KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FIFTH SEMESTER FINAL REPORT ON

DESIGN, FABRICATION AND TESTING OF SOLAR WATER HEATER BASED ROOM

HEATING SYSTEM
Kushum Dhakal (32066)
Raju Paudel (32088)
Pragati Poudel (32090)
Rishi Raj Tamang (32097)
Supervised by:

Mr. Malesh Shah

Lecturer
31 July 2016

DISSERTATION EVALUATION
Design, Fabrication and Testing of Solar Water Heater Based Room Heating System
By
Kushum Dhakal (32066)
Raju Paudel (32088)
Pragati Poudel (32090)
Rishi Raj Tamang (32097)
This is to certify that I have examined the above Project report and have found that it is complete
and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the thesis examination
committee have been made.

_________________________________________
Mr. Malesh Shah
Project Supervisor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. Hari Dura

Project Co-ordinator
Department of Mechanical Engineering

July 31 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Mr. Malesh Shah, our project supervisor who has been a dedicated
mentor and a constant advisor throughout the year. It was with his supervision and support the
project was completed. We would also like to thank Mr. Hari Dura, our project co-ordinator for
his advices and suggestions on different matters regarding the project.
Our heartfelt gratitude to all the staffs and workers of Kathmandu University Technical Training
Center and Kathmandu University Workshop who have provided their constant help and support
in the technical and fabrication aspects of the project. A special thanks to Mr. Kamal Thapa and
Mr. Bikas Thapa for their guidance in the plumbing required during the course of the project.
Lastly, we would like to thank all our mentors, friends and counterparts for their direct or indirect
suggestions and ideas which has proven to be fruitful to us at some point.

ABSTRACT

Solar energy is a perpetual source of energy which means that it never runs out. Therefore, in the
century when energy consumption is at its utmost but the sources are limited, the researches on
maximum utilization of Solar energy are at its maximum. Keeping in mind the current need of
energy utilization, this project was undertaken with the motive of using the wasted energy of a
Solar Water Heater used in household purposes for room heating purposes.
Under this project, a Solar Flat Plate Collector was insulated and then double glazed to entrap as
much heat as possible. The losses encountered in the Solar Flat Plate Collector was analyzed and
studied through the resistive circuit of the system. The collector was then connected to a storage
tank. The water in the storage tank was circulated back to the Flat Plate Collector in order to
increase efficiency. The heated water was then circulated to the model house and the temperature
rise in the model room was noted in different mass flow rate. Hence, the relation between mass
flow rate and temperature rise in the room was also verified.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
1.1

Background:......................................................................................................................1

1.2

Objectives:........................................................................................................................1

1.3

Scope:................................................................................................................................1

1.4

Limitations:.......................................................................................................................1

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................2

2.1

National scenario of solar energy:.....................................................................................2

2.1.1

Global Solar Radiation in Nepal................................................................................4

2.1.2

Types of Solar Water Heater in Nepal.......................................................................5

2.1.3

Solar Water Heaters distributors in Nepal.................................................................7

2.1.4

Field visit:..................................................................................................................7

2.1.5

Policies regarding Solar Water Heater.......................................................................8

2.2

Solar Water Heating system:.............................................................................................9

2.2.1

Active SWH system:................................................................................................11

2.2.2

Passive SWH system...............................................................................................12

2.3

Liquid Flat Plate Collectors:...........................................................................................13

2.4

Advantages of Solar Water Heater over other Heating Systems:....................................14

2.5

Design criterion for flat plate collectors:........................................................................14

2.5.1

Solar geometry:........................................................................................................14

2.5.2

Important parameters:..............................................................................................16

2.5.3 Solar collector:............................................................................................................18

2.5.4

Storage tank..........................................................................................................20

2.5.5

Expansion tank.......................................................................................................21

2.5.6

Heat exchangers.....................................................................................................21

2.5.7

Heat Transfer Fluid.................................................................................................21

2.5.8

System Piping and fittings.......................................................................................22

2.6

Thermal insulation:.........................................................................................................22

2.7

Glaze-system...................................................................................................................23

2.8

Types of valves............................................................................................................25

2.9

Losses in thermal collectors:.......................................................................................26

CHAPTER THREE: CALCULATIONS, DESIGN AND FABRICATION..................................27

3.1

Governing parameters:....................................................................................................27

3.2

Selection of insulation:....................................................................................................27

3.3

Theoretical calculation:...................................................................................................27

3.3.1

Heat losses:..............................................................................................................31

3.3.2

Heat losses analysis in the double glazed flat plate collectors................................32

3.4

Room heating system:.....................................................................................................37

3.5

Assembly of the solar Water Heater................................................................................39

3.6

Model house:...................................................................................................................40

3.6.1

Material selection of the heat exchanger:................................................................40

3.6.2

Design of the heat exchanger:..................................................................................41

3.7

Connection of the solar collector with the tank and the model house:...........................41

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.........................................................................43

4.1

Temperature of the collector plate:.................................................................................43

4.2

Temperature of water at inlet and outlet of the Solar Flat Plate Collector:.....................43

4.3

Temperature of water at tank hot water outlet:...............................................................44

4.3

Temperature of the model house:....................................................................................44

4.3.1
4.4

Conclusion:..............................................................................................................45

Validation with the theoretical calculations:...................................................................45

4.4.1

Calculation of minor losses:....................................................................................46

4.4.2

Calculation of major losses:.....................................................................................46

4.5

Temperature of water at outlet of model house:..........................................................47

CHAPTER FOUR: TOTAL BUDGET..........................................................................................48

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION...............................................................................................49
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................50
APPENDIX A................................................................................................................................52
APPENDIX B................................................................................................................................53

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1 Flat plate collector with copper fin...................................................................................6
Figure 2 Heat tube collector............................................................................................................6
Figure 3 Solar Water Heater Indian Standard..................................................................................8
Figure 4 Schematic diagram of active SWH system.....................................................................11
Figure 5 Schematic diagram of Passive SWH system...................................................................12
Figure 6 Liquid flat plate collector................................................................................................13
Figure 7 Values of azimuth angle..................................................................................................15
Figure 8 Calculation of Azimuth angle..........................................................................................15
Figure 9 Collector efficiency based on heat removal factor..........................................................18
Figure 10 Minimum distance required between collectors............................................................20
Figure 11 Arrangement for collector combination.........................................................................21
Figure 12 Types of thermal insulation...........................................................................................24
Figure 13 Resistance circuit of unglazed, single and double glazed circuits................................27
Figure 14 Graph of collector temperature vs useful energy..........................................................31
Figure 15 Graph of useful energy vs mass flow rate.....................................................................32
Figure 16 Graph of mass flow rate vs velocity..............................................................................33
Figure 17 Cross section of a double glazed flat plate collector.....................................................34
Figure 18 Heat transfer mechanism of a double glazed flat plate collector..................................35
Figure 19 Thermal network for a two cover flat plate collector (a) in terms of conduction,
convection and radiation (b) in terms of resistances between plates.............................................35
Figure 20 Graph of collector temperature vs. heat loss.................................................................38
Figure 21 Graph of collector temperature vs useful energy..........................................................39
Figure 22 Graph of collector temperature vs. Heat loss for different shape factors......................41
Figure 23 Gantt chart.....................................................................................................................54
Figure 24 Main assembly of the Solar Water Heater based Room Heating System......................55
Figure 25 Bill of materials.............................................................................................................56
Figure 26 Exploded view of Solar Flat Plate Collector.................................................................57
Figure 27 3-D Drawing of Collector Stand...................................................................................58
Figure 28 Part drawing of elbow...................................................................................................60

Figure 29 Part drawing of spherical valve.....................................................................................61

Figure 30 Part drawing of tank......................................................................................................62
Figure 31 Part drawing of the model house...................................................................................63
Figure 32 Glass wool insulation....................................................................................................64
Figure 33 Assembly of the Solar Water Heater.............................................................................65
Figure 34 Experimental setup of the project..................................................................................66
Figure 35 Model house with copper tube heat exchanger arrangement........................................67
Figure 36 PPR Pipe connection by heating machine.....................................................................68
Figure 37 Temperature measurement of collector by Pt-100.........................................................69
Figure 38 Temperature measurement in model house...................................................................69
Y
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Monthly sum global solar radiation for six sites from 2008 to 2012..................................4
Table 2 Monthly mean daily global solar radiation in MJ/m2.........................................................5

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background:

Solar Water Heaters have been a popular thermal energy technology in Nepal. The technology
has gone leaps and bounce from conventional galvanized sheet based flat plate collectors to
copper based expensive put efficient models and most recently tubular and concentrator based
collector. Although, the technology itself has come a long way in improvisation, the application
on the contrary has been mostly restricted to creating hot water for household purpose alone. The
scope of this work lies on the usage of excess heat generated during sunny days to boil the water.
The comfort range for warm water temperature for daily operation is stated in the range of 40 to
60C whereas on most sunny days the solar water heater are studied to produce as high as boiling
water. Hence, the work makes an effort to study the scope of using the extra mostly dumped heat
for room heating purpose using different pumping arrangements.

1.2

Objectives:
1. To design and fabricate Flat Plate Copper-Based Solar Water Heater.
2. Fabrication of Model house to test the room heating arrangements.
3. Quantification of temperature rise in room heating and the compensated temperature
drop it the hot water storage tank.

1.3

Scope:
1. This type of room heating system is a perfect replacement for the conventional
electric and gas heaters.
2. In rural Himalayan regions of Nepal where direct radiation is observed, this room
heating system is useful.
3. This project utilizes the extra heat generated during conventional water heating
system for room heating purposes.

1.4

Limitations:
1. The experimental setup is only designed for day time purposes.
2. The room heating system might be dysfunctional during non-sunny days.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 National scenario of solar energy:
Nepal is a landlocked country, with small span, surrounded three sides by India and one side by
China. Within this small and beautiful setting it possesses diversity in biosphere, climate
(arctic/alpine to tropical) and landscape (lowland 72 m to highest peak 8848 m high above the
sea level). It does not have its own coal and petroleum resources so far and has no access to the
sea/ocean. For the last six years till now fossil fuel prices have hiked an all time-high and the
world is forced into its deepest recession since the Great Depression. Geopolitical events are
driving prices steadily higher. The shortterm risks to political stability and economic activity
posed by the worlds dependence on fossil fuels are again as manifest as its longterm threat to
environmental sustainability. To break this dependency, all the countries in the world need a
clean energy revolution. Such a revolution would enhance global energy security, promote long
term economic growth and tackle environmental challenges such as anthropogenic climate
change. Available literature tells that consumption of petroleum products in Nepal is increasing
wonderfully at the rate of about 10 % per year (Source: NOC, 2011), so the information is not as
fine as it should be.
Solar radiation, one of the major fuel sources, occurs abundantly everywhere and also in Nepal.
Surface incident solar radiation governs/drives the atmospheric circulations, Earth's climate, and
Earth's biosphere naturally. It is also the originator of all other sources of energy that exists on
the face of this earth. Even the most widely used energy resources today like fossil fuels, are an
indirect result of trapped Sun's energy over the time. It runs solar energy devices and generates
electricity as one of the best clean and alternative energies.
In the fiscal year 2008/09 total energy consumption in Nepal was 410,000 TJ. The consumption
coverage data provided by MOF shows 85% coverage by traditional resources (i.e., biomass
energy resources), 14 % by commercial sources (petroleum products-9 %, coal-3 % and grid
electricity- 2 %) and about 1% by alternative sources (biogas, solar power, wind and micro/pico
level hydropower). The average global solar radiation in Nepal varies from 3.6-6.2 kWh/m 2 day,
sun shines for about 300 days a year, the number of sunshine hours amounts almost 2100 hours
per year and average insolation intensity about 4.7 kWhm -2 day-1 (=16.92 MJ/m2day) it is greater
2

than 4.38kWh/m2day (15.8 MJ/m2day) measured by for Lao PDR. Thus, Nepal lies in a favorable
insolation zone in the world even though the data in Nepal was based on one year and few sites
but that of Lao PDR was based on few years and throughout the country. So, a long term and
many sites' solar energy data are required to authenticate this statement.
As to the above consideration the total energy generation potential of the country with total area
147, 181 square kilometers will be 83,000 GWh/day = 18.36 TW with the conjecture of 12%
efficiency of Photo Voltaic (PV) module. This is more than present energy demand (= 13 TW) of
the world. Thus, solar energy with a huge potential to meet many times the present world energy
demand is a best alternative to fossil fuels for more sustainable and reliable energy options.
Readily available solar radiation data is a key to designing and simulation of all solar energy
applications.
The installed capacity of power plants connected to the national grid is 689.3 MW whereas peak
demand of power for the year 2011/12 was 1056.90 MW and projection of power demand for
2012/13 and 2013/14 are 1163.20 MW and 1271.70 MW respectively even though its theoretical,
technical and economical feasible hydropower potential has been estimated at about 83000 MW,
45000 MW and 42000 MW respectively. In the real practice the energy sources are limited in
one hand and on the other hand 1.35 % of population growth rate in Nepal creates further
pressure on extra energy demand. The electricity consumption and the number of consumers
increase at a rate of approximately 9 % per year whereas generation of additional power plant is
almost in stagnant situation and immediate and critical management is also not viable.
Easily available and inextinguishable nature of solar energy resource resides in one of the
imperative places among the various possible alternative energy sources. An accurate data base
of solar radiation at particular places and selected sites are required for the development,
simulations and designing of many solar energy devices/applications and establishment of solar
plants as well.
Under this circumstance and knowing the fact that 52 % of the Nepalese households have no
access to electricity, flourishing of solar irradiance data are essential for the development of
national rural energy programs in general and for the establishment of solar energy technology in
particular. For an extensive investment in these technologies from government and private
3

sectors is not only desirable but it is the ultimate options where there is no viable alternative to
the solar electricity. [1]
2.1.1 Global Solar Radiation in Nepal
According to Journal of the Institute of Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 1, the monthly sum global solar
radiation for Biratnagar (latitude 26.483, longitude 87.266), Lukla (latitude 27.68, longitude
86.73), Kathmandu (latitude 27.7, longitude 86.366), Pokhara (latitude 28.216, longitude
84), Jumla (latitude 29.283, longitude 82.166) and Simikot (latitude 29.97, longitude 81.83)
in MJ/m2 are:

Table 1 Monthly sum global solar radiation for six sites from 2008 to 2012

The monthly mean daily global solar radiation in MJ/m 2day for Biratnagar (latitude 26.483,
longitude 87.266), Lukla (latitude 27.68, longitude 86.73), Kathmandu (latitude 27.7,
longitude 86.366), Pokhara (latitude 28.216, longitude 84), Jumla (latitude 29.283, longitude
82.166) and Simikot (latitude 29.97, longitude 81.83) in MJ/m2 are: [2]

Table 2 Monthly mean daily global solar radiation in MJ/m2

2.1.2 Types of Solar Water Heater in Nepal

2.1.2.1

Copper fin collectors:

Copper Fin Collector is a modern technology that replaces the 1st generation solar water heaters
that use GI pipes to heat water. Black chrome selectively coated copper absorber plates and
copper riser tubes are used in this system to heat the water. The plates absorb heat from the sun
and transfer it to the copper pipes containing water thus bringing a rise in the temperature of the
liquid. In order to preserve the heat energy and to prevent the heat from reflecting back, low iron
tempered glass with high transmittance and low reflectance are used.

Figure 1 Flat plate collector with copper fin

2.1.2.2

Heat tube collector

Heat Tube collectors use glass tubes with copper rods to heat the water. In this heater, the solar
energy heats the copper rods inside glass tubes that have low reflectance, which help to trap the
heat inside. The water is made to run around the rods thus heating them. This type of solar water
heaters is very efficient for freezing prone areas. [3]

Figure 2 Heat tube collector

2.1.3 Solar Water Heaters distributors in Nepal

The following is the list of Solar Water Heater distributors in Nepal:
1. Sun Power Pvt. Ltd.
2. Lama Solar Geyser Workshop
3. N. S. Solar
4. Nilah Water Treatments
5. Niwat Exim Concern
6. Simp Solar Pvt. Ltd.
7. Triveni Solar Water Heater Works
8. Balaju Yantrashala Sanitary Engineering Ltd.
9. Boudha Solar
10. Diamond Solar Water Heater
11. Kalika Sun Solar Water Heater
12. Kathmandu Power Company Pvt. Ltd.
13. Sunpower Pvt. Ltd.
14. ATC Solar Industries
15. Everest Solar Water Heater Industry
16. Solar Energy Works
17. Solar Power & Engineering Works
18. Kirat Solar Water Heater Engineering Works
19. Maharjan Metal Industries
20. Oscar Trade Concern
21. Twenty First Nepal Pvt. Ltd.
2.1.4 Field visit:
In order to research on Solar Thermal policies and technologies in the country, Alternative
Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) was visited on 3 rd January, 2016. Alternative Energy
Promotion Center is an autonomous branch of Ministry of Environment and Population which
deals with the policies and technologies regarding solar energy in Nepal. Recently, AEPC has
come up with a policy which states a compulsory Solar Water Heating System in a household of
more than 10 aanas to promote reduction of energy dependence on fossil fuels. AEPC also
conducts researches and programs based upon the Solar Water Heating System. The researches
and programs conducted by the AEPC was studied and analyzed. The research is fewer in
number in solar thermal field as compared to the solar photovoltaic technology.
2.1.5 Policies regarding Solar Water Heater:
There are no policies or standards as such regarding Solar Water Heater in Nepal. The solar
water heater standards in the neighboring nation India are given as: [4]
7

Figure 3 Solar Water Heater Indian Standard

2.2 Solar Water Heating system:

SWH collectors capture and retain heat from the sun and transfer this heat to a liquid. Solar
thermal heat is trapped using the greenhouse effect, in this case is the ability of a reflective
surface to transmit short wave radiation and reflect long wave radiation. Heat and infrared
radiation (IR) are produced when short wave radiation light hits a collectors absorber, which is
then trapped inside the collector. Fluid, usually water, in contact with the absorber collects the
trapped heat to transfer it to storage.
Two principles govern solar thermal collectors. First, any hot object eventually loses its heat
back to the environment. The efficiency of a solar thermal collector is directly related to heat
8

loss, mainly from convection and radiation. Thermal insulation is used to slow down heat loss
from a hot object to its environment.
Second, heat loss is more rapid if the temperature difference between a hot object and its
environment is larger, in this case between the temperature of the collector surface and the
ambient temperature. (But the same goes for transferring heat from the collector to the fluid, a
larger difference between the collector and the liquid, the more heat is transferred.)
The most basic approach to solar heating of water is to simply put a tank filled with water into
the sun. The heat from the sun would heat the metal tank and the water inside. This was how the
very first SWH systems worked more than a century ago. However, this setup would be
inefficient because there is little to limit the heat loss from the tank. Adding an insulated box
around the tank, and adding glass above the top where the sun comes in would do a lot to retain
heat.
Broadly, Solar Thermal devices are classified into three main types. The most common collectors
are classified as flat plate collector. This technology is utilized as a large, flat surface area
(absorber) to maximize exposure to the sun, and small tubes bonded to it. Fluid runs through the
tubes, collecting the heat from the absorber. The sides and bottom of the collector are wellinsulated, and glass on top completes the insulation.

This is quite simple, but there are some rudimentary technical factors involved in making the
collector as efficient as possible. One is the coating on the absorber, which is specially
formulated to both absorb as much heat as possible, and to radiate back out as little heat as
possible. Another is the glass, which is high-iron and specially coated to let as much light energy
as possible through and to also prevent as much heat loss as possible.
Second categories of collectors are called evacuated tube collector, which is associated with a
long, skinny absorber that is inside a glass tube. The tube has the air evacuated out of it, which
makes it highly insulatednot too different from a thermos used to keep drinks hot.
Lastly, concentrator based collector also known as parabolic dish or tray, which increases heat
potential by concentrating sunlight onto a small absorber. These are very rare in home water
heating systems, and more commonly used in utility-scale systems to create steam which runs
turbines to make electricity or more recently cooking purposes.
The basic components in home solar heating systems include:

Collectors to take the heat from the sun and pass it to a fluid

The heat transfer fluid which takes the heat from the collector for use or storage

Heat exchangers to transfer the heat from the fluid to a homes domestic water.

Pumps to move the fluid through the collector and/or the exchanger, and sometimes to
move the domestic water through the other side of the exchanger.

Controllers to run the pumps when there is collector heat available. [5]

10

2.2.1

Active SWH system:

Figure 4 Schematic diagram of active SWH system

In active SWH, water is circulated forcedly through external source (pumps). The water is
circulated through pump in the solar collector and then stored in hot water storage tank. There
are two basic types of active solar heating systems based on the type of fluid either liquid or air
that is heated in the solar energy collectors. Liquid-based systems heat water or an antifreeze
solution in a "hydronic" collector, whereas air-based systems heat air in an air collector.
Both of these systems collect and absorb solar radiation, then transfer the solar heat directly to
the interior space or to a storage system, from which the heat is distributed. If the system cannot
provide adequate space heating, an auxiliary or back-up system provides the additional heat.
Liquid systems are more often used when storage is included, and they are well suited for radiant
heating systems, boilers with hot water radiators, and even absorption heat pumps and coolers.
Both air and liquid systems can supplement forced air systems.
Solar liquid collectors are most appropriate for central heating. They are the same as those used
in solar domestic water heating systems. Flat-plate collectors are the most common, but
11

evacuated tube and concentrating collectors are also available. In the collector, a heat transfer
fluid such as water, antifreeze (usually non-toxic propylene glycol), or other type of liquid
absorbs the solar heat. At the appropriate time, a controller operates a circulating pump to move
the fluid through the collector.
The liquid flows rapidly through the collectors, so its temperature only increases 5.611C
(1020F) as it moves through the collector. Heating a smaller volume of liquid to a higher
temperature increases heat loss from the collector and decreases the efficiency of the system. The
liquid flows to either a storage tank or a heat exchanger for immediate use. Other system
components include piping, pumps, valves, an expansion tank, a heat exchanger, a storage tank,
and controls.
The flow rate through the collector should be between 0.82 to 1.22 liters per minute per square
foot of collector when water is the heat transfer fluid (0.02 and 0.03 gallons per minute per
square meter of collector). Other flow rates apply for different heat transfer fluids. The total flow
rate, used to size the collector pump, is the product of the above flow rate times the total
collector area. [6]
2.2.2 Passive SWH system

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of Passive SWH system

12

Passive as the name implies involves no moving parts (no any external source required to
circulate the water). Passive solar water heater works on the principle of convection in which hot
water rises and cold water sinks within the tank in a continual process as long as there is sunlight
available. The process is also called Thermosiphon solar water heating. It is less efficient than
the active solar water heating system.

2.3 Liquid Flat Plate Collectors:

Figure 6 Liquid flat plate collector

The basic parts that make up a conventional liquid flat-plate collector are: i) the absorber plate,
ii) the tubes fixed to the absorber plate through which the liquid to be heated flows, iii) the
transparent covers, iv) the insulated container. The main advantage of a flat plate collector is that
it utilizes both the beam and diffuse components of the solar radiation. In addition, because of its
simple and stationary design, it requires little maintenance. Its principle disadvantage is that
because of the absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large. As a
result, the collection efficiency is generally low.
The liquid heated is generally water. However, sometimes mixtures of water and ethylene glycol
are used if ambient temperatures below 0 C are likely to be encountered. The absorber plate is
usually made from a metal sheet ranging in thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm, while the tubes, which
are also of metal, and range in diameter from 1 to 1.5cm. They are soldered, brazed, welded or
pressure bonded to the bottom of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 12 cm. In
some designs, the tubes are bonded to the top or are in-line and integral with the absorber plate.
The metal most commonly aused, both for the absorber plates, and the tubes is copper. Other
13

materials used include aluminum sheets fixed to copper or galvanized steel tubes, and stainless
steel sheets with built-in channels. The header pipes, which lead the water in and out of the
collector and distribute it to the tubes, are made of the same metal as the tubes and are of slightly
larger diameters (2 to 2.5 cm).
Plain or toughened glass of 4 or 5 mm thickness is the most favored material for the transparent
covers. The bottom and sides are usually insulated by mineral wool, rock wool or glass wool
with a covering of aluminum foil and has a thickness ranging from 2.5 to 8 cm. The whole
assembly is contained within a box which is tilted at a suitable angle. The collector box may be
made of aluminum, steel sheet, or fiber glass. [7]

2.4 Advantages of Solar Water Heater over other Heating

Systems:

Solar energy is free and abundant (even in cloudy weather).

Solar thermal panels take up less space than solar PV panels. This is because usually a
typical house would only require 2-3 panels at 2m x 1m each to heat the water in their
home. For solar PV panels a typical array might have 10-16 So homes where the roof
space is compromised or the majority is in the shade, solar thermal panels may be the

most appropriate to install.

They are efficient. Approximately 80% radiation is turned into heat energy.
They are cheaper to install than solar PV panels because only need 2-3 panels is required.
Relatively good payback period, in average between 5-10 years - These systems have low

maintenance costs.
These systems use solar energy which helps reduce our dependence on fossil fuels,
improving our energy security and energy independence in the process by reducing the
need for expensive foreign fuel import.

2.5 Design criterion for flat plate collectors:

2.5.1 Solar geometry:
Azimuth angle: The azimuth is the local angle between the direction of due North and that of
the perpendicular projection of the Sun down onto the horizon line measured clockwise. Thus,
we have the azimuth values:
0 = due North, 90 = due East, 180 = due South, and 270 = due West.
14

Figure 7 Values of azimuth angle

One equation which relates the suns azimuth angle A, at a given location, its angle of elevation
, the current hour angle at the observers latitude and the suns declination angle is:

Figure 8 Calculation of Azimuth angle

15

2.5.1.1

Effect of Tilt, Orientation on Performance of

Thermosyphon Solar Hot Water Systems

Generally the optimum slope for maximum year round energy collection is the latitude angle (i.e.
28 south for KTM, and 30 for Simikot in Humla). However if the system has ample capacity to
meet the summer loads (as is the case in many solar hot water systems) then an inclination that
favours the winter situation, say latitude +15 could be a better alternative. Most solar hot water
units are placed on the most convenient roof space in order to minimize the support costs and
improve the aesthetics.
In the case of the SWH bathing center for Humla (as seen in the pictures underneath), a fixed
absorber angle of 40 south has been chosen, in order to maximize the cold season hot water
generation from October March, where the sun in Dhadhaphaya village (latitude 30 N) has a
solar altitude angle (angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun, i.e. the complement of
the zenith angle) from middle of October till middle of March, during the highest daily
irradiation period from 11:00 AM and 14:00 PM around 50 (50 - 55).
2.5.2 Important parameters:

Flow rate: Volumetric flow rate, (also known as volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow or
volume velocity) is the volume of fluid which passes per unit time; usually represented

by the symbol Q. The SI unit is m3/s (cubic metres per second).

Radiation: Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through some

material or through space. Light, heat and sound are types of radiation.
Overall heat transfer co-efficient: When a body goes through all types of heat transfer
modes, i.e. conduction, convection and radiation, all the heat transfer co-efficient is taken
into account and a new term is calculated which is termed as overall heat transfer coefficient. For a system undergoing convection, conduction and again convection the
overall heat transfer co-efficient is calculated by:
1
1
L
1
=
+
+
UA h1 A KA h2 A

Heat Removal Factor (FR): Heat Removal Factor is a quantity that relates the actual
useful energy gain of a collector to the useful gain if the whole collector surface were at
the fluid inlet temperature. The heat removal factor is a function of the flow rate of the
16

heat transfer fluid. The flow rate for any curve should therefore be specified. [8]

Figure 9 Collector efficiency based on heat removal factor

Useful energy: If I is the intensity of solar radiation, in W/m2, incident on the aperture
plane of the solar collector having a collector surface area of A, m2, then the amount of
solar radiation received by the collector is:
Qi=IA
As the collector absorbs heat its temperature is getting higher than that of the surrounding
and heat is lost to the atmosphere by convection and radiation. The rate of heat loss (Qo)
depends on the collector overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) and the collector
temperature.
Qo=UoA (TcTa)
Thus, the rate of useful energy extracted by the collector (Qu), expressed as a rate of
extraction under steady state conditions, is proportional to the rate of useful energy
absorbed by the collector, less the amount lost by the collector to its surroundings.
This is expressed as follows:

17

Qu=IAUoA (TcTa)

2.5.3

Solar collector:

It is the part of the system which collects the energy. They may be of many types such as
evacuated tube, concentrating, trough or flat plate depending upon the temperature required and
climatic conditions. Most widely used collectors are flat plate type in accordance with IS 12933
2.5.3.1

Collector heat exchanger efficiency factor:

When a heat exchanger is used in the system, the collector heat exchanger efficiency factor FR
shall be substituted for FR to calculate the combined performance of collector and heat
exchanger. The ratio $$ is the correction factor, varying from 0 to 1. F may be determined as a
function of collectors performance, heat exchanger flow rate and heat exchanger effectiveness
as:

Where FR is the solar heat removal factor, dimensionless

UL is the solar collector heat transfer loss co-efficient in Wm-3oC
m is the mass flow rate of the transfer fluid in kg/s,
Cp specific heat of the transfer fluid in J/kgoC,
A is the collector area in m2, and
Cmin smaller of the two fluid capacitance rates in the heat exchanger.

18

2.5.3.2

Collector orientation

Figure 10 Minimum distance required between collectors

Solar collector should always be kept facing due south at an inclination so that it receives
maximum radiation. This inclination depends on the utility pattern of hot water. The optimum
value for inclination of the collector with the horizontal is latitude for year round performance
and latitude + 10 to + 15 for water months and latitude - 10 to - 15 for summer months.
When a row of collectors are mounted, to avoid shading, the minimum distance between the two
collectors ( D ) is given by:

Where is the collector tilt with the horizontal

2.5.3.3

Collector combination (Arrays)

A number of collectors are connected in series/ parallel combination in large systems. The type
of combination and number of collectors in series will depend upon the flow rate, pressure drop
in the system and the temperature desired. Also, the performance characteristics of the collector
should be known.

19

Figure 11 Arrangement for collector combination

2.5.4

Storage tank

The thermal energy storage in solar water heating system is in one or two tanks. It should be such
sized as to store 1.5 to 2 times the average daily hot water usage. The tank capacities are
generally chosen between 40 to 100 litres rn-2 of collector area.
The material used for tank may be copper, steel, aluminum or concrete. But the inner side of the
tank must be of a material which does not contaminate water (if direct system), is non-corrosive,
and stable at maximum operating temperature.
The tank outlet to the collector should be about 10 cm above the tank bottom to prevent scale
deposits from being drawn into the collector. The hot water outlet pipe should be at the top end to
increase stratification in thermosyphon system.

20

The exterior of the tank must be properly insulated so that the hot water temperature does not
decrease by more than 8C in about 16 hours time. Generally thickness of 7-10 cm of fiberglass
or cork insulation is provided.
2.5.5 Expansion tank
The volume change of fluid in closed loop system must be accommodated by an external
expansion tank. The sizing of this tank must account for the variation of density with temperature
for the fluid used in loop. Generally expansion tank is 1/3 to 1/4 of the total volume of storage
tank. The maximum operating temperature of these tanks should be taken as equal to collector
stagnation temperature.
2.5.6 Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are used for protection against freezing, scaling and corrosion. Heat exchanger
selection considers its effectiveness, pressure drop, flow rate and total protection of the potable
water from contamination if the working fluid is toxic. It must be properly insulated and
thermally compatible with system design parameters. Its overall heat transfer co-efficient and
heat transfer area should be large. The exchanger effectiveness is given as:

where Qhx is amount of heat transferred, ( mCP )min is the minimum of the capacitance rate of the
two fluids, Thl is the hot stream inlet temperature and T cl is cold stream inlet temperature.
Generally a heat exchanger effectiveness of 0.7 to 0.8 is recommended. The counter flow heat
exchangers have larger effectiveness compared to immersed coil.
2.5.7 Heat Transfer Fluid
In direct or open loop systems, water is most common fluid. The liquid to be used in solar
systems should have high specific heat, low viscosity, particularly at low temperatures, low
vapor pressure/high boiling point, relatively high surface tension ( to avoid leaks ), high density
and high thermal conductivity to provide efficient heat transfer over a wide range of
temperatures.

21

2.5.8 System Piping and fittings

The material of the pipe must be compatible with the working fluid, its velocity of flow and with
the material of riser tubes in the collector.
The collector array and piping should be properly insulated to avoid heat loss. After insulation
they are covered by aluminum foil to avoid damage to insulation. [9]

2.6 Thermal insulation:

Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between
objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative
influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes,
as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.
Low thermal conductivity (k) materials reduce heat fluxes. The smaller the k value, the larger is
the corresponding thermal resistance (R) value. Thermal conductivity is measured in watts-permeter per kelvin (Wm1K1), represented as k. As the thickness of insulating material increases,
the thermal resistanceor R-valuealso increases.
For a cylinder, the convective thermal resistance is inversely proportional to the surface area and
therefore the radius of the cylinder, while the thermal resistance of a cylindrical shell (the
insulation layer) depends on the ratio between outside and inside radius, not on the radius itself.
Suppose for example that we double the outside radius of a cylinder by applying insulation. We
have added a fixed amount of conductive resistance (equal to ln(2)/(2kL)) but at the same time
we have halved the value of the convective resistance. Because convective resistance tends to
infinity when the radius approaches zero, at small enough radiuses the decrease in convective
resistance will be larger than the added conductive resistance, resulting in lower total resistance.
This implies that adding insulation actually increases the heat transfer, until a critical radius is
reached, at which point the heat transfer is at maximum. Above this critical radius, added
insulation decreases the heat transfer. For insulated cylinders, the critical radius is given by the
equation:
r cr =

k
h
22

This equation shows that the critical radius depends only on the heat transfer coefficient and the
thermal conductivity of the insulation. If the radius of the uninsulated cylinder is larger than the
critical radius for insulation, the addition of any amount of insulation will decrease the heat
transfer.
The list of insulating materials with their comparison is listed below: [10]

Figure 12 Types of thermal insulation

2.7 Glaze-system
Glazing is the cover sheets used in solar flat plate collectors which reduces heat loss to the
surroundings. It lets sunlight pass through to the absorber but insulate the space above the
absorber to prohibit cool air from flowing into this space. The insulated box provides structure
and sealing and reduces heat loss from the back or sides of the collector. The absorber is usually
covered with one or more transparent or translucent cover sheets to reduce convective heat loss.
In the absence of a cover sheet, heat is lost from the absorber as a result of not only forced
convection caused by local wind, but also natural convective air currents created because the
absorber is hotter than ambient air. The cover sheet forms a trapped air space above the absorber,
23

thereby reducing these losses. However, convective loss is not completely eliminated because a
convective current is set up between the absorber and the cover sheet, transferring heat from the
absorber to the cover sheet. External convection then cools the cover sheet, producing a net heat
loss from the absorber. In addition, heat loss is reduced because of the thermal resistance of the
added air space.
No. of covers: The number of cover sheets on commercial flat-plate collectors varies from none
to three or more. Collectors with no cover sheet have high efficiencies when operated at
temperatures very near ambient temperature. This is because incoming energy is not lost by
absorption or reflection by the cover sheet. When no cover sheet is used, however, a considerable
amount of the incident energy is lost during operation at temperatures much above ambient or at
low solar irradiance levels. A typical application for an uncovered flat-plate collector is for
swimming pool heating, where temperatures less than 10C (18F) above ambient are required.
Increases in the number of cover-sheets increases the temperature at which the collector can
operate (or permits a given temperature to be reached at lower solar irradiance). One or two
cover sheets are common, but triple glazed collectors have been designed for extreme climates.
In addition to the added expense, each added cover sheet increases the collection efficiency at
high temperature by reducing convection loss but decreases the efficiency at low temperatures
because of the added absorption and reflectance of the cover.
In regions of average mid-latitude temperatures and solar radiation, collectors with no glazing
are generally used for applications to 32C (90F), single-glazed collectors are used for
applications to 70C (158 F), and double-glazing is used in applications above 70C (158F).
Collector efficiency also increases with increasing solar irradiance level but decreases with
increasing operating temperature. In regions of low average solar irradiance or extremely low
temperatures, therefore, double-glazed collectors are used in applications where single-glazed
collectors should be used normally and single-glazed collectors for unglazed applications. Also,
selective absorber surfaces become more worthwhile. [11]
S Solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate
Q Heat transferred from the absorber plate to the fluid in the collector
Ta Ambient temperature
24

Tp Temperature of the absorber plate

c Convection heat transfer
r Radiation heat transfer
k Conduction heat transfer

Figure 13 Resistance circuit of unglazed, single and double glazed circuits

2.8

Types of valves

The major types of valves are listed below:

2.8.1 Multi-turn valve (linear motion valves):
The closure member has a linear displacement generally by turning its threaded stem several
times. This operation is slow, but it gives accuracy and stability to position the closure member,
which is necessary in some control valves. Types of valves: Gate valve, Globe valve, Fixed cone
valve, Needle valve and Pinch valve.
25

2.8.2 Quarter-turn valve (rotary valve)

The closure member as well its shaft turn 0-90; from the fully-open position to the fully-closed
position. They are quick opening/closure valves. Types of valves: Ball valve, Butterfly valve,
Plug valve, Spherical valve.

2.9

Losses in thermal collectors:

Losses occur from the collector by several mechanisms. Heat is lost from the plate to the cover
(s1 by radiation-and convection, and from the top cover to the outside air by radiation and
convection, but in different proportions. Heat losses through the insulated back and sides of the
collector occur by conduction. Detailed methods of calculating all of these losses are described
in Solar Energy Thermal Processes. Collectors should be designed so that all of these losses are
as small as practical.
The product of the collector overall energy loss coefficient, UL, and the temperature difference
(Tl-T,), represents the energy losses from the collector plate if it were all at the inlet fluid
temperature. The collector plate will be at a higher temperature than the inlet fluid temperature
when useful energy is being collected. This is necessary in order for heat to be transferred- from;
the plate to the fluid. As a result, actual collector energy losses are higher than the product of UL
and (Ti-T,). The difference is accounted for by the heat removal efficiency factor, FR. The
overall energy loss coefficient, UL, Is the sum of the loss coefficients corresponding to the top,
bottom, and edge losses of the collector. For a well-designed collector, the sum of the bottom and
edge loss coefficients Is typically about 0.5 to 0.75 W/C per square meter of collector (2.8 to 4.2
BTU/hr-F per square foot of collector). The top loss coefficient is a function of the absorber plate
temperature, the number of transparent covers, the cover material, and the thermal (Infrared)
emittance

of

the

absorber

plate,

the

ambient

26

temperature,

and

the

windspeed.

CHAPTER THREE: CALCULATIONS, DESIGN AND FABRICATION

3.1 Governing parameters:
Due to economic constraint, pre-fabricated components of the solar flat plate collector were
used. Therefore, design and calculations was to be done taking those components in account. The
constant parameters are listed below:

Area of the flat plate collector: 2m2

No. of risers/runners in the flat plate collector: 8
Diameter of the inlet and exit pipe:

The parameters to be determined after the designing are:

Mass flow rate

Useful energy
Temperature of the inlet and outlet
Maximum area that can be heated with the obtained useful energy

3.2 Selection of insulation:

Among the various types of thermal insulating materials discussed in section 2.6 the following
insulations were used:

Styrofoam was selected because of its reasonable R value, i.e. 5C/W per inch, low cost
and availability in the market.
Thickness of the Styrofoam used: 2
Glass wool
Thickness of glass wool used:

3.3 Theoretical calculation:

The theoretical calculations without the consideration of heat loss to the surrounding from the
flat plate collector are as follows:
If I is the intensity of solar radiation, in W/m2, incident on the aperture plane of the solar
collector having a collector surface area of A, m2, then the amount of solar radiation received by
the collector is:
27

Qi=IA
As the collector absorbs heat its temperature is getting higher than that of the surrounding and
heat is lost to the atmosphere by convection and radiation. The rate of heat loss (Q o) depends on
the collector overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) and the collector temperature.
Qo=UoA (TcTa)

Thus, the rate of useful energy extracted by the collector (Qu), expressed as a rate of extraction
under steady state conditions, is proportional to the rate of useful energy absorbed by the
collector, less the amount lost by the collector to its surroundings.
This is expressed as follows:
Qu=UoA (TcTa)
Now, for the experimental setup,
Intensity of solar radiation, I = 777.2 W/m2
Area of the collector, A = 2m2
Ambient temperature, Ta = 20C
Varying the collector temperature from 70C to 100C, the values of useful energy is observed.

Collector

Useful energy(W)
28

temperature(C)
70
75
80
85
90
95

74.54
65.54
66.54
57.54
48.54
39.54

100

20.54

Graphically,
80
70
60
50
Useful energy (W)

40
30

Ideal energy

20
10
0
60 70 80 90 100 110
Collector temperature (C)

Figure 14 Graph of collector temperature vs useful energy

The useful energy obtained was used for designing of the mass flow rate of the fluid. The
formula is expressed as follows:
Qu=mcp(TcTa)
Useful energy(W)
74.54
65.54
66.54
57.54
48.54

Mass flow rate(kg/s)

1.419809524
1.215757576
1.056190476
0.843076923
0.660408163
29

39.54
20.54

0.502095238
0.24452381

Graphically,
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Mass flow rate (kg/s)

0.8
0.6

Mass flow rate

0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80
Useful energy (W)

Figure 15 Graph of useful energy vs mass flow rate

The mass flow rate gives the velocity in three different pipe diameters, 1, 1.5 and 2.
m=VA

, where = density of water, V = velocity of fluid, A = Area of the pipe

30

Mass flow
rate(kg/s)
1.419809524
1.215757576
1.056190476
0.843076923
0.660408163
0.502095238
0.24452381

Velocity(m/s)
0.050081465
0.042883865
0.037255396
0.029738163
0.023294821
0.01771059
0.008625178

Graphically,
0.06
0.05
0.04
velocity (m/s)

0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Figure 16 Graph of mass flow rate vs velocity

3.3.1 Heat losses:

The Heat Losses are a function of:

The area of the heated surfaces: Larger the area of the heated surfaces, higher is the heat
loss.
31

The design of the collector (insulation levels, use of covers, use of vacuums etc):
Materials with high insulation capacity provides better resistance for heat loss. Similarly,
double and triple glazed glasses reduce heat loss in a significant amount in comparison to

single glazed glass.

The temperature of the absorbing surface: Higher the temperature of the absorbing

surface, higher is the heat transfer.

The flow rate of the fluid in the collector: Higher the flow rate of the fluid in the

collector, lower is the heat losses.

The ambient conditions (e.g. temperature and wind speed)

3.3.2 Heat losses analysis in the double glazed flat plate collectors

Figure 17 Cross section of a double glazed flat plate collector

To evaluate the heat loss through the cover systems, all of the convection and radiation heat
transfer mechanisms between parallel plates and between the plate and the sky must be
considered as shown in Figures 17, 18 and 19. In this study the net radiation method is applied to
obtain the expression for the heat loss for the general cover system of flat-plate solar collectors.

32

Figure 18 Heat transfer mechanism of a double glazed flat plate collector

3.3.2.1

Calculation of heat loss co-efficient:

The top loss co-efficient is evaluated by considering convection and re-radiation losses from the
absorber plate in the upward direction.
Upward heat loss from the absorber plate to the first glass cover is given by,
Qt = (hcpg1+ hrpg1) (TP Tg1)
From the first glass cover to the second glass cover by,
Qt = (hcg1g2 + rhg1g2) (Tg1 Tg2)
and from the second glass cover to the atmosphere by ,
Qt = (hw + hrg2a) (Tg2 Ta)

Figure 19 Thermal network for a two cover flat plate collector (a) in terms of conduction, convection and radiation (b) in
terms of resistances between plates.

33

Calculation of top heat co-efficients:

Between Plate and First Glass cover Upg1,
Upg1 = hcpg1 + hrpg1
Between first glass cover and second glass cover Ug1g2
Ug1g2 = hcglg2 + hrglg2
Between second glass cover and ambient air Ug2a
Ug2a = hw + hrg2a
And top heat loss coefficients may be given as:

-1

-1

-1

Ut = (hcpg1 + hrpg1) + (hcglg2 + hrglg2) + (hw + hrg2a) +

2 Lg
Kg

Where Lg = Thickness of the glass cover

Kg = Thermal conductivity of glass
Now, top heat transfer loss coefficient can be calculated as
U = Ut + Ub + Us
34

Where Ub =

k
L1

and Us = 0 as side heat loss coefficient is assumed to be constant.

For the following data:

Variables
Ambient Temperature (Ta)
Absorber Plate temperature (Tp)
Heat transfer co-efficient of air (hw)
Emissivity of absorber plate (p)
Emissivity of glass (g)
Thickness of first glass cover (Lg1)
Thickness of second glass cover (Lg2)
Space between absorber plate and first glass

Range
293K
343K to 373K
5-25 W/m2K
0.9
0.88
0.004m
0.004m
0.012m

cover (L1)
Space between first and second glass cover

0.012m

(L2)

For L1 = 0.012 m; L2 = 0.012 m; Tp = 373:1:423K; Ta = 293K; hw =5 w/m2-K

Varying collector temperature,
Tp

Ut
343 0.37915

Up
0.3805

Heat loss
U
W)
0.75965
3.0386

348

0.38912

0.3907

0.77982

3.50919

353

0.40015

0.40158

0.80173

4.00865

358

0.41171

0.41318

0.82489 4.536895

363

0.42384

0.4253

0.84914

5.09484

368
373

0.43647
0.44682

0.43793
0.44678

0.8744
0.8936

5.6836
6.2552

Graphically,

35

7
6
5
4
Heat loss (W) 3

Heat loss

2
1
0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100105
Collector temperature (C)

Figure 20 Graph of collector temperature vs. heat loss

Now,
Useful energy
(ideal) (W)
70

Real useful
energy(W)
74.54
71.5014

75

70.21

66.70081

80

66.54

62.53135

85

57.54

53.003105

90

48.54

43.44516

95

39.54

33.8564

100

20.54

14.2848

Tp

Graphically,

36

80
70
60
50
Useful energy (W)

40
Ideal energy

30

Real energy

20
10
0
60

70

80

90 100 110

Collector temperature (C)

Figure 21 Graph of collector temperature vs useful energy

3.4 Room heating system:

Theoretically, if the temperature of the collector is varied form 70-100C and if the comfortable
range of bathing temperature is 50C, then the amount of heat lost to the room i.e. the amount of
energy available for heating the room is a obviously a function of temperature difference. The
heat transfer also depends on the conduction shape factor which is the function of the geometry
of the surface.
The heat transfer is given by:
Q=kS(T 1T 2)
Where
k= Thermal conductivity of the material
S = Shape factor

37

The heat transfer should be such that the outlet temperature i.e. temperature with which the water
exits the room must be around 50C. Therefore, the temperature difference cannot be taken into a
design parameter consideration. The heat transfer now depends upon the shape factor of the pipe.
Therefore, the geometry and arrangement of the pipe plays a great role in heat transfer.
The graph for collector temperature vs heat transfer to the surroundings for different shape
factors is expressed as:
Taking the dimensions of the room as (2*2*2) m3
For isothermal cylinder of length L buried in semi-infinite medium (L>>D, z>1.5D)

S=

2 L
4z
ln ( )
D

Length, L = 2m
Distance from the semi-infinite medium (air) = 2m
Diameter, D = 0.0127m (1/2)
S1 = 1.94
For vertical isothermal cylinder of length L buried in a semi-infinite medium,
S=

2 L
4L
ln (
)
D

S2 = 1.94
For two parallel isothermal cylinders placed in an infinite medium
S=

2 L
4 z2 D12D 22
cosh1
2 D1 D 2

S3 = 1.09
38

39

Collector
temperat
ure
70

Heat loss for S1

63.244

Heat loss for Heat loss for

S2
S3
63.244
35.34

75
80
85
90
95
100

79.055
94.866
110.677
126.488
142.299
158.11

79.055
94.866
110.77
126.488
142.299
158.11

44.175
53.01
62.845
71.68
79.515
88.35

Graphically,
180
160
140
120
100
Heat loss

Heat loss for S1

80

Heat loss for S2

60

Heat loss for S3

40
20
0
60

80

100 120

Collector temperature

Figure 22 Graph of collector temperature vs. Heat loss for different shape factors

3.5 Assembly of the solar Water Heater

First of all, the pre used water heater base was cleaned and made free from rust and other

foreign particles.
Then, the insulation selection was done. Styrofoam (2) and glass wool insulation (1/2)

were selected for insulation.

The water heater base was then insulated.
40

The flat plate collector of area 2m2 was attached.

The flat plate collector was then double glazed completing the assembly of the solar

water heater.
The double glazed solar collector was made water and air-proof with the help of rubber

tubes and silicon glue.

The solar water heater was connected to the tank with the help of PVR (Poly Propylene
Random Co-polymer) pipes.

3.6 Model house:

A model house of pre-existing area 60*60 cm 2 was taken. The model houses of different areas
couldnt be fabricated as planned because of financial restriction of the project, the price of
plywood of at least 12mm thickness being very high.
The heat exchanger was then designed.
3.6.1 Material selection of the heat exchanger:
Copper was selected as the material because of the following reasons:
3.6.1.1

Thermal conductivity:

Thermal conductivity (k, also denoted as or ) is a measure of a material's ability to conduct

heat. Heat transfer across materials of high thermal conductivity occurs at a higher rate than
across materials of low thermal conductivity. In the International System of Units (SI), thermal
conductivity is measured in watts per meter Kelvin (W/(mK)). In the Imperial System of
Measurement (British Imperial, or Imperial units), thermal conductivity is measured in Btu/
(hrftF).
Copper has a thermal conductivity of 401W/mk. This is higher than all other metals except
silver, a precious metal. Copper has a 60% better thermal conductivity rating than aluminum and
a 3,000% better rating than stainless steel.
3.6.1.2

Corrosion resistance:

Corrosion resistance is essential in heat transfer applications where fluids are involved, such as
in hot water tanks, radiators, etc. The only affordable material that has similar corrosion
resistance to copper is stainless steel. However, the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is

41

1/30th that of copper. Aluminium tubes are not suitable for potable or untreated water
applications because it corrodes at pH<7.0 and releases hydrogen gas.
3.6.1.3

Biofouling resistance:

Copper and copper-nickel alloys have a high natural resistance to biofouling relative to
alternative materials. Other metals used in heat exchangers, such as steel, titanium and
aluminium, foul readily.
3.6.1.4

Antimicrobal properties:

Due to coppers strong antimicrobial properties, copper fins can inhibit bacterial, fungal and viral
growths that commonly build up in air conditioning systems. Hence, the surfaces of copperbased heat exchangers are cleaner for longer periods of time than heat exchangers made from
other metals. This benefit offers a greatly expanded heat exchanger service life and contributes to
improved air quality.
3.6.2 Design of the heat exchanger:
The design of the heat exchanger is shown in the Appendix section.
Two 1 diameter and 20 length horizontal copper tubes were drilled in which four 0.5 diameter
and 25 length copper tubes were fitted through brazing. Out of the four holes of the two large
diameter copper pipes, one was the inlet, the other outlet and the remaining two were sealed with
the help of a wooden cork. The system was designed for each wall making four systems in total.
The systems were connected with each other with the help of plastic pipes because of its
flexibility.
Initially, the pipe was designed to bend with a complete U-section which would decrease losses
in the system. But when the pipe was bended, crack propagation was encountered which
discarded this design of the pipe. The whole system was then fitted in the model house.

3.7 Connection of the solar collector with the tank and the
model house:
The detailed connection of the entire system is as shown in the figure in the Appendix.

42

First of all, the solar collector was connected with the external system to introduce working fluid
which is water into the system. The solar collector was then connected with the tank. The water
in the tank is re-circulated to the solar collector to ensure a high efficiency i.e. a high temperature
raise.
In the tank,
Cold water inlet Connection from solar collector
Cold water outlet Connected to solar collector
Hot water inlet Connection from solar collector (The valve is open only when water is recirculated for required number of times)
Hot water outlet Connected to the model house
The pipe used in the connection was PPR pipe because:

It is double insulated which ensures no heat loss.

It reduces the cost of handling, transportation and installation.
It is rust resistant.
Due to less friction it saves the energy of conveyance.
Smooth internal surface of the pipes offer less friction.

43

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Temperature of the collector plate:
Four probes were connected to the collector plate from which temperature was noted. PT-100
was used through which resistance was noted and with the help of resistance-temperature chart,
the temperature in each collector plate was calculated. The time interval of successive reading
was taken to be 10 minutes.
Probe 1
85.3
82.3
86.6
80.1
80.4
83.4

Probe 2
84.6
81.6
87.3
79.9
80.8
83.6

Probe 3
83.4
83.4
88.4
81.3
81.2
83.5

Probe 4
86.3
80.2
85.3
80.6
81.6
82.5

The average value of the flat plate absorber was found to be 83C. The maximum value of
collector plate was not obtained because of limited Solar radiation due to the monsoon weather
going on.

4.2 Temperature of water at inlet and outlet of the Solar Flat

Plate Collector:
The temperature was recorded from 12:00-2:00pm under an interval of 20 minutes. The recorded
temperature is at the final circulation of water at the flat plate collector.
Inlet
Outlet
22.3
45.3
24.6
48.6
23.1
52.3
23.1
54.1
20.9
54.5
22.8
54.6
The average temperature difference is: 28.76C

Temperature difference
23
24
29.2
31
33.6
31.8

44

4.3 Temperature of water at tank hot water outlet:

The temperature of water was noted at the tank water outlet by a temperature probe in the similar
manner as stated above.
Temperature of the water at tank oulet
55.3
66.3
68.4
68.5
69.3
70.1

4.3 Temperature of the model house:

Initial temperature was found to be: 30C
The final temperature was noted in different mass flow rate in an interval of 10 minutes.
Mass flow rate 1: 0.47kg/s (Maximum flow rate)
Temperature recorded
35.5
36.1
38.3
39.2
39.6
39.8
Mass flow rate 2: 0.31 kg/s
Temperature recorded
36.1
37.2
38.4
39.6
40.1
40.2
Mass flow rate 3: 0.15kg/s
Temperature recorded
38.3
45

39
39.2
40.3
41.2
41.6
4.3.1 Conclusion:
Hence, from these data it can be concluded that mass flow rate is inversely proportional to the
temperature rise in the system for a constant useful energy.

4.4 Validation with the theoretical calculations:

For 80C, the mass flow rate was theoretically calculated as 1.05kg/s which is the maximum
mass flow rate. Experimentally, it was found that the maximum mass flow rate to be 0.47kg/s.
The difference in the mass flow rate was due to losses encountered in the collector plate system
and the storage tank.
The useful energy of the system is calculated as:
Mass flow rate, m= 0.47kg/s
Area of the collector,A = 2m2
Constant pressure heat co-efficient, Cp = 1.05J/kgC
Temperature difference, dT = 28.76C
Q=m
c p dT
Therefore the heat gained by water was found to be: 28.38W which is comparable to the
theoretical value as shown Figure 15.
Calculation of efficiency:
Efficiency of the Collector Plate =

Actual useful gain

X 100
Theoretical useful gain

Actual useful gain = 28.38W

46

Theoretical useful gain=66.54W for collector temperature 80C.

Hence, the efficiency was calculated as: 42.65%
4.4.1 Calculation of minor losses:
Number of elbows: 9
Number of Tee joint: 2
Number of spherical valve: 4
Minor loss co-efficient of elbow: 0.3
Minor loss co-efficient of Tee joint: 1.0
Minor loss co-efficient of spherical valve: 0.15
2

Loss =

v
2g

Where k=loss co-efficient

The velocity was noted to be 0.015m/s
Now, Loss from elbow: 9*0.3*(0.0152/2*9.81) =0.00003096m
Loss from tee-joint: 2*1*(0.0152/2*9.81) = 0.000022935m
Loss from spherical valve: 4*0.15*(0.0152/2*9.81) = 0.000000688m
Total minor losses: (0.00003096+0.000022935+0.0000000688)m = 0.00006077m = 0.06077mm
4.4.2 Calculation of major losses:
Friction factor for PPR pipe,f : 0.007
Total length of the pipe: 7.5m
Diameter of the PPR pipe: 0.0254m

47

Head loss=

4 fL V
2 gD

Therefore the major head loss was calculated to be: 0.09481mm

The total loss= Major loss + Minor loss = 0.155mm
In terms of pressure, the total loss is 1.52055 Pa.
In terms of power the total loss is 1.429 W.
4.5

Temperature of water at outlet of model house:

The temperature of water at outlet of the model house was noted as follows:
At mass flow rate 0.15 kg/s
42.3
41.1
40.2
40.4
40.8

At mass flow rate 0.31 kg/s

44.6
44.3
42.1
43.5
41.6

At mass flow rate 0.47 kg/s

47.1
46.3
45.2
45.4
43.6

Therefore, the range of temperature of the water at the outlet of the model house is seen to be
higher at high mass flow rate. Therefore, mass flow rate needs to be adjusted according to the
need of the user at the time. If high temperature rise at the room is required, the mass flow rate
must be made low and if the temperature of the water at outlet of the model house is desired to
be high, high mass flow rate must be made high.

48

CHAPTER FOUR: TOTAL BUDGET

Item
Open socket
1 male socket
1 female socket
1 elbow
1 T-joint
1*1/2 Reducer
Brazing
Styrofoam
M.Seal
Total

Quantity
4
2
4
2
2
2

Cost (Rs.)
500/1000/2000/200/200/200/3500/2000/200/9800/-

10
4

49

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

Hence, the literature survey on topics such as different types of National scenario of Solar
Energy, Solar Water Heating, Solar collectors, different components of the solar collectors,
design criterion of the solar flat plate collectors, policies regarding solar water heaters, types of
valve and the conventional room heating systems was performed. Using the heat transfer and
fluid mechanics equations, the required mass flow rate for various collector temperatures was
calculated with and without considering the heat losses pertaining in the system. A system
design of the experimental setup was also designed using Solid Works. Assembly of the Double
Glazed Solar Water Heater was completed.
The Solar Water Heater was connected to the tank from where water was re-circulated in the flat
plate collector to increase efficiency. The storage tank was then connected to the model house in
which hot water was circulated. The difference in temperature of the room before and after the
circulation was noted to be from 5-10C. The temperature of water from the outlet of the model
house was found to be 40-45C.
Due to financial restrictions, different model houses couldnt be fabricated as the cost of
plywood required for fabrication was very high. The temperature difference in the room before
and after water circulation was comparatively low because of the rainy, cloudy and non-sunny
weather since past three weeks.
Further improvements in the system can be implemented by connecting a heat storage in the
system so that it can overcome the limitations of non-sunny and night time. Testing can also be
done in different model houses so as to analyze and conclude the best possible area for given
useful energy. The solar flat plate collector can be triple glazed so as to ensure better efficiency.

50

REFERENCES

[1]

"Solar Energy Potential in Nepal," [Online]. Available:

http://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JIE/article/viewFile/10675/8657. [Accessed January
2016].

[2]

S. G. B. K. B. Krishna R. Adhikari, "Solar Energy Potential in Nepal and Global

Context," vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 95-106, 2012.

[3]

"Solar Water Heater," [Online]. Available: http://nepalsolar.com/products.php. [Accessed

February 2016].

[4]

"IS 12933-1 (2003): Solar Flat Plate Collector, Part 1:," MED 4: Non-Conventional
Energy Sources, p. 11, 2003.

[5]

"Solar water heating system," [Online]. Available:

http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-water-heating/basics/what-solar-water-heating.
[Accessed October 2015].

[6]

"Active solar water heating system," [Online]. Available:

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/L/AE_liquidbased_active_solar_heating.html. [Accessed October 2015].

[7]

S. P. Sukhatme, in Solar Energy: Principles of thermal collection and storage, New

Delhi, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 1984, p. 410.

[8]

"Heat Removal Factor," [Online]. Available:

http://www.energy.kth.se/compedu/webcompedu/WebHelp/S9_Renewable_Energy/B5_S
olar_Energy/C3_Advanced_Solar_Thermal/ID107_files/Heat_Removal_Factor.htm.
[Accessed January 2016].

[9]

G. o. India, " Solar water heating systems- Code of practice," [MED 4: Non-Conventional
Energy Sources], p. 17, 1990.

[10]

"Thermal insulation," [Online]. Available:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5013e/y5013e08.htm. [Accessed February 2016].
51

[11]

"Glaze," [Online]. Available:

http://www.powerfromthesun.net/Book/chapter06/chapter06.html. [Accessed February
2016].

52

APPENDIX A

Figure 23 Gantt chart

53

APPENDIX B

Figure 24 Main assembly of the Solar Water Heater based Room Heating System

54

Figure 25 Bill of materials

55

Figure 26 Exploded view of Solar Flat Plate Collector

56

57

Figure 27 3-D Drawing of Collector Stand

58

59

Figure 28 Part drawing of elbow

60

Figure 29 Part drawing of spherical valve

61

Figure 30 Part drawing of tank

62

Figure 31 Part drawing of the model house

63

Figure 32 Glass wool insulation

64

65

Figure 33 Assembly of the Solar Water Heater

Figure 34 Experimental setup of the project

66

67

Figure 35 Model house with copper tube heat exchanger arrangement

Figure 36 PPR Pipe connection by heating machine

68

Figure 37 Temperature measurement of collector by Pt-100

Figure 38 Temperature measurement in model house

69