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LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy is one of the basic laws


of physics
and therefore governs the microscopic motion of individual
atoms in a chemical reaction. The law of conservation
energy states:
In a closed system, i.e., a system that isolated from
its surroundings, the total energy of the system is
conserved.

KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has


motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal motion - has
kinetic energy. There are many forms of kinetic energy vibrational (the energy due to vibrational motion),
rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and
translational (the energy due to motion from one location
to another). To keep matters simple, we will focus upon
translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational
kinetic energy (from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will
refer to translational kinetic energy) that an object has
depends upon two variables: the mass (m) of the object
and the speed (v) of the object. The following equation is
used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.

2. If the roller coaster car in the above problem were


moving with twice the speed, then what would be its new
kinetic energy?
If the speed is doubled, then the KE is quadrupled. Thus,
KE = 4 * (1.04653 x 105 J) = 4.19 x 105 Joules.
or
KE = 0.5*m*v2
KE = 0.5*625 kg*(36.6 m/s)2
KE = 4.19 x 105 Joules
3. Missy Diwater, the former platform diver for the Ringling
Brother's Circus, had a kinetic energy of 12 000 J just prior
to hitting the bucket of water. If Missy's mass is 40 kg, then
what is her speed?
KE = 0.5*m*v2
12 000 J = (0.5) * (40 kg) * v2
300 J = (0.5) * v2
600 J = v2
v = 24.5 m/s
4. A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has
approximately 320 000 Joules of kinetic energy. Estimate its
new kinetic energy if it is moving at 30 mi/hr. (HINT: use the
kinetic energy equation as a "guide to thinking.")

KE = 0.5 m v2

where m = mass of object


v = speed of object
This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is
directly proportional to the square of its speed. That means
that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will
increase by a factor of four. For a threefold increase in
speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of nine.
And for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will
increase by a factor of sixteen. The kinetic energy is
dependent upon the square of the speed. As it is often said,
an equation is not merely a recipe for algebraic problem
solving, but also a guide to thinking about the relationship
between quantities.
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a
direction.
Unlike velocity, acceleration, force,
and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is
completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and
potential energy, the standard metric unit of measurement
for kinetic energy is the Joule. As might be implied by the
above equation, 1 Joule is equivalent to 1 kg*(m/s)^2.

1 Joule = 1 kg m2/s2

We Would Like to Suggest ...


How does a car's speed (and thus its kinetic energy) affect
the distance that would be required for it to brake to a
stop? Interact, Explore, and Learn the answer to this
question with our Stopping Distance Interactive. You can
find it in the Physics Interactives section of our website.
The Stopping Distance Interactive allows a learner to
explore the effect of speed upon the stopping distance of a
toy car.
1. Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster
car that is moving with a speed of 18.3 m/s.
ANSWER:
KE = 0.5*m*v2
KE = (0.5) * (625 kg) * (18.3 m/s)2
KE = 1.05 x105 Joules

KE = 80 000 J
The KE is directly related to the square of the speed. If the
speed is reduced by a factor of 2 (as in from 60 mi/hr to 30
mi/hr) then the KE will be reduced by a factor of 4. Thus,
the new KE is (320 000 J)/4 or 80 000 J.

FORMS OF KINETIC ENERGY


The energy that an object has due to its motion is called
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy comes in many different
forms. However, three of them are most common.

Translational kinetic energy

Rotational kinetic energy

Vibrational kinetic energy

Translational kinetic energy


In mathematics and physics, the word translates means
move from one place to another place. Translational
kinetic energy is the kinetic energy an object has due to its
motion in a straight line from one from one place to
another place.
Train moving on a track, any object freely falling due to
gravity, driving a car on the road, motion of bullet fired
from a gun and expanding of galaxies are some examples
of translational kinetic energy.
The translational kinetic energy can be mathematically
written as

KE = kinetic energy of an object


m = mass of an of an object
v = velocity of an object

Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy. Here are some
examples:

Visible light

X-rays

Gamma rays

Black lights

Sunshine or solar energy

Radio waves

An electric toaster as heat travels from the heating


element to the bread

Heat that comes from an incandescent light bulb

Headlights on an automobile

Radiant heating systems

Solar cells convert radiant energy from the sun into


electrical energy

Certain materials absorb radiant energy and reemit the radiant energy and this is called
fluorescence

Radio signals are radiant energy which transfer


information

Rotational kinetic energy


Rotational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy an object has
due to its rotational motion around an axis. It is also called
as angular kinetic energy.
The rotating object has kinetic energy associated with
rotation, even if its center of mass is at rest. For example,
suppose you spin a bicycle wheel on its axis and hold the
axle stationary. The spinning wheel of a bicycle has kinetic
energy because the atoms are moving in a rotational
motion relative to the center of mass.
The blades of the rotating fan have rotational kinetic
energy due to its rotational motion. The rotational kinetic
energy can be mathematically written as

Where KE = kinetic energy of an object


I = moment of inertia around the axis of rotation
= angular velocity
Moment of inertia is the measure of body's resistance to
the angular momentum.

Vibrational kinetic energy


Vibrational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy an object
has due to its vibrational motion. Cell phone that vibrates
when it is ringing and vibration of a drum when it is hit by a
hammer are some examples of vibrational kinetic energy.

Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is made when the motion of atoms and
molecules move quicker and collide with each other. Here
are some examples:

TYPES OF KINETIC ENERGY

When an object moves, it possesses kinetic energy. There


are five types of kinetic energy - radiant, thermal, sound,
electrical (light) and mechanical (motion).

Geothermal energy comes from the decay of


natural minerals and the volcanic action of the
earth

Heat harnessed from the oceans as solar energy


heats them

Thermal energy keeps us warm-blooded

Electrical Energy

The sun causes the atmosphere to heat and the


temperature rises during the day

Electrical energy is made up of negatively and positively


charged electrons that commonly move through a wire.
Here are some examples of electrical energy:

Baking in an oven raises the thermal temperature


of the substance

Feeling the warmth of a campfire on your face

Lightning

A cup of hot tea

Electrical charges moving through a wire or


electricity

A heated swimming pool

Static electricity

Batteries in use

Electricity stored in capacitors

Electric eels generate electrical energy

Doorbells

Audio speakers

Your brain makes electrical current as direct current


(DC)

Alternating current (AC) in residences supplying


electrical energy to many household appliances

Headphones

A hydroelectric dam changes the kinetic energy


from falling water into electrical energy

Hot springs
Geysers are driven by geothermal energy

Sound Energy
Sound is the movement of energy through some substance,
such as air or water, and is caused by vibrations. Here are
some examples of sound energy:

Anyones voice

Stomping your feet

Any musical instrument

A buzzing bee

Clapping

A whistling teapot

Mechanical Energy

Croaking frogs

A tuning fork

Mechanical or motion energy is the stored energy in


objects. As objects move quicker, more energy is stored.
Here are some examples:

Singing

A sonic boom

A referees whistle at a game

A gong that has been struck

Snapping your fingers

Wind

A flowing river

An airplane in flight

Spinning flywheels

A bullet fired from a gun

Planets orbiting the sun

Satellites that orbit the earth

Roller skate wheels while someone is skating

Someone jump-roping

A car moving along the road

Someone running

All the electrons spinning around the atoms


nucleus

A person playing the piano (fingers striking the


keys)

The piano keys that are struck that, in turn, strike


the strings

A child jumping on a trampoline

A fish swimming

A person sliding on playground equipment

A child kicking the soccer ball

A soccer ball moving

Fruit falling from the tree

A Frisbee being tossed into the air

Someone skydiving

A roller coaster that is running

Your jaw when you are chewing

When a person shoots pool, the energy is


transferred from the stick to a ball

A Slinky moving down a set of steps

Snow skis gliding down the mountain

Gas molecules moving around in a room

POTENTIAL ENERGY
An object can store energy as the result of its position. For
example, the heavy ball of a demolition machine is storing
energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored
energy of position is referred to as potential

energy. Potential energy is the stored energy of position


possessed by an object.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY


The two examples above illustrate the two forms of
potential energy to be discussed in this course gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored
in an object as the result of its vertical position or height.
The energy is stored as the result of the gravitational
attraction of the Earth for the object. The gravitational
potential energy of the massive ball of a demolition
machine is dependent on two variables - the mass of the
ball and the height to which it is raised. There is a direct
relation between gravitational potential energy and the
mass of an object. More massive objects have greater
gravitational potential energy. There is also a direct relation
between gravitational potential energy and the height of an
object. The higher that an object is elevated, the greater
the gravitational potential energy. These relationships are
expressed by the following equation:

PEgrav = mass g height


PEgrav = m * g h
In the above equation, m represents the mass of the
object, h represents
the
height
of
the
object
and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg
on Earth) - sometimes referred to as the acceleration of
gravity.
Use this principle to determine the blanks in the following
diagram. Knowing that the potential energy at the top of
the tall platform is 50 J, what is the potential energy at the
other positions shown on the stair steps and the incline?

Answer:
A: PE = 40 J (since the same mass is elevated to 4/5-ths
height of the top stair)
B: PE = 30 J (since the same mass is elevated to 3/5-ths
height of the top stair)
C: PE = 20 J (since the same mass is elevated to 2/5-ths
height of the top stair)

D: PE = 10 J (since the same mass is elevated to 1/5-ths


height of the top stair)
E and F: PE = 0 J (since the same mass is at the same
zero height position as shown for the bottom stair).
Elastic Potential Energy
The second form of potential
energy that we will discuss
is
elastic
potential
energy. Elastic
potential
energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the
result of their stretching or compressing. Elastic potential
energy can be stored in rubber bands, bungee chords,
trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn into a bow, etc. The
amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a device
is related to the amount of stretch of the device - the more
stretch, the more stored energy.
Springs are a special instance of a device that can store
elastic potential energy due to either compression or
stretching. A force is required to compress a spring; the
more compression there is, the more force that is required
to compress it further. For certain springs, the amount of
force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or
compression (x); the constant of proportionality is known as
the spring constant (k).

Fspring = k x
Such springs are said to follow Hooke's Law. If a spring is
not stretched or compressed, then there is no elastic
potential energy stored in it. The spring is said to be at
its equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the
position that the spring naturally assumes when there is no
force applied to it. In terms of potential energy, the
equilibrium position could be called the zero-potential
energy position. There is a special equation for springs that
relates the amount of elastic potential energy to the
amount of stretch (or compression) and the spring
constant. The equation is

PEspring = 0.5 k x2
where k = spring constant
x = amount of compression
(relative to equilibrium position)
To summarize, potential energy is the energy that is stored
in an object due to its position relative to some zero
position. An object possesses gravitational potential energy
if it is positioned at a height above (or below) the zero
height. An object possesses elastic potential energy if it is
at a position on an elastic medium other than the
equilibrium position.
1. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant
speed along an inclined plane to the height of a seat-top. If
the mass of the loaded cart is 3.0 kg and the height of the
seat top is 0.45 meters, then what is the potential energy
of the loaded cart at the height of the seat-top?
ANSWER:
PE = m*g*h
PE = (3 kg ) * (9.8 m/s/s) * (0.45 m)
PE = 13.2 J
2. If a force of 14.7 N is used to drag the loaded cart (from
previous question) along the incline for a distance of 0.90

meters,
then
how
much work is done on
the loaded cart?
ANSWER:
W = F * d * cos Theta
W = 14.7 N * 0.9 m *
cos (0 degrees)
W = 13.2 J
GRAVITATIONAL
Systems can increase gravitational energy as mass moves
away from the center of Earth or other objects that are
large enough to generate significant gravity (our sun, the
planets and stars).
For example, the farther you lift an anvil away from the
ground, the more potential energy it has. Lifting the anvil is
called work, which is an interaction in which energy is
transferred from one system (the person) to another (the
anvil). The person has to do more work in order to carry the
anvil higher, and the higher the anvil is carried, the more
gravitational potential energy is stored in the anvil. If the
anvil is dropped, that potential energy transforms to kinetic
energy as the anvil moves faster and faster toward Earth.
CHEMICAL
Chemical energy is stored in the bonds between the atoms
in compounds. This stored energy is transformed when
bonds are broken or formed through chemical reactions.
Like letters of the alphabet that can be rearranged to form
new words with very different meanings, atoms move
around during chemical reactions, and they form new
compounds with vastly different personalities.
When we burn sugar (a compound made of the elements
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon) in our bodies, the elements
are reorganized into water and carbon dioxide. These
reactions both absorb and release energy, but the overall
result is that we get energy from the sugar, and our bodies
use that energy to do work.
Chemical reactions that produce net energy are
exothermic. When wood is burned, the chemical reactions
taking place are exothermic. Electromagnetic and thermal
energy are released. Only some chemical reactions release
energy. Endothermic reactions need energy to start and to
continue, such as by adding heat or light.
NUCLEAR
Todays nuclear power plants are fueled by fission. Uranium
or plutonium atoms are broken apart, freeing lots of energy.
Hydrogen atoms in the sun experience nuclear fusion,
combining to form helium and subsequently releasing large
amounts of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation
and thermal energy.
Nuclear energy is the stored potential of the nucleus of an
atom. Most atoms are stable on Earth; they keep their
identities as particular elements, like hydrogen, helium,
iron, and carbon, as identified in the Periodic Table of
Elements. The number of protons in the nucleus tells you
which element it is. Nuclear reactions change the
fundamental identity of elements by splitting up an atoms
nucleus or fusing together more than one nucleus. These
changes are called fission and fusion, respectively.
ELASTIC

Elastic energy can be stored mechanically in a compressed


gas or liquid, a coiled spring, or a stretched elastic band.
On an atomic scale, the stored energy is a temporary strain
placed on the bonds between atoms, meaning theres no
permanent change to the material. These bonds absorb
energy as they are stressed, and release that energy as
they relax.

WORK
When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement
of the object, it is said that work was done upon the object.
There are three key ingredients to work - force,
displacement, and cause. In order for a force to qualify as
having done work on an object, there must be a
displacement and the force must cause the displacement.
There are several good examples of work that can be
observed in everyday life - a horse pulling a plow through
the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of
a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books
upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his
head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each
case described here there is a force exerted upon an object
to cause that object to be displaced.

Work Equation

The Meaning of Theta


When determining the measure of
the angle in the work equation, it is important to recognize
that the angle has a precise definition - it is the angle
between the force and the displacement vector. Be sure to
avoid mindlessly using any 'ole angle in the equation. A
common physics lab involves applying a force to displace a
cart up a ramp to the top of a chair or box. A force is
applied to a cart to displace it up the incline at constant
speed. Several incline angles are typically used; yet, the
force is always applied parallel to the incline. The
displacement of the cart is also parallel to the incline. Since
F and d are in the same direction, the angle theta in the
work equation is 0 degrees. Nevertheless, most students
experienced the strong temptation to measure the angle of
incline and use it in the equation. Don't forget: the angle in
the equation is not just any 'ole
angle. It is defined as the angle
between the force and the
displacement vector.

Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following


equation.
W = F d cos
where F is the force, d is the displacement, and the angle
(theta) is defined as the angle between the force and the
displacement vector. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of
the above equation is the angle "theta." The angle is not
justany 'ole angle, but rather a very specific angle. The
angle measure is defined as the angle between the force
and the displacement. To gather an idea of it's meaning,
consider the following three scenarios.

Scenario A: A force acts rightward upon an object


as it is displaced rightward. In such an instance, the
force vector and the displacement vector are in the
same direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is 0
degrees.

Scenario B: A force acts leftward upon an object


that is displaced rightward. In such an instance, the
force vector and the displacement vector are in the
opposite direction. Thus, the angle between F and d is
180 degrees.

Scenario C: A force acts upward on an object as it is


displaced rightward. In such an instance, the force
vector and the displacement vector are at right angles
to each other. Thus, the angle between F and d is 90
degrees.

The Meaning
Work

of

Negative

On occasion, a force acts upon a


moving object to hinder a
displacement. Examples might include a car skidding to a
stop on a roadway surface or a baseball runner sliding to a
stop on the infield dirt. In such instances, the force acts in
the direction opposite the objects motion in order to slow it
down. The force doesn't cause the displacement but
rather hinders it. These situations involve what is
commonly called negative work. The negative of negative
work refers to the numerical value that results when values
of F, d and theta are substituted into the work equation.
Since the force vector is directly opposite the displacement
vector, theta is 180 degrees. The cosine(180 degrees) is -1
and so a negative value results for the amount of work
done upon the object. Negative work will become important
(and more meaningful) in Lesson 2 as we begin to discuss
the relationship between work and energy.

Units of Work
Whenever a new quantity is introduced in physics, the
standard metric units associated with that quantity are
discussed. In the case of work (and also energy), the
standard metric unit is the Joule (abbreviated J). One Joule
is equivalent to one Newton of force causing a
displacement of one meter. In other words,

The Joule is the unit of work.


1 Joule = 1 Newton * 1 meter
1J=1N*m

In fact, any unit of force times any unit of displacement is


equivalent to a unit of work. Some nonstandard units for
work are shown below. Notice that when analyzed, each set
of units is equivalent to a force unit times a displacement
unit.

Non-standard Units of Work:

footpound

kg(m/s2)m

kg(m2/s2)

In summary, work is done when a force acts upon an object


to cause a displacement. Three quantities must be known
in order to calculate the amount of work. Those three
quantities are force, displacement and the angle between
the force and the displacement.

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