2000 2:02 PM