Chemical substance

Chemical substance
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"Chemical" redirects here. For other uses, see Chemical (disambiguation).

Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance,
water.

A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and
characteristic properties.[1] It cannot be separated into components by physical separation
methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements,
chemical compounds, ions or alloys.
Chemical substances are often called 'pure' to set them apart from mixtures. A common example
of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances
commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and
refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity
is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.
Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases or plasma, and may change between these
phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure. Chemical reactions convert one
chemical substance into another.
Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not considered to be matter, and thus they are not
"substances" in this regard.

Contents
[hide]

1 Definition

2 History

3 Chemical elements

4 Chemical compounds

5 Substances versus mixtures

6 Chemicals versus chemical substances

7 Naming and indexing

8 Isolation, purification, characterization, and identification

9 See also

10 Notes and references

11 External links

Definition[edit]

Colors of a single chemical (Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV
light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.

A chemical substance (also called a pure substance) may well be defined as "any material with a
definite chemical composition" in an introductory general chemistry textbook.[2] According to
this definition a chemical substance can either be a pure chemical element or a pure chemical
compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition; a pure substance can also be defined as a
form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties.[3] The chemical
substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition.[4] Nonstoichiometric compounds are a special case (in inorganic chemistry) that violates the law of
constant composition, and for them, it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between a mixture

and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or

chemical substances can be found, for example: "the term 'chemical substance' means any
organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including (i) any combination
of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in
nature"[5]
In geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures
(aggregates) of several minerals (different substances) are defined as rocks. Many minerals,
however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a single rock is a uniform substance
despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are a common example: anorthoclase
is an alkali aluminium silicate, where the alkali metal is interchangeably either sodium or
potassium.

History[edit]
The concept of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth century
after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds
such as basic copper carbonate.[6] He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same
composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in
the compound." This is now known as the law of constant composition.[7] Later with the
advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in the realm of organic chemistry;
the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical
chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led
to the establishment of modern chemistry, the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry
textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the
large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.
Isomerism caused much consternation to early researchers, since isomers have exactly the same
composition, but differ in configuration (arrangement) of the atoms. For example, there was
much speculation for the chemical identity of benzene, until the correct structure was described
by Friedrich August Kekul. Likewise, the idea of stereoisomerism - that atoms have rigid threedimensional structure and can thus form isomers that differ only in their three-dimensional
arrangement - was another crucial step in understanding the concept of distinct chemical
substances. For example, tartaric acid has three distinct isomers, a pair of diastereomers with one
diastereomer forming two enantiomers.

Chemical elements[edit]

Native sulfur crystals. Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, in sulfide and
sulfate minerals and in hydrogen sulfide.
Main article: Chemical element
See also: List of elements

An element is a chemical substance that is made up of a particular kind of atoms and hence
cannot be broken down or transformed by a chemical reaction into a different element, though it
can be transmutated into another element through a nuclear reaction. This is so, because all of the
atoms in a sample of an element have the same number of protons, though they may be different
isotopes, with differing numbers of neutrons.
As of 2012, there are 118 known elements, about 80 of which are stable that is, they do not
change by radioactive decay into other elements. Some elements can occur as more than a single
chemical substance (allotropes). For instance, oxygen exists as both diatomic oxygen (O2) and
ozone (O3). The majority of elements are classified as metals. These are elements with a
characteristic lustre such as iron, copper, and gold. Metals typically conduct electricity and heat
well, and they are malleable and ductile.[8] Around a dozen elements,[9] such as carbon, nitrogen,
and oxygen, are classified as non-metals. Non-metals lack the metallic properties described
above, they also have a high electronegativity and a tendency to form negative ions. Certain
elements such as silicon sometimes resemble metals and sometimes resemble non-metals, and
are known as metalloids.

Chemical compounds[edit]

Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen;

although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.
Main article: Chemical compound
See also: List of organic compounds and List of inorganic compounds

A pure chemical compound is a chemical substance that is composed of a particular set of

molecules or ions. Two or more elements combined into one substance through a chemical
reaction form a chemical compound. All compounds are substances, but not all substances are
compounds.
A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which
atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice. Compounds based primarily on carbon and
hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds, and all others are called inorganic compounds.
Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called organometallic compounds.
Compounds in which components share electrons are known as covalent compounds.
Compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions are known as ionic compounds, or salts.
In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition
and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually have substantially
different chemical properties, may be isolated and do not spontaneously convert to each other. A
common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their
interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid-base catalysis. However, there are also
tautomers, where isomerization occurs spontaneously, such that a pure substance cannot be
isolated into its tautomers. A common example is glucose, which has open-chain and ring forms.
One cannot manufacture pure open-chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the
hemiacetal form. Materials may also comprise other entities such as polymers. These may be
inorganic or organic and sometimes a combination of inorganic and organic.

Substances versus mixtures[edit]

Cranberry glass, while it looks homogeneous, is a mixture consisting of glass and

gold colloidal particles of ca. 40 nm diameter, which give it a red color.
Main article: Mixture

All matter consists of various elements and chemical compounds, but these are often intimately
mixed together. Mixtures contain more than one chemical substance, and they do not have a
fixed composition. In principle, they can be separated into the component substances by purely
mechanical processes. Butter, soil and wood are common examples of mixtures.
Grey iron metal and yellow sulfur are both chemical elements, and they can be mixed together in
any ratio to form a yellow-grey mixture. No chemical process occurs, and the material can be
identified as a mixture by the fact that the sulfur and the iron can be separated by a mechanical
process, such as using a magnet to attract the iron away from the sulfur.
In contrast, if iron and sulfur are heated together in a certain ratio (1 atom of iron for each atom
of sulfur, or by weight, 56 grams (1 mol) of iron to 32 grams (1 mol) of sulfur), a chemical
reaction takes place and a new substance is formed, the compound iron(II) sulfide, with chemical
formula FeS. The resulting compound has all the properties of a chemical substance and is not a
mixture. Iron(II) sulfide has its own distinct properties such as melting point and solubility, and
the two elements cannot be separated using normal mechanical processes; a magnet will be
unable to recover the iron, since there is no metallic iron present in the compound.

Chemicals versus chemical substances[edit]

While the term chemical substance is a precise technical term that is synonymous with
"chemical" for professional chemists, the meaning of the word chemical varies for non-chemists
within the English speaking world or those using English. For industries, government and society
in general in some countries,[10] the word chemical includes a wider class of substances that
contain many mixtures of such chemical substances, often finding application in many vocations.
[11]
In countries that require a list of ingredients in products, the "chemicals" listed would be
equated with "chemical substances".[12]
Within the chemical industry, manufactured "chemicals" are chemical substances, which can be
classified by production volume into bulk chemicals, fine chemicals and chemicals found in
research only:

Bulk chemicals are produced in very large quantities, usually with highly
optimized continuous processes and to a relatively low price.

Fine chemicals are produced at a high cost in small quantities for special lowvolume applications such as biocides, pharmaceuticals and speciality
chemicals for technical applications.

Research chemicals are produced individually for research, such as when

searching for synthetic routes or screening substances for pharmaceutical
activity. In effect, their price per gram is very high, although they are not
sold.

The cause of the difference in production volume is the complexity of the molecular structure of
the chemical. Bulk chemicals are usually much less complex. While fine chemicals may be more
complex, many of them are simple enough to be sold as "building blocks" in the synthesis of
more complex molecules targeted for single use, as named above. The production of a chemical
includes not only its synthesis but also its purification to eliminate by-products and impurities
involved in the synthesis. The last step in production should be the analysis of batch lots of
chemicals in order to identify and quantify the percentages of impurities for the buyer of the
chemicals. The required purity and analysis depends on the application, but higher tolerance of
impurities is usually expected in the production of bulk chemicals. Thus, the user of the chemical
in the US might choose between the bulk or "technical grade" with higher amounts of impurities
or a much purer "pharmaceutical grade" (labeled "USP", United States Pharmacopeia).

Naming and indexing[edit]

Every chemical substance has one or more systematic names, usually named according to the
IUPAC rules for naming. An alternative system is used by the Chemical Abstracts Service
(CAS).
Many compounds are also known by their more common, simpler names, many of which predate
the systematic name. For example, the long-known sugar glucose is now systematically named
6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol. Natural products and pharmaceuticals are also given
simpler names, for example the mild pain-killer Naproxen is the more common name for the
chemical compound (S)-6-methoxy--methyl-2-naphthaleneacetic acid.
Chemists frequently refer to chemical compounds using chemical formulae or molecular
structure of the compound. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of chemical
compounds being synthesized (or isolated), and then reported in the scientific literature by
professional chemists around the world.[13] An enormous number of chemical compounds are
possible through the chemical combination of the known chemical elements. As of May 2011,
about sixty million chemical compounds are known.[14] The names of many of these compounds
are often nontrivial and hence not very easy to remember or cite accurately. Also it is difficult to
keep the track of them in the literature. Several international organizations like IUPAC and CAS
have initiated steps to make such tasks easier. CAS provides the abstracting services of the
chemical literature, and provides a numerical identifier, known as CAS registry number to each
chemical substance that has been reported in the chemical literature (such as chemistry journals
and patents). This information is compiled as a database and is popularly known as the Chemical
substances index. Other computer-friendly systems that have been developed for substance
information, are: SMILES and the International Chemical Identifier or InChI.

Identification of a typical chemical substance

Common Systemati Chemical
name
c name
formula
alcohol, or
ethyl
ethanol
alcohol

Chemical
structure

C2H5OH

CAS
registry
number

[64-17-5]

InChI

1/C2H6O/c1-23/h3H,2H2,1H3

Isolation, purification, characterization, and identification[

edit]
Often a pure substance needs to be isolated from a mixture, for example from a natural source
(where a sample often contains numerous chemical substances) or after a chemical reaction
(which often give mixtures of chemical substances).

See also[edit]
Chemistry portal

Chemical safety signs

IUPAC nomenclature

Prices of elements and their compounds

Notes and references[edit]

1.

Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the

"Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) "Chemical
Substance".

2.

Jump up ^ Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S.

General Chemistry, 4th ed., p5, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey, 2005

3.

Jump up ^ "Pure Substance DiracDelta Science & Engineering

Encyclopedia". Diracdelta.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-06-06.

4.

Jump up ^ Appendix IV: Chemical Substance Index Names

5.

Jump up ^ "What is the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory?". US

Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2009-10-19.

6.

7.

Jump up ^ Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S.

General Chemistry, 4th ed., p37, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey, 2005.
Jump up ^ Law of Definite Proportions[dead link]

8.

Jump up ^ Hill, J. W.; Petrucci, R. H.; McCreary, T. W.; Perry, S. S.

General Chemistry, 4th ed., pp 4546, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey, 2005.

9.

Jump up ^ The boundary between metalloids and non-metals is

imprecise, as explained in the previous reference.

10.

Jump up ^ "What is a chemical". Nicnas.gov.au. 2005-06-01.

Retrieved 2013-06-06.

11.

Jump up ^ "BfR Chemicals". Bfr.bund.de. 1980-09-18. Retrieved

2013-06-06.

12.

Jump up ^ There is only one definition for "chemical", that of a

substance, in the US Unabridged Edition of the Random House Dictionary of
the English Language, New York, 1966.

13.

Jump up ^ Joachim Schummer. "Coping with the Growth of Chemical

Knowledge: Challenges for Chemistry Documentation, Education, and
Working Chemists". Rz.uni-karlsruhe.de. Retrieved 2013-06-06.

14.

Jump up ^ "Chemical Abstracts substance count". Cas.org. Retrieved

2013-06-06.

Inorganic polymers, N. H. Ray, Academic, John Wiley and Sons Inc.New York, 1979, 173 pp.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chemical substances.

eChemPortal substance and property search

Chemical Reactions

Inorganic polymers, N. H. Ray, Academic, John Wiley and Sons Inc.New York, 1979, 173 pp.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Chemical_substance&oldid=684891374"

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Toxic Chemicals: A New Push To Get A Grip

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What is a pure substance?

A pure substance is a substance that cannot be separated by physical means. eg. filtration,
evaporation, distillation or chromatography.
Examples of pure substances include water, gold, glucose, carbon dioxide, oxygen and hydrogen.
A pure substance is made up of one type of particle. The particle that makes up water is H2O. The
particle that makes up carbon dioxide is CO2.

Each pure substance has its own set of unique set chemical and physical properties which helps
identifies it.
Water has a melting point of 0C and a boling point of 100C. It is also colorless and odorless.
Gold however, is yellow in color, solid at room temperature and pressure and is is good
conductor of electricity.
Pure substances can be divided into two groups, elements and compounds.
Elements are made up the same types of atoms. The known elements are listed in the Periodic
table. Examples of elements include hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, iron and gold.
Compounds are composed of one or more different types of atoms that joined togther by
chemical bonds. Examples of compounds include water, glucose, methanol, DNA and carbon
dioxide.