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1.13.1
Consider two coordinate systems with base vectors e i and ei . It has been seen in the
context of vectors that, Eqn. 1.5.4,
e i e j Qij cos( xi , x j ) .
(1.13.1)
Recal that the is and js here are not referring to the three different components of a
vector, but to different vectors (nine different vectors in all).
Note that the relationship 1.13.1 can also be derived as follows:
e i Ie i (ek ek )e i
(ek e i )ek
(1.13.2)
Qik ek
Dotting each side here with ej then gives 1.13.1. Eqn. 1.13.2, together with the
corresponding inverse relations, read
e i Qij e j ,
e i Q ji e j
(1.13.3)
Note that the components of the transformation matrix Q are the same as the
components of the change of basis tensor 1.10.24-25.
1.13.2
As with vectors, the components of a (second-order) tensor will change under a change of
coordinate system. In this case, using 1.13.3,
Tij e i e j T pq ep eq
T pq Qmp e m Qnq e n
(1.13.4)
Qmp Qnq T pq e m e n
Solid Mechanics Part III
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Section 1.13
T QTQ T ,
T Q T TQ
(1.13.6)
Note:
as with vectors, second-order tensors are often defined as mathematical entities whose
Consider now a second coordinate system, with base vectors e1 , e2 , obtained from the
first by a rotation . The components of the transformation matrix are
e e
Qij e i ej 1 1
e 2 e1
e1 e 2 cos
cos(90 ) cos
e 2 e 2 cos(90 )
cos sin
sin
cos
S12 cos
sin
S 22
sin S11
cos S 21
S12 cos
S 22 sin
sin
cos
1.13.3
Isotropic Tensors
An isotropic tensor is one whose components are the same under arbitrary rotation of the
basis vectors, i.e. in any coordinate system.
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Section 1.13
(1.13.8)
u1
u2
u 3 u 2
T
u1
u3
(1.13.9)
T21
T11
T31
T13
T23
T33
(1.13.10)
which implies that T11 T22 , T12 T21 , T13 T23 T31 T32 0 . Repeating this for
1.13.9 implies that T11 T33 , T12 0 , so
0
T11 0
T 0 T11 0
0
0 T11
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Section 1.13
change of basis tensor, with components Qij . When Q is proper orthogonal, i.e. a rotation
ijk . That it is the only isotropic tensor can be established
tensor, one has indeed, ijk
by carrying out a few specific rotations as done above for the first and second order
tensors.
Note that orthogonal tensors in general, i.e. having the possibility of being reflection
tensors, with det Q 1 , are not used in the definition of isotropy, otherwise one would
ijk . Note also that this issue does not arise with the
have the less desirable ijk
second order tensor (or the fourth order tensor see below), since the above result, that
I is the only isotropic second order tensor, holds regardless of whether Q is proper
orthogonal or not.
There are three independent fourth-order isotropic tensors these are the tensors
encountered in 1.12.1, Eqns. 1.12.4-5,
I, I, I I
For example,
Qip Q jq Qkr Qls I I pqrs Qip Q jq Qkr Qls pq rs Qip Q jp Qkr Qlr ij kl I I ijkl
The most general isotropic fourth order tensor is then a linear combination of these
tensors:
C I I I I Most General Isotropic Fourth-Order Tensor (1.13.11)
1.13.4
The components of (non-isotropic) tensors will change upon a rotation of base vectors.
However, certain combinations of these components are the same in every coordinate
system. Such quantities are called invariants. For example, the following are examples
of scalar invariants {Problem 2}
a a ai ai
a T a Tij ai a j
(1.13.12)
tr A Aii
The first of these is the only independent scalar invariant of a vector. A second-order
tensor has three independent scalar invariants, the first, second and third principal scalar
invariants, defined by Eqn. 1.11.17 (or linear combinations of these).
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Section 1.13
1.13.5
Problems
1. Consider a coordinate system ox1 x 2 x3 with base vectors e i . Let a second coordinate
system be represented by the set ei with the transformation law
e2 sin e1 cose 2
e3 e 3
(a) find e1 in terms of the old set e i of basis vectors
(b) find the orthogonal matrix Q and express the old coordinates in terms of the new
ones
(c) express the vector u 6e1 3e 2 e 3 in terms of the new set ei of basis
vectors.
2. Show that
(a) the trace of a tensor A, tr A Aii , is an invariant.
(b) a T a Tij ai a j is an invariant.
3. Consider Problem 7 in 1.11. Take the tensor U F T F with respect to the basis
n i and carry out a coordinate transformation of its tensor components so that it is
given with respect to the original e i basis in which case the matrix representation
for U given in Problem 7, 1.11, should be obtained.
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