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Seminar Teaching the Chinese Learner in higher education Friday, March 17, 2006

Leiden University Historical and cultural background of education in China


Mr. Chi-hou CHAN, M.A., PhD candidate and Lecturer, Sinological Institute, Leiden
University
In order to know the learning beliefs and behaviours of Chinese students, it is perhaps
useful to look from a longer perspective; namely, from the historical development of
education in China from the imperial days, to early republican years because men are
following the customs of the cultural environment rather than creating the new rules out
of nothing. To a certain extent, the change of Chinese educational system reflects the
vicissitude of Chinese society at large of the 20th century.
I.

Introduction to the traditional Chinese education system Traditional education in


China had been closely associated with the recruitment of officials through
examinations, which required extensive knowledge of the Confucian classics. Until
its final abolishment in 1905 the time-honoured Civil Service Examination had
largely determined the scope and content of Chinese education for over one
thousand years.
Content
Most people in the pre-modern days China had a dream, to be an official, that
means a scholar-official one day. Once coming of age if men wanted to climb the
social hierarchy, regardless of ones family background, the only way is to study
the Classics to prepare for the Imperial Civil Service Examinations. For classics it
pertains to the so-called Four Books and the Five Classics ( S-sh W-jng),
which were the mandatory texts for the exam.1 The Four Books ( S sh) are: 1
C.f. Michael Nylan. The Five "Confucian" Classics. New Haven: Yale University
Press. 2001. 1
1. Great Learning, ( D Xu), the name of a chapter in the Classic of Rites ,
2. Doctrine of the Golden Mean ( Zhng Yng), the name of another chapter in
the Classic of Rites,
3. Analects ( Ln Y), a book of concise sayings attributed to Confucius and
recorded by his disciples, and
4. Mencius ( Mng Z), a book of conversations between Mencius and some
kings of his time.
The Five Classics ( W jng) includes:
1. Classic of Changes or I Ching ( Y Jng),
2. Classic of Poetry or The Book of Odes ( Sh Jng),
3. Classic of Rites ( L J), social forms and ceremonies describing ancient rites
and court ceremonies,
4. Classic of History ( Sh Jng), a collection of documents and speeches
written by rulers and officials of the Zhou Dynasty and before, and
5. Spring and Autumn Annals ( Chn Qi, a historical record written by
Confucius from 722 B.C. to 479 B.C. Four Books were the works of Confucius days,
while Five Classics were the works that predated Confucius (551-479 BC). By
Biblical comparison,
Four Books are similar to New Testament and Five Classics are like Old Testament.
Everyday communications and political discussions among the scholar-officials in
the pre-modern days was full of references to this background of knowledge and
one couldn't be regarded as a literati without knowing and quoting from these
texts adequately.
Structure
At the heart of traditional education was the civil service examination (ke-ju ),
2 which was first implemented in Tang Dynasty (618-896AD) and had continued
and changed little over centuries until its final days. The exam provided the
perfect opportunity for defining the Confucian classics as the standard curriculum
within the mechanism of examination, through which the best and brightest
examinees were discovered and selected as state officials. The civil service exam
had remained the exclusive way to government positions until the final years of

Qing Dynasty. About the exam itself, there were three levels of exams taken place
at the county, provincial and national levels. The lowest level, county exams
tested the candidates on their knowledge of the classics. Scholars, who passed the
county level, were granted the title of xiucai (), budding talent. At the
provincial level examinations candidates were tested on the breadth of their
studies in the Classics, and these examinations often last up to seventy-two hours.
A candidate who passed the provincial level exam was rendered the title juren (
) meaning recommended man. Those who had attained the juren status were
eligible for the national level exams held every three years in the capital. Passing
that level of exams then raised an individual to the highest possible level -- that of
jinshi () or the presented scholar. In the national level exams, candidates were
examined on the ability to analyse contemporary political problems in addition to
the usual examinations based on the Classics. By a modern comparison it would
be that the county level xiucai was equivalent to a BA degree, a provincial level
juren was equal to a MA degree, and at the national level jinshi was
tantamount to a PhD nowadays, though the older degrees were much more
precious and harder to obtain. The success rates of these exams were extremely
low, about two percent. All papers written by the candidates were anonymous to
avoid favouritism of the examiners.
Social Impact
The best characteristics of traditional education are examination, conformity and
competition, which probably reflect the educational situation of today. Since
education was largely conditioned by the civil service examination, in which
Confucian classics formed the standard curriculum as well as the official
knowledge of the state, men were more inclined to conform to the social reality if
they wanted to be successful and prosperous in their career (having a right answer
is mostly important). 3 Personal suffering the individuals, who underwent the
exams, both in the preparation and in the taking of these exams has become part
of Chinese intellectual history. Candidates were known to be repeatedly failed in
the exams. Some committed suicide because of the disgrace that these failures
brought to themselves and their families, who supported the candidate both
financially and spiritually. Others continued taking exams even as very old, greyhaired men. However, for those who rose through the ranks by passing these
exams and being selected for administrative positions, it meant that their clans or
families also rose in social prestige and wealth. By the civil service exam,
Confucianism was largely institutionalised as an official ideology. II. Beginning of
modern education in China Things changes at the beginning of 20th century after
the arrival of Western civilization. Though China has since 16th century constant
contact with the West, it was not until the mid-19th century that China had felt its
tradition and civilization being seriously challenged. It was during this period of
time when China was confronted with the most acute challenge from the West in
military, political and economic terms to test its cultural viability. After numerous
military humiliations inflicted by the West powers ever since the mid-19th century,
from Opium War (1842) to Boxer Rebellions (1901), some Chinese intellectuals
began to suspect the superiority of the Chinese culture that it was once taken for
granted. Soon reform-minded intellectuals advocated that Chinese people must
open up to the outside world in order to revitalize China itself. Gradually many
modern Western ideas were being accepted by the Chinese public. And at the
same time China was, in one way or another, to abandon some of its own values
and practices that had been hold dear for centuries, for instance, the foot-binding
on women, inhumane criminal penalty, and even the institution of imperial
monarchy. Among the changes education was seen by many as the means to
overturn this adversity. Educational reform comprised plans to create a national
hierarchical system of schools and the abolition of the traditional civil service
examinations. The latter was argued by some historians as one of the most
revolutionary acts of the 20th century for China, on par with the overthrow of the
dynasty; that is the abolishment of the Civil Service Examination in 1905, which
marked the end of traditional education and the 4 beginning of modern education.

Since the aim of modern education was to spread literacy and learn new scientific
knowledge, therefore it advocated the use of vernacular language instead of the
classical idiom (wenyan ). The classical language had prevented the
emergence of masses of knowledgeable population, which could not have been
accomplished through the traditional education system, which was only aimed to
educate a small minority of literati to run the country. Indeed, the wider change in
attitudes towards education spanned the last years of the Qing Dynasty and early
years of the Republic as the modern form of the school system and curricula had
spread across China since the first decade of 20th century. The national drive for
the new education resulted in a drastic change at the turn of the 20th century
signified not only a drastic change of education in its form, but also it pertains to
the position of Confucian classics which was no longer the only source of standard
and valid knowledge. It was during this time that much modern natural and social
scientific knowledge was brought into China, such as social theories and modern
technology. Henceforward, new education has become the norm of education
setting in China. The new education is in many ways different from the traditional
education. Unlike traditional education where children studied together regardless
of age, the modern system required students grouped together separately in line
with their ages with children of seven years old and older being obliged to enter
schools. The education system was, like the other countries, divided into three
levels; elementary, secondary and high education levels. New school system
adopted largely Westernised subject division of curriculum plus Chinese literature
and language, mostly in vernacular form. The zest for the Western-style school and
knowledge can be illustrated by the instance of overseas study. It was during this
period of time that saw an increasing number of Chinese going studying abroad
mainly to Japan, Europe, and the United States. The first generation of Chinese
studying overseas began from the late 19th century. Students, who went abroad
mainly to receive higher education for a number of years before returning to
China. They had increased sharply during the first decade of 20th century. For
instance, in 1899 Chinese overseas students in Japan numbered only 200, in 1903
it had 1000 and in 1906, the year right after the abolishment of civil service 5
exams, the number had reached 13,000. Like nowadays, Chinese students abroad
in the early 20th century enrolled at many different kinds of schools normal,
military and law schools. Those students in overseas were highly expected, once
finished their studies and returned home country, to save the nation through their
new acquired knowledge ranging from engineering to law and arts. Nationalism
and Education Education in modern time China has never been considered as
merely an individual enterprise of knowledge pursuing. In the early years of the
Republic, Chinese officials, inspired by the examples of Britain, Germany, Japan,
emphasized the importance of an extensive educational system producing a
patriotic, hard-working and united citizenry as a cause of national strengthening.
Thus education was unequivocally afforded with the overarching mission of
national rejuvenation ranging from the issues of public hygiene to democracy to
educate and re-educate the people en mass. After the founding of the Republic in
1911, the goal of searching for modern nationhood had become even more urgent.
The First Conference on National Education under the Republic was convened in
Beijing in July 1912 (under the Ministry of Education, headed by Cai Yuan-pei.) The
conference declared that development and reform of education was the
precondition for the nations revival and the first step toward creating a new
citizenry. In general the new education would cover five fields: military training,
practical skills, moral cultivation, aesthetic education and world outlook. Cai Yuanpei, ( 1868 - 1940) was formerly a jinshi degree holder. In the last years of
the Qing, he had served as an educational official. After studying philosophy in the
University of Leipzig in Germany, he became the provisional Republics Minister of
Education in January 1912. He was later appointed the president of Peking
University in 1917. In April 1928, he became the first president of the Academia
Sinica. Throughout the years he remained a staunch defender of freedom of
intellectual inquiry. Cai proposed the equal importance of five ways of education

and life i.e. moral, epistemic, physical, social, and aesthetic ( de chi
ti qun mei) -- which are still seen as the ultimate objectives of education
today in mainland China and Taiwan. 6 After the Nationalist Party (KMT) had
ascended to power and reunite China and subsequently relocated the capital to
Nanjing in 1928, Sun Yat-sens thought had become the main source of ideology,
where education was thought to enrich the peoples social life, to improve the
standards of living, and thus achieve the nations salvation. It will ultimately serve
the cause of national independence, democracy and economy prosperity and
striving for world peace. Shortly after its inauguration, the KMT government
implemented a compulsory education program with centralized educational
administration and standardized curricula in elementary and secondary schools. In
short for Chinese government the focus on public education was the unshakable
obligation of the government to popularize learning in order to create educated
citizenry. At this stage of history, education is highly related to the idea of
nationalism. The aims of education as promulgated by the government at various
time implied a nationalistic meanings (national power, national unity, national
culture and national sovereignty). Since the establishment of Peoples Republic of
China, education had been undergone bold moves. But some of the goals achieved
under CCP were also the goals that the late Qing Dynasty and Republican
Government had wanted to achieve. Namely, the substantial gain in literary of the
masses of people, the large expansion of education system and nurturing of some
world-class scientists and engineers. III. Cultural legacy and characteristics of
Chinese learners Since history only ended at yesterday, what happened yesterday
for sure has a bearing on today. So what has changed and unchanged since
yesterday? The general attitude toward education that has transcended over time
is that it pertains to pragmatism, equality, national salvation and ultimately moral
perfection. a) Pragmatism One of the characteristics of education in China is that it
carries a strong sense of pragmatism. Although the content of education has
changed considerably before and after the founding of republic, what has
remained intact with Chinese mentality on education is that they have had a sheer
pragmatic view on education and knowledge. During the old days in the country
where poverty and hardship had hit millions of lives, education by means of civil
service exams had turned out to be the means for social upward mobility. Since
the modern days, when the new education has replaced the traditional classical 7
education, education was still to be considered instrumental, however in a
different manner. One of the aims of modern education is to thrive for the wealth
and strength of China as a nation. Pragmatism seems to have re-emerged after the
Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiao-pings famous maxim No matter it is a black or
white cat, the one which can catch mice is a good cat is the latest testimony to
this philosophy of pragmatism. The instrumentalist view that studying is not for
the knowledge sake but to transform ones own or nations destiny, is still a living
motto in contemporary China. Even today in China people are being told that
knowledge can change ones destiny (zhi shi gai bian ming yun ). b)
Equality Equality is a very important aspect in traditional education insofar the
examination system is concerned. One of the legacies of Imperial Examination
System that has a bearing on todays view on education is that it makes the
people believe that individuals, even from the most humble backgrounds, could
rise to great highs through education if they could survive the rigors of study and
examinations. Thats why exam is still a very important part of and integral to
whole system of education. One of the most well-known Confucian maxim on
education is, in teaching there should be no distinction of classes (you jiao wu lei
), has a truly equalitarian spirit. There are two particular meanings to this
maxim. First it means that everybody is entitled to education and thus it advocates
of making education available to all. The second meaning is that education can
make people classless. Since Confucius believes men were born the same, only
practice makes people apart. Hence inherently no one is smarter or dumber than
any other. Education can only diminish and ultimately eradicate the difference

among human beings of different classes. This was also the belief in Maoist China,
where they wanted to make the educated labourer and labourer be educated. c)
National salvation One apparent change of view before and after the Republic is
that the connotation of education has changed. Rather than seeing education as a
means of allowing personal prosperity and social upward mobility, it has taken up
another dimension. The dominant view on education since modern days is that
many saw education as the 8 most important, if not the only, means to build a
strong nation-state resting upon military power and capable of existing in the
world of nations. At least, many believed a modern system of education was
conceived as the most effective means of saving and strengthening the nation. d)
Moral perfection The perennial Confucian ideal on education is to guide people to
pursue moral perfection in realizing the life that performs goodness and
benevolence. Such a Confucian ideal still holds valid nowadays. Confucian also
supposes that moral perfection through self-discipline (xiushen ) is that first
step toward a series of bigger causes. It stands as the primary step of virtue
making followed by family management (qijia ), good governance of the
country (zhiguo ), and finally pacify the world (pingtianxia ), which would
amount to the accomplishment of human being as a moral agent in the Confucian
ideal. In this sense moral perfection is not only intrinsically desirable, but also
carries a strong propensity as means to an end. Education does matter in Chinese
belief. Education has never been an individual business. Parents often have high
expectation of their childrens education. Education in China has always
accompanied a high expectation from the family and parents. Take education
seriously. 9

Education in Ancient India


T h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n i n a n c
i e n t I n d i a i s f a s c i n a t i n g a n d i s r e c o r d e d a n d
c a n b e t r a c k e d t o t h e a n c i e n t e r a . E d u c a t i o n i n a n c
i e n t I n d i a b
e
g
a
n
a
r
o
u
n
d
t
h
e
3
rd
c e n t u r y B . C w i t h e l e m e n t s o f r e l i
g i o u s t r a i n i n g a n d i m p a r t o f
t r a d i t i o n a
l k n o w l e d g e . S a g e s a n d s c h o l a r s i m p a r t
e d e d u c a t i o n o r a l l y . P a l m l e a v e s a n d b a r k s o f
t r e e s w e r e u s e d f o r w r i t i n g .

Gurukula System

Education in ancient indiawas more identifiedwith the Gurukulasystem .

These ancient Hindu schools in India werer e s i d e n t i a l i n n a t u r e w i t h t h e


s i s h y a s o r students living in the same house with theGuru or the teacher .

The students lived together irrespective of their social standing .

B
rahmacharyam

A
n c i e n t i n d i a n s a l l o t t e d a p e r i o d o f t i m e f o r t h e boys exclusively for education .

Through Upanyana, a student was initiated in toB r a h m a c h a r y a m . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d h e


w a s u n d e r complete self discipline and self control .
A
ll sortsof luxuries and pleasures were to be avoided

T h i s p e r i o d w a s c a l l e d a s B r a h m a c h a r y a m w h e r e the students concentrated on


learning varioussubjects.
Subjects Taught

In ancient India, during theVedic periodfrom about1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on
theVedaand later Hindu texts and scriptures.

Vedic education included: proper pronunciation andrecitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar,understanding the
secrets of nature, reasoning includinglogic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for anoccupation.

There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines forvarious conditions or diseases, including fever, cough,baldness, snake bite and
others.
The oldest of theUpanishads- a n o t h e r p a r t o f Hindu scriptures -date from around
500 BC. Thesetexts encouraged an exploratory learning processwhere teachers and
students were co-travellersin asearch for truth.

The teaching methods used reasoning andquestioning.


Twoepic poemsformed part of ancient Indianeducation. TheMahabharata, discusses humangoals.

A
ttempting to explain the relationship of theindividual to society and the world .

The other epic poem,Ramayana, explores themesof human existence and the concept of dharma.
The teacher imparted knowledge of Philosophy,Literature, Warfare, Statecraft,Medicine,
A
strologyand History.

The corpus of Sanskrit literatureencompasses a richtradition of poetry anddramaas well as


technicalscientific,philosophicaland generallyHindureligioustexts, though many central texts
of BuddhismandJainismhave also been composed inSanskrit.
Gurudakshina

Education was free, but students from well-to-do families paid "Gurudakshina," a
voluntarycontribution after the completion of theirstudies.
ducation in the Medieval Period

The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it sawthe flourishing of higher education at Nalanda,
Takshila,Ujjain, & VikramshilaUniversities.
A
rt,
A
rchitecture,Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy,
A
stronomy,Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism,
A
rthashastra(Economics& Politics), Law, and Medicine.

Takshilaspecialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjainlaid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being
the biggestcentre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed upto 10,000 students at its peak.

Education in medieval India expressed a newperspective in the 11


th
century .

T h e m u s l i m e s t a b l i s h e d t h e e l e m e n t a r y a n d secondary schools .

This further let to the commencement of universities like Delhi, Lucknowand


A
llahabad .

There was a fresh interaction between Indian andIslamic traditions in the fields of
knowledge liketheology ,religion , philosophy ,fine arts ,painting,architecture,
mathamatics,medicine andastronomy .

Muslim rulers promoted urban education


bybuilding libraries and literary societies .primaryschools called maktabswere established
andreading writing and basic Islamic prayers weretaught.

Secondary schools called Madrasastaught advanced language skills .

These were setup by sultans nobles and otherinfluential ladies.

a scholars from Madrasawould be eligible for civilservice and to become a judge.

Education in Modern India

The educational system which the Britishintroduced teaching of English language wasgiven
greater emphasis and the study of languages like
A
rabic ,Persian and Sanskritwere left to individual efforts .
O
BJECTIVES

The English introduced modern education

To reduce the expenditure on administration

To encourage the study of English language

To expand market for English goods

To spread Christianity

ccording to Lord Macaulay after receivingmodern education Indians would remain Indiansonly in
their colourwhile their interests, ideas ,morals and Intelligence.

Steps taken by the British to IntroduceWestern Education in India

1784
A
.D.
A
siatic society of Bengal wasfounded by sir .William Jones this societystarted several English Schools
and Colleges .

The missionaries started Wilson College atBombay , Christian College at


Madras,S t , J o h n s C o l l e g e a t
A
gra .

Progressive Indians like RajaramMohan Royalso started colleges where English was taught
Charter act of 1813
A
.D. paved way for settingaside 1 lakhof rupees for promoting theknowledge of modern
sciences.

But sadly this money was not used for manyyears and there was a controversy about themedium of
learning .

Between 1828 and 1835


A
. D . W i l l a m B e n t i n c k along with Lord Macaulay and RajaramMohan Roy encouraged English
learning .
Lord Harding decided that only Indians withEnglish knowledge will be appointed ingovernment
jobs .

Charles Woods despatch-1854


A
.D. enablededucational departments to be established inevery province and universities were
openedat Calcutta Bombay and Madras in 1857
A
.D.
A
tleastone government school in each district

The Raj, often working with local philanthropists,opened 186 universities and colleges of
highereducation by 1911; they enrolled 36,000students. By 1939 the number of institutions
haddoubled and enrollment reached 145,000.

The curriculum followed classical Britishstandards of the sort set by


O
xford andCambridge and stressed English literature andEuropean history.

Nevertheless by the 1920s the student bodieshad become hotbeds of Indian nationalism.

Education in the post Independence era

A
fter independence, education became theresponsibility of the states.

The Central Government's only obligation wasto co-ordinate in technical and highereducation
and specify standards.

This continued till 1976, when the educationbecame a joint responsibility of the state andthe
Centre.

Education inIndiafalls under the control of boththeUnion Governmentand thestates, with


someresponsibilities lying with the Union and thestates having autonomy for others.

The various articles of theIndian Constitutionprovide for education as a fundamental right.Most


universities in India are controlled by theUnion or the State Government.

India has made progress in terms of increasingprimary educationattendance rate


andexpandingliteracyto approximately two thirds of the population.

India's improved education system is oftencited as one of the main contributors to theeconomic rise
of India.

Much of the progress especially in Highereducation, Scientific research has beencredited


to various public institutions.

However, India continues to face sternchallenges. Despite growing investment ineducation, 25% of
its population is stillilliterate; only 15% of Indian students reachhigh school, and just 7%, of the
15% whomake it to high school, graduate.

A
s of 2011 there are 1522 degree-grantingengineering colleges in India with an annualstudent
intake of 582,000,plus 1,244polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000.

However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised overthe quality
of education.

Value based educationis a three folddevelopment of any individual of any genderand age, but most
importantly of a child.Education tries to develop three aspects:physique, mentality and character.

Even though physique and mentality areimportant, they are menaces without the thirdbecause
character is the greatest of these.Education plays a huge role in precisely thisarea.

The failure in academic learning is closelylinked to the failure to nurture values andsensitivity to
others and nature

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