Types of Graph + Operation + Isomorphism + Automorphism PDF

Graphs & their representation
Definitions
Isomorphisms & Automorphisms
Distance in Graphs
Operations on Graphs
References
Graph Theory
Pushpendra Kumar Pateriya

School of Computing & Information Technology
Lovely Faculty of Technology & Sciences
Lovely Professional University
E-mail: pushpendra.14623@lpu.co.in
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Graph Theory

Definitions
Distance in Graphs
References
Outline I
1 Graphs & their representation
2 Definitions
3 Isomorphisms & Automorphisms
Identical Graphs
Isomorphisms
Automorphism
4 Distance in Graphs
5 Operations on Graphs
6 References
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Definitions
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Graphs & their representation[1] I
A graph is an ordered pair (V (G ), E (G )) consisting of a set V (G )

of vertices and a set E (G ), disjoint form V (G ), of edges, together
with an incidence function G that associates with each edge of G
an unordered pair of(not necessarily distinct) vertices of G .
If e is an edge and u and v are vertices such that G (e) = {u, v },
then e is said to join u and v , and the vertices u and v are called
the ends of e.
Order of G : v (G ) means number of vertices in G .
Size of G : e(G ) means number of edges in G .
Examples:
G = (V (G ), E (G ))
where
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Graphs & their representation[1] II
V (G ) = {u, v , w , x, y }
E (G ) = {a, b, c, d, e, f , g , h}
and G is defined by
G (a) = uv G (b) = uu G (c) = vw G (d) = wx
G (e) = vx G (f ) = wx G (g ) = ux G (h) = xy
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Definitions[1][2] I
Incident: ends of an edge
Adjacent: two vertices which are incident with a common

edge
Neighbour: two distinct adjacent virtices
Loop: an edge with identical ends
Link: an edge with distinct ends
Parallel edges: two or more links with the same pair of ends
Finite Graph: both its vertax set and edge set are finite.
Null Graph: no vertices and hence no edges.
Trivial Graph: one vertax

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Definitions[1][2] II
10
Nontrivial Graph: more than one vertax.
11
Simple Graph: no loops or paraller edges.
12
Complete Graph: any two vertices are adjacent.
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Definitions[1][2] III
13
Empty Graph: no two vertices are adjacent.
14
Path: a simple graph whose vertices can be arranged in a

linear sequence in such a way that two vertices are adjacent if
they are consecutive in the sequence and are nonadjacent
otherwise.
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Definitions[1][2] IV
15
Cycle on three or more vertices: a simple graph whose

vertices can be arranged in cyclic sequence in such a way that
two vertices are adjacent if they are consecutive in the
sequence, and are noadjacent otherwise.
16
Length of a path or cycle: number of its edges.
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Definitions[1][2] V
17
k-path or k-cycle: A path or cycle of length k is called a

k-path or k-cycle, respectively; the path or cycle is odd or
even according to the parity of k.
A 3-cycle is often called a triangle, a 4-cycle a quadrilateral, a
5-cycle a pentagon, a 6-cycle a hexagon, and so on.
18
Connected graph: for every partition of its vertex set into

two nonempty sets X and Y , there is an edge with on end in
X and one end in Y ; otherwise the graph is disconnected.
19
Planar graph: A graph which can be drawn in a plane in

such a way that edges meet only at points corresponding to
their common ends.
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Definitions[1][2] VI
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Definitions[1][2] VII
20
Bipartite Graph: If its vertax set can be partitioned into two

subsets X and Y so that every edge has one end in X and one
end in Y; such a partition (X, Y) is called a bipartition of the
graph, and X and Y its parts.
a bipertite graph G with pipartition (X,Y) represented by
G[X,Y].
Corollary
Let G [X , Y ] be a bipartite graph without isolated vertices such
that
d(x)
d(y ) for all xy E , where x X and y Y . Then
X Y , with equality if and only if d(x) = d(x) for all xy E .
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Definitions[1][2] VIII
21
Complete bipartite graph: If G[X,Y] is simple and every

vertex in X is joined to every vertex in Y, then G is called a
complete bipertite graph.
22
k-partite graph: vertex set can be partitioned into k subsets,

or parts, in such a way that no edge has both ends in the
same part.
23
Tur
an Graph: A k-partite graph is complete if any two
vertices in different parts are adjacent. A simple complete
k-partite graph on n vertices whose parts are of equal or
almost equal sizes(that is, bn/kc or dn/ke) is called Turan
graph and denoted by Tk,n .
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Definitions[1][2] IX
24
Incidence & Adjacency Matrices: the incidence matrix of

G is the n m matrix MG := (Mve ), where mve is the number
of times (0, 1, 2) that vertex v and edge e are incident.
The adjacency matrix of G is the n m matrix AG := (auv ),
where auv is the number of edges joining vertices u and v ,
each loop counting as two edges.
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Definitions[1][2] X
u
v
w
x
y
a
1
1
0
0
0
b
2
0
0
0
0
c
0
1
1
0
0
d
0
0
1
1
0
e
0
1
0
1
0
f
0
0
1
1
0
Table: Incident Matrix
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g
1
0
0
1
0
h
0
0
0
1
1

Definitions
Distance in Graphs
References
Definitions[1][2] XI
u
v
w
x
y
u
2
1
0
1
0
v
1
0
1
1
0
w
0
1
0
2
0
x
1
1
2
0
1
y
0
0
0
1
0
Table: Adjacency Matrix
The adjacency matrix of a graph is generally much smaller

than its incidence matrix and thus requires less storage space.
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Definitions[1][2] XII
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Definitions[1][2] XIII
25
26
Adjacency List: In a simple graph for each vertex v , the

neighbours of v are listed in some order. A list (N(v ) : v V )
of these lists is called an adjacency list of the graph. Simple
graphs are usually stored in computers as adjacency lists.
Vertex degree: denoted by dG (v ), is the number of edges of
G incident with v . each loop counting as two edges.
The minimum degree of G, denoted by (G ), is the
minimum degree among all the vertices of G.
The maximum degree of G, denoted by (G ), is the
maximum degree among all the vertices of G.
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Definitions[1][2] XIV
Theorem
For any graph G ,
v V
d(v ) = 2m, here m: number of edges
Proof.
Consider the incidence matrix M of G . The sum of the entiries in
the row corresponding to vertex v is precisely d(v ). Therefore
P
v V d(v ) is just the sum of all the entries in M. But this sum is
also 2m, because each of the m column sums of M is 2, each edge
having two ends.
In any graph, the number of vertices of odd degree is even.
27
Isolated vertex: A vertex of degree zero.

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Definitions[1][2] XV
28
Pendent Vertex: vertex with degree 1.
29
Degree Sequence: If G has vertices v1 , v2 , ...,vn , the

sequence (d(v1 ), d(v2 ), ..., d(vn )) is called a degree sequence
of G .
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Definitions[1][2] XVI
30
Graphic Sequence: A sequence d = (d1 , d2 , ..., dn ) is graphic

if there is a simple graph with degree sequence d.
Corollary
If d = (d1 , d2 , ..., dn ) is graphic and d1 d2 ... dn , then
n
P
i=1
is even and
k
P
di k(k 1) +
i=1
n
P
min{k, di }, 1 k n
i=k+1
Question: Here we have to check whether the sequence

(5, 5, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2) is graphic.
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di

Definitions
Distance in Graphs
References
Definitions[1][2] XVII
So we conclude that (5, 5, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2) is graphic.
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Definitions
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Definitions[1][2] XVIII
31
32
Regular graph: a regular graph is a graph where each vertex

has the same number of neighbors; i.e. every vertex has the
same degree or valency.
Strongly regular graph: A simple graph G which is neither
empty nor complete is said to be strongly regular with
parameters (v , k, , ) if:
v(G) = v,
G is k-regular,
any two adjacent vertices of G have common neighbours,
any two nonadjacent vertices of G have common neighbours.
33
Vertex cover: a vertex cover of a graph is a set of vertices

such that each edge of the graph is incident to at least one
vertex of the set.
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Definitions[1][2] XIX
34
Edge cover: an edge cover of a graph is a set of edges such

that every vertex of the graph is incident to at least one edge
of the set.
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] I
Identical Graphs:
Two graphs G and H are identical, written G = H, if
V (G ) = V (H), E (G ) = E (H), and G = H .
If two graphs are identical, they can clearly be represented by
identical diagrams.
It is also possible for graphs that are not identical to have
essentially the same diagram. For example, the graph G and
H in Figure 1 can be represented by diagrams which look
exactly the same, as the second drawing of H shows; the sole
difference lies in the labels of their vertices and edges.
Although the graphs G and H are not identical, they do have
identical structures, and are said to be isomorphic.
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] II
Figure: Isomorphic Graphs
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] III
Isomorphisms: Two graphs G and H are isomorphic, written

G
= H, if there are bijections : V (G ) V (H) and
: E (G ) E (H) such that G (e) = uv if and only if
H ((e)) = (u)(v ); such a pair mapping called an isomorphism
between G and H.
The pair
of mappings (,
) defined by
a b c d
:=
w z y x

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6
:=
f3 f4 f1 f6 f5 f2
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] IV
Figure: Isomorphic Sample Graphs
Automorphism: An automorphism of a graph is an isomorphism

of the graph to itself. In the case of a simple graph, an
automorphism is just a permutaion of its vertex set which
preserves adjacency: if uv is an edge then so is (u)(v ). Find out
isomorphism between G1 , G2 and G3 .
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] V
Question: Find that G1

= G2 and G1 G3 .
Figure: (G1 ), (G2 ), (G3 )
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Isomorphisms & Automorphisms[1] VI
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Distance in Graphs[5] I
The distance between two vertices in a graph is the number of

edges in a shortest path connecting them. If there is no path
connecting the two vertices then the distance between them is
defined as infinite().
The distance matrix D = [dij ] of a connected graph G of order p
with V (G ) = {v1 , v2 , . . . ., vp } that p by p matrix for which dij
is the distance between vi and vj .
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Distance in Graphs[5] II
Figure: G
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Distance in Graphs[5] III
d(x,y)
a
b
c
d
e
a
0
1
2
1
3
b
1
0
1
2
2
c
2
1
0
1
1
d
1
2
1
0
2
e
3
2
1
2
0
Table: Distance Matrix of G
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Distance in Graphs[5] IV
The distance matrix is a symmetric matrix with non-negative

integer entries having zero diagonal.
Theorem
A p by p matrix D = [dij ] is the distance matrix of a graph of order
p if and only if D has the following properties:
(i) dij is non-negative integer for all i, j
(ii) dij = 0 if and only if i = j
(iii) D is symmetric
(iv) dij dik + dkj for all i, j, k and
(v) For dij > 1, there exists k 6= i, j, such that dij = dik + dkj .
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Distance in Graphs[5] V
Power of G:
The nth power G n of G is that graph with V (G n ) = V (G ) for
which uv E (G n ) if and only if 1 d(u, v ) n in G.
Theorem
If A is the adjacency matrix of a graph G with
V (G ) = {v1 , v2 , ..., vp }, then (i, j) entry of An , n 1 is the
number of different vi vj walks of length n in G.
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Operations on Graphs[3] I
Complement: The complement G c of a simple graph G has

vertex set V (G ) and two vertices u, v are adjacent in G c if
and only if they are non-adjacent in G.
A simple graph G is called a self-complementary graph if
G
= Gc.
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Operations on Graphs[3] II
Union: The union of G1 and G2 is the graph with vertex set

V1 V 2 and edge set E1 E2 . It is denoted by G1 G2 . So,
G1 G2 has n1 + n2 vertices and m1 + m2 edges.
Sum: The sum or join of G1 and G2 is the graph obtained

from G1 G2 by joining every vertex of G1 with every vertex
of G2 . It is denoted by G1 + G2 . So, G1 + G2 has n1 + n2
vertices and m1 + m2 + n1 n2 edges.
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Operations on Graphs[3] III
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Operations on Graphs[3] IV
Cartesian Product: The Cartesian product of simple graphs

G1 and G2 is the simple graph with vertex set V (G1 ) V (G2 )
in which any two vertices (u1 , v1 ) and (u2 , v2 ) are adjacent if
and only if (i) u1 = u2 , and (v1 , v2 ) E (G2 ) or (ii)
(u1 , u2 ) E (G1 ) and v1 = v2 . It is denoted by G1 G2 or
G1 G2 . So, G1 G2 has n1 n2 vertices and n1 m2 + m1 n2
edges.
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Operations on Graphs[3] V
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References I
J. A. Bondy and U. S. R. Murty, Graph Theory, Edition 1st ,

2008, Springer
V. K. Balakrishnan,Graph Theory, Edition 1st , 2004,
Schaum Series McGraw Hill
E-learning Courses by IITs & IISC(Web):
http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/111106050/
E-learning Courses by IITs & IISC(Video):
http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/106108054/
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References II
Distance in graphs: http://uni-mysore.ac.in/Asc/2011/

RC%202011/2%20RC%20in%20Mathematical%20Science%
20(9-1-12%20to%2029-1-12)/Information%20by%
20Resource%20Person/Prof.%20Basavana%20Gowda/
Graphs%20and%20Matrices.ppt
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Graphs & their representation

Pushpendra Kumar Pateriya

Graphs & their representation

Graphs & their representation

Graphs & their representation[1] I

A graph is an ordered pair (V (G ), E (G )) consisting of a set V (G )

Graphs & their representation

Graphs & their representation[1] II

Graphs & their representation

Incident: ends of an edge

Adjacent: two vertices which are incident with a common

Neighbour: two distinct adjacent virtices

Loop: an edge with identical ends

Link: an edge with distinct ends

Null Graph: no vertices and hence no edges.

Trivial Graph: one vertax

Graphs & their representation

Nontrivial Graph: more than one vertax.

Simple Graph: no loops or paraller edges.

Complete Graph: any two vertices are adjacent.

Graphs & their representation

Empty Graph: no two vertices are adjacent.

Path: a simple graph whose vertices can be arranged in a

Graphs & their representation

Cycle on three or more vertices: a simple graph whose

Length of a path or cycle: number of its edges.

Graphs & their representation

k-path or k-cycle: A path or cycle of length k is called a

Connected graph: for every partition of its vertex set into

Planar graph: A graph which can be drawn in a plane in

Graphs & their representation

Graphs & their representation

Bipartite Graph: If its vertax set can be partitioned into two

Graphs & their representation

Complete bipartite graph: If G[X,Y] is simple and every

k-partite graph: vertex set can be partitioned into k subsets,

Graphs & their representation

Incidence & Adjacency Matrices: the incidence matrix of

Graphs & their representation

Table: Incident Matrix

Graphs & their representation

Table: Adjacency Matrix

The adjacency matrix of a graph is generally much smaller

Graphs & their representation

Graphs & their representation

Adjacency List: In a simple graph for each vertex v , the

Graphs & their representation

d(v ) = 2m, here m: number of edges

Isolated vertex: A vertex of degree zero.

Graphs & their representation

Pendent Vertex: vertex with degree 1.

Degree Sequence: If G has vertices v1 , v2 , ...,vn , the

Graphs & their representation

Graphic Sequence: A sequence d = (d1 , d2 , ..., dn ) is graphic

Question: Here we have to check whether the sequence

Graphs & their representation

So we conclude that (5, 5, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2) is graphic.

Graphs & their representation

Regular graph: a regular graph is a graph where each vertex

Vertex cover: a vertex cover of a graph is a set of vertices

Graphs & their representation

Edge cover: an edge cover of a graph is a set of edges such

Graphs & their representation