THE FOUNDATION & FOOTINGS SOCIETY (Vic) Inc.

Reg. No A0025791G

PRACTICE NOTE No. 1

SOIL DESCRIPTION in FIELD LOGGING
1. INTRODUCTION
Peter W. Mitchell, renowned South Australian geotechnical engineer and researcher has described the
soil assessment process as follows: ..While it is imperative that soil properties must be determined
by more detailed testing in site investigations for structures significantly larger than a house, the
intent of laboratory testing for domestic house footing designs is to predict soil properties to a
reasonable degree of accuracy using simple tests which are largely visual and tactile. The most
appropriate means of logging soil profiles is the visual-manual (tactile) procedure giving individual
soil material identification to distinguish the soil horizons, followed by assessment and classification
of the whole profilePersons logging and identifying soils must be properly experienced and
tutored. Training and experience is best gained under the guidance of a highly experienced person.
Persons of limited experience may reach proper conclusions by systematically correlating the visual
properties with numerical laboratory test results and reference to available records. But without field
knowledge of the arrangement of soils in-situ and their general appearance and characteristics, there
is always risk of error.
The method of soil description and soil profile logging and assessment given below is largely from
AS17261993 (Geotechnical Site Investigations). This is the recommended method to be used by
the members of FFSV.
Some practical field tips for identification of soil classification, plasticity, and moisture are provided,
as are methods of estimating allowable bearing capacity. For additional information and detail,
AS1726 should be consulted.

2. FIELD LOGGING
The soil profile should be logged in a systematic way by recording:
the depth and thickness of each distinct stratum encountered;
the soil description of each stratum, as given in Section 3 below;
The presence or otherwise of any water, be it ground water, perched water, or local ponding.
Any other observations
A field log should describe the colour, composition, and state or condition of a soil layer, as well as
soil structure, and soil origin if possible.
The soil composition can be determined from either undisturbed or disturbed soil samples, and is
essentially the Soil Classification in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
with more detail, if apparent.
The soil description for NATURAL (Non-Fill) soils should include the following:
Soil name (preferably use block letters).
USCS group symbol (use block letters)
Colour of soil ( in moist condition)
Grading / Particle size distribution
Secondary soil components and proportion, characteristics, and colour

When FILL is encountered it should be emphasized in a profile Log, and be clearly identified with an
arrow or shading. When not sure whether the soil is fill, it should be said, although this should be a
rare case. In some cases it is difficult to distinguish top soil from tilled garden, excavated or orchard
condition. Additional description such as DISTURBED SOIL or TOP SOIL may be used.
The composition of FILL soils shall be described in a similar manner to that of natural soils, however
the UCSC group classification symbols shall not be used. In addition the presence, proportion and
description of any foreign (non-soil) matter in the fill soil shall be described. When fill material is
essentially a non-soil, then the descriptions given in Table 6 below shall be used.

3. SOIL COMPOSITION & THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The field assessment of composition shall be by visual-tactile method by an experienced
geotechnician backed up as required by laboratory testing. Accurate assessments of soil composition
are only possible on moist soil, and water should be sprayed on dry soils for this purpose. The visualtactile method by an experienced geotechnician enables a reasonably accurate identification of
particle size and proportion, and soil plasticity so that the soil may be classified in accordance with
the Unified Soil Classification System.
AS2870-2011 requires in Section 2.3.2 (iii) that routine visual-tactile identification of reactive soil
properties shall be checked against laboratory testing at least every six months or at least once in
every 50 sites personally classified.
Soils usually occur as mixtures with varying proportions of particles of different sizes. Each
component contributes its characteristics to the mixture. The Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) is an engineering classification system that describes the composition of a soil sample (either
disturbed or undisturbed) in terms of characteristics that indicate how it will behave as a construction
material. The USCS does not address the condition (or State ) of the in-situ soil (moisture content and
density/consistency).
In the USCS, all soils are divided into broad groups based on particle size and are further
distinguished by certain characteristics. The USCS is a dual symbol system where the primary symbol
identifies the dominant (>50% by mass) soil type, and the second symbol describes particular features
of the soil.
Primary soil types based on particle size are:
Coarse-grained: S for sand, G for gravel.
Fine-grained: M for silt,
C for clay
Highly organic: O for organic soils.
Dominant soil type in coarse grained soils is determined by sieving.
Fine grained soils are
impractical to sieve, and sedimentation takes a long time. The relationship between the Plastic Index
and Liquid Limit of a fine grained soil, when plotted on the Cassagrande Plasticity Chart, provides
empirical evidence as to whether it is basically a silt or a clay.
Secondary symbols for coarse grained soils are based upon their grading or particle size distribution;

P for poorly graded (uniform size),

W for well graded

Secondary symbols for fine grained soils are based upon their plasticity;

L for low plasticity, H for high plasticity.

The basic structure of the USCS is shown in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1: FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF USCS

Organic and artificial materials cannot be adequately described using the terms in Table 1.
Descriptive terms for such materials should be specific as given in Table 6.
The detailed unified soil classification system, including the Plasticity Chart is provided in Table A1,
of AS1726-1993.

3.1

Particle Size Distribution and Proportions

Coarse-grained soils are defined as those in which at least half the material is retained on a 75um
sieve. This means that most of the particles (except for fine sands) are visible to the naked eye. The
spread of sizes in coarse grained soils are described with the following terms:
Well graded good representation of all particle sizes.
Poorly graded with one or more intermediate sizes poorly represented.
Gap graded - with one or more intermediate sizes
Uniform - essentially of one size.
Fine grained soils are those in which more than half the material passes a 75um sieve.
In both coarse and fine grained soils, the main soil constituent has the greatest proportion. The
secondary constituent should be described in accordance with Table 2 below (Table A2 from
AS1726).
TABLE 2: DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR MATERIAL PROPORTIONS
Coarse grained soils

Fine grained soils

% Fines

Modifier

% Coarse

Modifier

<5

Omit, or use trace

<15

Omit, or use trace`

5 to <12

Describe as with clay or

with silt (as applicable)

15 to <30

Describe as with sand or

with gravel (as applicable)

>12

Prefix soil as silty or

clayey (as applicable)

>30

Prefix soil as sandy or

gravelly (as applicable)

Example

Silty SAND

Sandy CLAY with gravel

Description of particle shape, when visible and appropriate, shall be in accordance with Figure A1 of
AS1726.

3.2

Simple Field Tests for Classification of Coarse Grained Soils

To assess the silt content, wet the sample and smear it across the hand and observe the amount of
staining. A soapy feel in moist clay often signifies high silt content.
Rubbing a moist sample of sand next to the ear will create a gritty sound, which gives some
indication of particle size, shape and perhaps even whether it is well or poorly graded. The same test
on a clayey soil will indicate if there is any sand content. Medium or coarse-grained sand is easier to
hear and feel.
Simple acid tests may be carried out to detect organic matter or calcium deposits.

3.3

Soil Plasticity

In assessing the plasticity of a clayey soil, according to the Unified Classification System the material
coarser than 425 micron is to be removed however in the field this is not possible therefore if an
accurate determination is required, laboratory tests are necessary.
Clay and silt, both alone and in mixtures with coarser material, may be described according to their
plasticity as indicated in Table 3.
TABLE 3: DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR PLASTICITY
Descriptive Term

3.3.1

Unified Classification Symbol

Range of Liquid Limit %

Low plasticity

CL

<35

Medium plasticity

CI

35 to <50

High plasticity

CH

50 to <80*

Very high plasticity*

CH+

>80*

Simple Field Tests for Classification of Fine Grained Soils

Fine soils may be classified in the field using simple tests, rather than waiting for the results of the
more precise laboratory tests. The dry strength, toughness and dilatancy tests provide an indication of
plasticity. Particles greater than 0.2 mm are excluded before testing the soil. A brief explanation of
the USCS field tests is as follows:
a) Dry strength: The dry strength test is performed by moulding a ball of soil to the consistency of
putty, allowing it to dry completely and then crushing it between the fingers. The greater the colloidal
content, the higher the dry strength. So CH clays have a high strength while silts are weak and feel
floury.
b) Toughness: Again the soil is moulded to the consistency of putty. The soil is manipulated to the
shape of a thread or ribbon, repeatedly, until it begins to crumble (near plastic limit). The feel or
toughness of the thread at this point is qualitatively assessed. The tougher it feels, the greater is the
colloidal content, and the higher the plasticity.
c) Dilatancy: Dilation as applied to soils is the increase of volume of the soil as it is sheared.
Dilation depends on particle shape and the density of particle packing. It will be most noticeable in
silt and fine-grained clean sand, and will not be evident in clay. The test requires the mixing of the
soil to a moist pat in the palm of the hand. Disturbing the pat of soil by vibration may cause water to
rise to the surface giving the soil a livery appearance. Shearing the soil by opening the palm or
squeezing the pat of soil will cause opening up of void space and a sudden disappearance of the
surface water and livery look of the soil, if the soil is strongly dilatant.

4. SOIL COLOUR
The colour of a soil should be described in the moist condition using simple terms: Black, white,
grey, red, brown, orange, yellow, green or blue. These may be modified as necessary by pale, dark
or mottled or as a combination of the colours (e.g. red-brown).
Where a soil colour consists of a primary colour, with a secondary mottling it should be described in
the following fashion: primary colour- mottled -secondary colour e.g. : - grey, mottled, red-brown.
If mottled soils have only two colours, present in roughly equal proportion, the colour description
should be: Mottled (first colour) and (second colour). e.g.: - mottled brown and red-brown. A
mixture of distinct colours may be described as say, red/grey.

5. CONDITION OR STATE OF NATURAL SOILS

The state or condition of a natural soil is described entirely by its moisture content and density or
consistency. These properties are important for estimating soil bearing capacity and compressibility,
or response to load.

5.1

Moisture Content

The general moisture condition of soils shall be described as one of ; Dry, Slightly Moist, Moist, Very
Moist, or Wet. Given below, is the method of identification of these moisture conditions, the letter
symbol to be used, and the important correlation with the Plastic Limit of cohesive soils.

DRY [D <<PL] - Cohesive soils are hard, friable or powdery and well dry of the Plastic
Limit. Granular soils have practically no cohesion and are free-running.

SLIGHTLY MOIST [SM <PL] - Cohesive soils are difficult to mould and drier than
Plastic Limit. Granular soils have a slight moisture feel and are clumpy.

MOIST [M near PL] - Cohesive soils can be moulded with a little effort. Moisture is near
Plastic Limit. Granular soils feel cool and are darkened in colour.

VERY MOIST [VM >PL] - Cohesive soils are easily re-moulded and wetter than Plastic
Limit. Granular soils feel very cool and are darkened and damp.

WET [W] - Cohesive soils are usually weakened and free water forms on hands when
handled. Granular soils tend to cohere.

5.1.1

Other Simple Field Tests for Estimation of Moisture content

Rolling worms in the palm of the hand or on a rough glass surface, can give an indication of the insitu clay moisture with respect to its Plastic Limit. If the worm or crumb begins to crumble at a
3mm diameter the clay is close to its Plastic Limit. If the worm cannot be rolled to this diameter the
sample is drier than the Plastic Limit. If it can be rolled to a smaller diameter it is wetter than the
Plastic Limit.
The Optimum Standard compaction moisture is a little higher than the Plastic Limit. To gauge this
moisture in a clayey soil, squeeze a fistful of the soil sample in the hand with the fingers separated by
about 5 mm. If sharp crests are formed or the soil squeezes easily between the fingers the soil is
above the Optimum moisture. If the crests are well rounded but well defined, the sample is close to
Optimum. If the sample does not hold well together and no crests are formed, the soil is drier than
Optimum.

5.2

Consistency of Essentially Cohesive Soils

The consistency or density of natural soils is only meaningful when estimated or measured in-situ or
on an undisturbed sample.
The consistency of essentially cohesive soils is a qualitative assessment of undrained cohesion
(undrained shear strength), and is correlated to undrained shear strength in Table 4.

It is important to note that the soil strength estimates in Table 4 apply only for soils that have stable
moisture content, ie. are below the moisture variation zone (Hs in AS2870). Since most residential
footings are founded within Hs, an estimate must be made of the softest condition that the founding
soil is likely to experience in the life of the building for normal conditions (i.e. not affected by
abnormal moisture conditions as described in AS2870 2011)
TABLE 4: CONSISTENCY TERMS COHESIVE SOILS
Term
Very Soft

Undrained
Shear strength
<12kPa

Field Guide to Consistency

Pocket
Penetrometer
Exudes between the fingers when squeezed ---------in hand

Soft

12 to <25kPa

Can be moulded by light finger pressure <50kPa

and easily penetrated several centimetres
by the thumb

Firm

25 to <50kPa

Can be moulded by strong finger pressure. 50 - 100kPa

Readily indented by thumb with moderate
effort

Stiff

50 to <100kPa

Cannot be moulded by fingers, but 100 - 200kPa

indented by thumb with great effort

Very Stiff

100 to <200kPa

Hard

>200kPa

Readily indented by thumb nail

200 - 400kPa

Can be indented with difficulty by thumb >400kPa

nail

Undrained shear strength can also be assessed in the field by using a portable vane shear apparatus on
very soft to firm soils. Although the vane shear apparatus is considered more accurate than the Pocket
Penetrometer both devices must be used with calibration charts and their test results are greatly
affected by the soil moisture.
Table 4 is also given in Practice Note 4: Investigation of Clay Sites

5.3

Density Index of Granular or Essentially non Cohesive Soils

The consistency of granular soils is described in terms of the density index, as defined in AS1289. It
is not possible to make an assessment of the density index without some form of test on an
undisturbed or in situ sample. Granular soils are inherently difficult to assess and normally a
penetration test procedure (SPT, DCP, PSP, or CPT) is used in conjunction with published correlation
tables. These results are also affected by soil moisture and should be treated with caution where they
are performed at shallow depths.
TABLE 5: FIELD TESTS & CORRELATIONS FOR RELATIVE DENSITY of SANDS and GRAVELS
DCP
Blows per
300mm

PSP
Blows per
300mm

Alternative Field Test

Approximate
Relative
Density

Density Index

0-5

0-4

Easily push rod in several metres

Very Loose

< 15%

5-12

4-10

Easily excavated by shovel

Loose

>15% to 35%

12 - 36

10-24

Difficult to excavate with shovel.

Medium Dense

>35 to 65%

36 - 60

24-60

Pick required to excavate

Dense

>65 to 85%

>60

>60

Impenetrable

Very Dense

>85

Table 5 is also given in Practice Note 3: Investigation of Non-Clay Sites

6. SOIL STRUCTURE
Soil structure shall be described, if apparent and appropriate. Typical soil structures are
Zones - layers, lenses and pockets
Defects - fissures, cracks, root-holes, and the like; and.
Cementing : noting weakly or strongly cemented silts and fine sands
More detail on soil structure is given in AS1726.

7. WATER TABLE
Where a perched water table or water table is identified its depth should be shown in the soil logs with
the following symbol . In some cases it is important to also measure this depth some hours after
drilling to determine its highest position. If the water is flowing in and filling the test hole from a
higher depth, this depth should be noted.

8. SOIL ORIGIN OF NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL

Soil origin cannot generally be discussed on the basis of material appearance and properties alone.
Geological evidence and field observations are required. A fundamental preparation for site
investigation is to consult local geology maps. Many soils in Victoria are RESIDUAL soils and are
derived from in-situ weathering of parent rock.
Knowledge of the soil origin can often give a good indication of its behaviour. Soils derived from
rocks that have a high Calcium content usually create highly expansive clays such as alkaline
volcanics, Limestones and Calcium-rich shales. The age of soil formation is also valuable, for
example soils formed in the Tertiary period in Australia are often iron rich and may therefore contain
well-cemented sands and/or gravels.
Occasionally soils are derived from HILL WASH or COLLUVIUM. This distinctive description is
most important and may indicate slope instability, which will require additional and more expert
testing.

9. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS
Other pertinent aspects of the environment of the soil or the soil sample should be recorded, such as:

Any odour should be noted.

Weathering of rock material.

Other matters believed to be significant, e.g. nearby rock outcrops that are different from the
rocks underlying the test area.
For normal house or small industrial or commercial investigations, it is unlikely that rock will be
cored, and thus only the last stages of rock weathering are likely to be identifiable. It is likely to be :
Residual Soil (RS) - Soil developed on extremely weathered rock where the mass structure
and substance fabric are no longer evident and there is a large change in volume but the soil
has not been significantly transported; or
Extremely weathered bedrock (XW) - Rock is weathered to such an extent that it has soil
properties and can disintegrate or can be remoulded in water.
Refer to AS1726 for the full description of Rock Weathering terms.

10. DESCRIPTION OF ORGANIC SOILS AND WASTE MATERIALS

TABLE 6: DESCRIPTION OF ORGANIC OR ARTIFICIAL MATERIALS
Preferred terms

Secondary Description

Organic Matter

e.g. - Fibrous peat, peat, wood fragments, putrescible matter, roots.

State sizes of larger particles which may rot.

Waste fill

Domestic and industrial refuse, building rubble and other materials.

State size of larger particles which create voids.

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