M39 Knig9404 Ism C39 PDF

39
WAVE FUNCTIONS AND UNCERTAINTY
Conceptual Questions
39.1. (a) At x 1 because the probability density is higher there.
(b) From Equation 39.14 we see that Prob(in x at x) = P ( x) x. If 1,000,000 photons are detected then the number
expected in a 1-mm-wide interval is 1,000,000 P ( x) x where x = 1.0 mm. For x = 0.50 m P ( x ) = 1 m 1 and the number
expected is (1,000,000)(1 m 1 )(0.001 m) = 1,000.
39.2. The relationship between probability and probability density is similar to the relationship between mass m and
mass density . Regions of higher mass density tell us where mass is concentrated. The mass itself is a more tangible
quantity that depends both on the mass density and on the size of a specific piece of material. Similarly, probability
density tells us regions in which a particle is more likely, or less likely, to be found. The probability is a definite
number between 0 and 1. Probability depends both on the probability density and on the size of the specific region
we are considering.
2
39.3. The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by ( x) , which is shown below.
The electron is most likely to be found at the point or points where ( x)

2
is a maximum. The graph given in the

2
problem shows ( x). The figure above shows ( x) . Notice that ( x = 0 nm) > ( x = 2 nm) , even though
( x = 0 nm) < 0 in the original graph. Thus, the electron is most likely to be found at x = 0 nm. The electron is least
likely to be found where ( x)
is a minimum. From the figure, ( x) = 0 at x = 1 nm. Thus, the electron is least
likely to be found at x = 1 nm.
39.4. (a) The probability density is maximum at x 2 mm because the number of dots per unit length is greatest at
these points.
(b) We cannot tell where the wave function is most positive because the probability density is given by the absolute
square of the wave function, so we lose the sign information. The most positive part of the wave function could be at
either x = 2 mm or x = 2 mm, or it could be most positive at 2 mm and most negative at the 2 mm (or vice versa),
or it could be most negative at both positions.
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39-1
39-2
Chapter 39
39.5. The area under the probability density curve must be one. That is,
P( x)dx = 1. For this condition to be true
for Figure Q39.5, a must be 2 mm 1, because the area of a triangle is half the base times the height.
39.6. The particle with the most precisely known velocity has the smallest velocity uncertainty v. Because the
three particles have equal masses, it also has the smallest momentum uncertainty p. From the uncertainty principle
x p h/2, the particle with the smallest momentum uncertainty must have the largest position uncertainty x.
That is seen to be particle 1, whose wave function has the largest spatial extent. The wave function amplitude
difference of particles 2 and 3 is not relevant; they both have x smaller than particle 1 and thus have a larger
momentum and velocity uncertainty.
Exercises and Problems

Section 39.1 Waves, Particles, and the Double-Slit Experiment
39.1. Model: The sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes must equal 1 (100%).
Solve: The sum of the probabilities is PA + PB + PC + PD = 1. Hence,
0.40 + 0.30 + PC + PD = 1
PC + PD = 0.30
Because PC = 2 PD , 2 PD + PD = 0.30. This means PD = 0.10 and PC = 0.20. Thus, the probabilities of outcomes C and
D are 20% and 10%, respectively.
39.2. Model: The probability that the outcome will be A or B is the sum of PA and PB.
Solve: (a)
Coin A
H
H
H
H
T
T
T
T
Coin B
H
H
T
T
H
H
T
T
Coin C
H
T
H
T
H
T
H
T
(b) From the above table, we see that 2 heads and 1 tail occur three times (HHT, HTH, THH). Out of the possible
eight outcomes, each outcome is equally probable and has a probability of occurrence of 1/8. So, the probability of
getting 2 heads and 1 tail is 3/8 = 37.5%.
(c) From the table, we see that at least two heads occur 4 times (HHH, HHT, HTH, and THH). So, the probability of
getting at least two heads is 4/8 = 50%.
Solve: (a) A regular deck of cards has 52 cards. Drawing a given card (say, queen of hearts) from this deck has a
probability of 1/52. Because there are 4 aces in the deck, the probability of drawing an ace is 1/52 + 1/52 + 1/52 +
1/52 = 4(1/42) = 4/52 = 0.077 = 7.7%.
(b) Because there are 13 spades, the probability of drawing a spade is 13(1/52) = 13/52 = 0.25 = 25%.
39.4. Model: The probability that the outcome will be A or B is the sum of PA and PB . The expected value is your
best possible prediction of the outcome of an experiment.
Wave Functions and Uncertainty
39-3
Solve: For each deck, there are 12 picture cards (4 Jacks, 4 Queens, and 4 Kings). The probability of dealing one given
card (say, a queen of hearts) out of 52 cards is 1/52, so the probability of dealing a picture card is 12(1/52) = 23.1%.
Equation 39.5 tells us that the expected number of cards dealt is the probability multiplied by the number of trials,
N expected = NPface card
The number of trials is N = 1000 because we have 1000 decks and the probability of dealing a face card is
Pface card = 23.1%, so the number of face cards dealt is expected to be (1000)(0.231) = 231.
Solve: (a) Each die has six faces and the faces are numbered from 1 to 6. We have two dice A and B. The various
possible outcomes of rolling two dice are given in the following table.
A
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
B
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
A
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
B
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
A
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
B
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
There are 36 possible outcomes. From the table, we find that there are six ways of rolling a 7 (1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and
4, 4 and 3, 5 and 2, 6 and 1). The probability is (1/36) 6 = 1/6.
(b) Likewise, the probability of rolling any double is 1/6.
(c) There are 10 ways of rolling a 6 or an 8. The probability is (1/36) 10 = 5/18.
Section 39.2 Connecting the Wave and Photon Views

39.6. Model: The probability density of finding a photon is directly proportional to the square of the light-wave
2
amplitude A( x) .
Solve: The probability of finding a photon within a narrow region of width x at position x is
2
Prob(in x at x) A( x) x
A( x1) 2 x
Prob(in x1 at x1 )
=
Prob(in x2 at x2 ) A( x2 ) 2 x
Let N be the total number of photons and N 2 the number of photons detected at x2 in a width x. The above equation
simplifies to
2000/N (10 V/m) 2 (0.10 mm)

=
N 2 /N
(30 V/m) 2 (0.10 mm)
N2 =
(2000)(30 V/m)2
(10 V/m) 2
= 18,000
39.7. Model: Combine Equations 39.10 and 39.11 to show that N is proportional to A( x) x.
N (in x2 at x2 )
N tot
N (in x2 at x2 )
=
=
2
N (in x1 at x1 )
N (in x1 at x1 )
A( x1 ) x1
N tot
2
A( x2 ) x2
39-4
Chapter 39
We are given N1 = 6000, x1 = 0.10 mm, A( x1 ) = 200 V/m, N 2 = 3000, and x2 = 0.20 mm. We are not given N tot but
it cancels anyway.
Solve: Solve the above equation for A( x2 ) .
x1N (in x2 at x2 )
(0.10 mm)(3000)
= (200 V/m)
= 100 V/m
x2 N (in x1 at x1)
(0.20 mm)(6000)
A( x2 ) = A( x1 )
Assess: The answer is half of the wave amplitude at the other strip, which seems reasonable.
39.8. Solve: The probability that a photon arrives at this 0.10-mm-wide strip is
Prob(in 0.10 mm at x) =
N
1.0 1010
= P ( x) x
where N is the number of photons detected in the strip and the total number of photons is 1.0 1010. We have
N = (1.0 1010 )(20 m 1 )(0.10 103 m) = 2.0 107
39.9. Model: See Example 39.1.

Solve: We are given N tot = 5.0 1012 , N (in x at x) = 2.0 109 , and x = 0.10 mm. The probability that a photon lands
on the strip is Prob(in x at x ) = 2.0 109 /5.0 1012 = 0.00040. Solve for the probability density P ( x ) in Equation 39.12.
P( x) =
Prob(in x at x )
0.00040
=
= 4.0 m 1
x
1.0 104 m
Assess: This result is similar to the result of Example 39.1.
Section 39.3 The Wave Function

2
39.10. Solve: ( x) x is a probability, which is dimensionless. The units of x are m, so the units of ( x)
1
m . Thus the units of are m
1/2
are
.
2
39.11. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by ( x) .

2
Solve: (a) The probability of detecting an electron is Pr ob(in x at x) = ( x) x. At x = 0.000 mm, the number of
electrons landing in a 0.010-mm-wide strip is

N
N total
= (0 mm) x
N = (0 mm) xN total =
( 13 mm1 ) (0.010 mm)(1.0 106 ) = 3333 3.3 103
(b) Likewise, the number of electrons landing in a 0.010-mm-wide strip at x = 2.000 mm is

2
N = (2.0 mm) xN total = (0.111 mm 1 )(0.010 mm)(1.0 106 ) = 1111 1.1 103
39-5
39.12. Visualize:
Solve: (a) We assume that ( x) = 0 at some point in between each of the peaks.
(b) Two factors are important for drawing ( x). First, the value at each point is the square root of the value on the
2
( x) graph. Second, and especially important, is that ( x) is a wave function and so it oscillates between positive
2
and negative values each time ( x ) reaches zero.

2
(c) Multiplying ( x ) by 1 does not change ( x ) . So another possible graph for ( x ) is the upside down version
of the graph of part (b).

2

2
Solve: (a) The probability of detecting an electron is Pr ob(in x at x ) = ( x ) x. Hence the probability the electron
will land in a x = 0.010-mm-wide strip at x = 0.000 mm is

Prob(in 0.010 mm at x = 0.000 mm) = (0.50 mm 1 )(0.010 mm) = 5.0 103
2
(b) Since (0.500 mm) = 0.25 mm 1, the probability is 2.5 103.

2
(c) Since (1.000 mm) = 0.0 mm 1, the probability is 0.0.

2
(d) Since (2.000 mm) = 0.25 mm 1, the probability is 2.5 103.
Section 39.4 Normalization

2
39.14. Model: The probability of finding a particle is determined by the probability density P ( x) = ( x) .
Solve: (a) The normalization condition for a wave function:
( x)
dx = area under the curve = 1. In the present
case, the area under the ( x ) -versus-x graph is 2a nm. Hence, a = 12 nm 1.

2
(b) Each point on the ( x) graph is the square root of the corresponding point on the ( x ) graph. Where the
( x)
graph has dropped to 1/2 its maximum value at x = 1 nm, the ( x) graph will have dropped only to
1/ 2 = 0.707 of its maximum value. Thus the graph shape is convex upward. Since a = 12 nm 1, the peak value of
39-6
Chapter 39
( x) is
a = 1/ 2 nm 1/2 = 0.707 nm1/2 . The graph is shown below. The negative of this graph, curving
downward, would also be an acceptable wave function.
(c) The probability of the electron being located in the interval 1.0 x 2.0 nm is
Prob(1.0 nm x 2.0 nm) = area under the curve between 1.0 nm and 2.0 nm
1 a
(0.50 nm 1 )(1.0 nm)
= (2.0 nm 1.0 nm) =
= 0.125 0.13
2 2
4
2
39.15. Model: The probability of finding the particle is determined by the probability density P ( x) = ( x) .
Solve: (a) According to Equation 39.18,
( x)
dx = area under the curve = 1. The area under the ( x) -versus-x
graph is 4a fm. Hence, a = 0.25 fm 1.

(b) Each point on the ( x) graph is the square root of the corresponding point on the ( x)
( x)
graph. Where the
graph has reached 1/2 its maximum value at x = 2 fm, the ( x) graph will have reached to 1/ 2 = 0.707
of its maximum value. Thus the graph shape is convex. Since a = 0.25 fm 1, the maximum value of ( x ) is
a = 1/ 4 fm 1/2 = 0.50 fm 1/ 2 . The graph is shown below. The negative of this graph, curving from negative to
positive, would also be an acceptable wave function.
(c) The probability of the neutron being located in the interval x 2.0 fm is
Prob ( x 2.0 fm ) = 1 area under the curve between 2.0 fm and 2.0 fm
1 a
(0.25 fm 1)(2.0 fm)
= 1 2 (2.0 fm 0.0 fm) = 1 2
= 0.75
2 2
4
2
39.16. Model: The probability of finding the particle is determined by the probability density P ( x) = ( x) .
( x)
dx = 1. We calculate this integral by drawing the graph of ( x)
and finding the area under the curve.
The area of the ( x)

1.0 nm
( x) dx +
2.0nm
39-7
versus x graph is
1.0 nm
( x) dx +
1.0 nm
2.0 nm
( x) dx = (0.25c 2 )(1.0 nm) + (c 2 )(2.0 nm) + (0.25c 2 )(1.0 nm) = 2.5c 2
1.0 nm
2.5c 2 nm = 1.0
1.0
c=
nm 1/2 = 0.632 nm 1/2 0.63 nm 1/2
2.5
(b) The graph is shown in part (a).
(c) The probability is
1.0 nm
Prob( 1.0 nm x 1.0 nm) =
1.0
nm 1 (2.0 nm) = 0.80

2.5
( x) dx = (c 2 )(2.0 nm) =
1.0 nm
39.17. Model: The probability of finding the particle is determined by the probability density P( x) = ( x) .
Solve: (a) According to the normalization condition,
( x)
dx = 1. From the given ( x)-versus-x graph, we first
generate a ( x) -versus-x graph and then find the area under the curve.
The area under the ( x) -versus-x graph is

4.0 mm
c 2dx = (8.0 mm)c 2 = 1.0 c =
4.0 mm
1.0
= 0.35 mm 1/2
8.0 mm
(b) The graph is shown above.

Prob(1.0 mm x 1.0 mm) =
1.0 mm
1.0
c 2dx = c 2 (2.0 mm) =

mm 1 (2.0 mm) = 0.25
8.0
1.0 mm
39-8
Chapter 39
Section 39.5 Wave Packets

39.18. Model: A radio-frequency pulse is an electromagnetic wave packet, hence it must satisfy the relationship
f t 1.
Solve: A 1.00 MHz oscillation has a time period of T = 1.00 s. A pulse consisting of 100 cycles of the 1.00 MHz
oscillation will have a duration of 100(1.00 s) = 0.100 ms. That is, t = 0.100 ms. Using Equation 39.21,
1
1
=
= 10.0 kHz
t 0.100 ms
Thus the minimum bandwidth needed to transmit the wave packet centered at 1.00 MHz is 10.0 kHz.
f
39.19. Model: A radio-frequency pulse is an electromagnetic wave packet, hence it must satisfy the relationship
f t 1.
Solve: The waves that must be superimposed to create the pulse of smallest duration span the frequency range
f f/2 f f + f/2. Because f = 120 MHz 80 MHz = 40 MHz, f = 100 MHz. Using Equation 39.21,
1
1
=
= 2.5 108 s = 25 ns
f 40 MHz
Thus, a radio wave centered at 100 MHz and having a frequency span 80 MHz to 120 MHz can be used to create a
wave packet of duration 25 ns.
t
39.20. Model: The beating of two waves of different frequencies produces a series of wave packets, or beats.
Solve: The beat frequency is f beat = f1 f 2 = 502 Hz 498 Hz = 4 Hz. The period of one beat is
Tbeat =
1
1
=
= 0.25 s
f beat 4 Hz
During 0.25 s, the wave moves forward x = vsoundTbeat = (340 m/s)(0.25 s) = 85 m. Thus the length of each wave
packet is 85 m.
39.21. Model: A laser pulse is an electromagnetic wave packet, hence it must satisfy the relationship f t 1.
Solve: Because c = f , the frequency and period are
f =
3.0 108 m/s

1.5 10
= 2.0 1014 Hz T =
1
1
=
= 5.0 1015 s
f 2.0 1014 Hz
Since f = 2.0 GHz, the minimum pulse duration is

1
1
t
=
= 5.0 10210 s
f 2.0 109 Hz
The number n of oscillations in this laser pulse is

n=
t 5.0 1010 s
=
= 1.0 105 oscillations
T 5.0 1015 s
Section 39.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

39.22. Model: Electrons are subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Solve: Uncertainty in our knowledge of the position of the electron as it passes through the hole is x = 10 m. With
a finite x, the uncertainty px cannot be zero. Using the uncertainty principle,
px = mvx =
h
2x
vx =
h
6.63 1034 J s
=
= 36 m/s
2mx 2(9.11 1031 kg)(10 106 m)
Because the average x-velocity is zero, the best we can say is that the electrons velocity is somewhere in the interval
18 m/s vx 18 m/s.
39-9
39.23. Model: Andrea is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. She cannot be absolutely at rest (vx = 0)
without violating the uncertainty principle. Andreas mass is 50 kg.
Solve: Because Andrea is inside her room, her position uncertainty could be as large as x = L = 5.0 m. According to
the uncertainty principle, her velocity uncertainty is thus
vx =
h
6.63 1034 J s
=
= 1.3 1036 m
2m x 2(50 kg)(5.0 m)
Because her average velocity is zero, her velocity is likely to be in the range 0.65 1036 m/s to + 0.65 1036 m/s.
Assess: At a speed of 1 1036 m/s, Andrea would have moved less than 1% the diameter of the nucleus of an atom
in the entire age of the universe. It makes perfect sense to think that macroscopic objects can be at rest.
39.24. Solve: The uncertainty in velocity is vx = 3.58 105 m/s 3.48 105 m/s = 1.0 104 m/s. Using the uncertainty
principle (Equation 39.28), the minimum uncertainty in position is
x
h
h
6.63 1034 J s
=
=
= 3.6 108 m = 36 nm
2px 2me vx 2(9.11 1031 kg)(1.0 104 m/s)
Assess: This is a few dozen atomic diameters.
39.25. Model: Protons are subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

Solve: We know the proton is somewhere within the nucleus, so the uncertainty in our knowledge of its position is at
most x = L = 4.0 fm. With a finite x, the uncertainty px is given by the uncertainty principle:
px = mvx =
h/2
x
vx =
h
6.63 1034 Js
=
= 5.0 107 m/s
2mL 2(1.67 1027 kg)(4.0 1015 m)
Because the average velocity is zero, the best we can say is that the protons velocity is somewhere in the range
2.5 107 m/s to 2.5 107 m/s. Thus, the smallest range of speeds is 0 to 2.5 107 m/s.
39.26. Model: The probability of finding the center of the particle within the range x centered at x is given by the
probability density P(x) multiplied by x (Equation 39.14).
Solve: (a) Because x = 0, the probability of finding the particle at exactly x = 50.0 mm is
Prob(in x at x) = P( x) x = 0
(b) The center of the particle is limited to the range 0.50 mm x 99.5 mm, which gives it a total range of 99 mm. The
region 49.0 mm x 51.0 mm has a total length of 2.0 mm. Because the center of the particle is equally likely to be
anywhere in the total range, the probability of the center of the particle being in the region 49.0 mm x 51.0 mm is
P (49.0 mm x 51.0 mm) =
2.0 mm
= 0.0202 2.0,
99 mm
(c) Likewise, the probability of the center of the particle being located at x 75 mm is
P (75 mm x 99.5 mm) =
99.5 mm 75 mm
= 0.247 25,
99 mm
39.27. Model: A radar pulse comprised of electromagnetic waves is a wave packet, so it must satisfy the
relationship f t 1.
Solve: The period 0.100 ns for a wave corresponds to a frequency of
f =
1
1
=
= 10.0 109 Hz
T 0.100 ns
39-10
Chapter 39
A pulse of duration t = 1.0 ns is 10 oscillations of the wave. Although the station broadcasts at a center frequency of
1.0 1010 Hz, this pulse is not a pure 1.0 1010 Hz oscillation. Instead, this pulse has been created by the superposition
of many waves whose frequencies span
f
1
1
=
= 1.0 109 Hz
t 1.0 1029 s
This range of frequencies is centered at the 1.0 1010 Hz broadcast frequency, so the waves that must be superimposed
to create this pulse span the frequency range:
f f/2 < f < f + f/2 9.5 GHz < f < 10.5 GHz
39.28. Model: The ultrasound pulse is a wave packet, so it must satisfy the relationship f t 1.
Solve: (a) The frequency of the ultrasound pulse is 1.000 MHz, so its wavelength is
v
1500 m/s
=
= 1.500 103 m = 1.500 mm
f 1.000 106 Hz
Since each pulse is 12 mm long, one pulse contains 8 complete cycles (12 mm/1.5 mm).
(b) Because T = f 1 = 1.000 106 s and there are 8 cycles, the pulse length is t = 8.000 106 s. Using f t 1,
f 1/t = 1.250 105 Hz. The range of frequencies that must be superimposed to create this pulse is from ( f f/2)
to ( f + f/2). That is, from 0.938 MHz to 1.063 MHz.
39.29. Model: The radio-wave pulses are wave packets, so each packet satisfies the relationship f t 1.
Visualize: Please refer to Figure P39.29.
Solve: Because the frequency bandwidth is f = 200 kHz, the shortest possible pulse width is
1
1
=
= 5.0 106 s
f 200 kHz
This means the time period of the pulse train is

T = 2t = 2(5.00 106 s) = 10 106 s
So, the frequency of the pulse train is f = 1/T = 1.0 105 Hz. That is, the maximum transmission rate is 1.0 105 pulses/s.
2

Visualize:
Solve: (a) Electrons are most likely to arrive at the points of maximum intensity. No electrons will arrive at points of
zero intensity.
(b) The graph of ( x )
looks just like the classical intensity pattern of single-slit diffraction.

2
(c) The wave function ( x ) is square root of ( x) . It oscillates because it alternates between the positive and
negative roots.
39-11
39.31. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by P( x) = ( x) .

Visualize:
Solve: (a) Since the electrons are uniformly distributed over the interval 0 x 2 cm, the probability density
2
P ( x) = ( x) is constant over this interval. P(x) = 0 outside this interval because no electrons are detected. Thus
2
( x) is a square function, as shown in the figure. To be normalized, the area under the probability curves must be 1.
Hence, the peak value of ( x )
must be 0.5 cm 1.
(b) The interval is x = 0.02 cm. The probability is

2
Prob(in x at x = 0.80 cm) = ( x = 0.80 cm) x = (0.5 cm 1 )(0.02 cm) = 0.01 = 1,

(c) From Equation 39.7, the number N of electrons that will fall within the given interval is
N (in x at x = 0.80 cm) = N total Prob(in dx at x = 0.80 cm) = 106 (0.01) = 1 104
2
(d) The probability density is P ( x = 0.80 cm) = ( x = 0.80 cm) = 0.5 cm 1.
39.32. Model: Probability is the area under the probability density curve.
Solve: 5000 of 10,000 electrons are found in the region 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm, which spans x = 2.0 cm, so the
probability of being in the region is 50%. Thus

area under the curve = P ( x) x = P ( x)(2.0 cm) = 0.50
P( x) = 0.25 cm 1
2500 electrons are found equally distributed in the two regions 2.0 cm x 1.0 cm and 1.0 cm x 2.0 cm, so the
probability is 0.25. These two regions together span x = 2.0 cm, thus
area under the curve = P ( x) x = P ( x)(2.0 cm) = 0.25
P ( x) = 0.125 cm 1
Similarly, 2500 electrons in the regions 3.0 cm x 2.0 cm and 2.0 cm x 3.0 cm, which also span x =
2.0 cm, gives a probability of 0.25 and P ( x) = 0.125 cm 1. This information is shown on the probability density
graph below.
39-12
Chapter 39
2
39.33. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by P( x) = ( x) .

Visualize:
Solve: (a) Yes, because the area under the ( x )
curve is equal to 1.
(b) There are two things to consider when drawing ( x). First ( x ) is an oscillatory function that changes sign
every time it reaches zero. Second, ( x ) must have the right shape. Each point on the ( x ) curve is the square root
of the corresponding point on the ( x)
curve. The values ( x) = 1 cm 1 and ( x) = 0 cm 1 clearly give

2
( x) = 1 cm 1/2 and ( x) = 0 cm 1/2 , respectively. But consider x = 0.5 cm, where ( x) = 0.5 cm 1. Because
0.5 = 0.707, ( x = 0.5 cm) = 0.707 cm 1/2 . This tells us that the ( x) curve is not linear but bows upward (or
downward if we take the negative square root) over the interval 0 x 1 cm. Thus, ( x) has the shape shown in the
above figure.
2
(c) x = 0.0010 cm is a very small interval, so we can use Prob(in x at x) = ( x ) x. The values of ( x )
can
be read from Figure P39.33. Thus,

Prob ( in x at x = 0.00 cm ) = ( x = 0.00 cm) x = (0.00 cm 1 )(0.0010 cm) = 0.00
2
Prob(in x at x = 0.50 cm) = ( x = 0.50 cm) x = (0.50 cm 1 )(0.0010 cm) = 0.00050

2
Prob(in x at x = 0.999 cm) = ( x = 0.999 cm) x = (0.999 cm 1 )(0.0010 cm) = 0.00999 0.0010
(d) The number N of electrons expected to land in the interval 0.3 cm x 0.3 cm is
N (in 0.30 cm x 0.30 cm) = N totalProb(in 0.30 cm x 0.30 cm)

= (1 104 )
0.30 cm
0.30 cm
( x) dx = (1 104 ) 2
2
1 0.30
2
cm 0.30 cm 1
= 900
2
39.34. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by P ( x) = ( x) .

Visualize:
( x)
39-13
dx = 1. In the interval 0 x 0.75 nm, ( x) = 4cx/3, where x is
in nm, and in the interval 0.75 nm x 1.0 nm, ( x) = 4c (1.0 nm x). Thus,
1=
0.75
( 43 cx )
dx +
1.0
[4c(1 x)]2 dx =
0.75
16 2 x3
c
9 3
0.75
1.0
x3
+ 16c 2 x x 2 +
3
0.75
After some manipulations,

64 2
12
c = 1 c = 3 nm
192
We did not carry the units through the integration, but we know that c has the units of the wave function ( );
namely, nm 1/ 2 .
(b) The particle wave function is ( x) = 4 x/ 3 for the interval 0 nm x 0.75 nm and ( x) = 4 3(1.0 x) for the
2
interval 0.75 nm x 1.0 nm. Thus, ( x) = (16/3) x 2 for 0 nm x 0.75 nm and ( x) = 48(1 x) 2 for 0.75 nm
x 1.0 nm. ( x)
has units of nm 1. The graph is shown above.
(c) The particle is most likely to be found at the points where ( x)
is a maximum. The dot picture is shown above.
(d) The probability is
Prob(0.0 nm x 0.25 nm) =
0.25
( x) dx =
0 .0
16 x3
=
3 3
0.25
=
0.0
16
3
0.25
dx
0.0
1
36
= 0.028
2
39.35. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by the probability density P( x) = ( x) .
Solve: (a) The wave function is a straight line passing through the origin such that it is +c at x = +4 mm and c at
x = 4 mm. That is, the wave function is
( x) = cx/4
where x is in mm and c is in mm 1/2 . Note that the units of c must be that of ( x). Because the total probability must
be unity, we have
1=
( x) dx =
2 2
2 2
(c x /16)dx = 2 (c x /16)dx =
2c 2 x3
8 2
= c
16 3
3
0
c=
3
mm 1/2
8
(b) From part (a), we have

2
( x) = c 2 x 2 /16 = 3x 2 /128 =
3x 2
(mm21)
128
A ( x ) -versus-x graph is shown in the figure below.
39-14
Chapter 39
(c) The particle is most likely to be found at the positions where ( x )
is a maximum. The graph above gives a dot
picture of the first few particles.

(d) Prob( 2.0 mm x 2.0 mm) =
2.0 mm
2.0
( x) dx = 2
2.0 mm
3
3x 2
3 x
dx = 2

128
128 3
2 .0
= 0.125 0.13
0
Solve: (a) The probability density extends from 4 cm to + 4 cm. The area under the P(x)-versus-x graph must be
unity, so
4.0 cm
1=
( x) dx = (4.0 cm) a a = 0.25 cm 1
4.0 cm
2
(b) The particle is most likely to be found at a position where ( x ) is a maximum. This will occur at x = 0 cm
because P(x) has its greatest value at x = 0.0 cm.

(c) 75% of the area under the curve occurs between x = 2.0 cm and 2.0 cm, so the range is 2.0 cm x 2.0 cm.
(d)
Solve: (a) The wave function ( x ) = (1.414 nm 1/ 2 )e x/ (1.0 nm ) changes over a length scale of ~1 nm. The distance
x = 0.010 nm is very small compared to 1 nm. So we can use
2
Prob(in x = 0.010 nm at x = 1.0 nm) = ( x = 1.0 nm) x

= [(1.414 nm 1/2 )e1 ]2 (0.010 nm)
= 2e2 (0.010) = 0.0027 = 0.27%
2
2
Solve: (a) ( x) = ce x/L for x 0 nm and ( x) = ce x/L for x 0 mm. The probability density will thus be ( x) =
2
c 2e2 x/L for x 0 mm and ( x) = c 2e 2 x/L for x 0 mm. With L = 2.0 mm, and
at various values of x are
displayed in the table below.

x (mm)
ce x/L
0
c
0.5
0.78c
1.0
0.61c
1.5
0.47c
2.0
0.37c
3.0
0.22c
4.0
0.14c
5.0
0.08c
c 2e2 x/L
c2
0.61c 2
0.37c 2
0.22c 2
0.14c 2
0.05c 2
0.022
0.01c 2
39-15
(b) Normalization of the wave function requires that
1=
( x) dx = 2 ( x) dx = 2 c 2e2 x/L dx = 2c 2 e2 x/L

0
2
0
1
1
=
= 0.71 mm 1/2
L
2.0 mm
c=

1.0 mm
Prob(1.0 mm x 1.0 mm) =
( x) dx
1.0 mm
1.0 mm
=2
1.0 mm
L
2.0 mm 1
= 2c 2
c 2e2 x/L dx = 2c 2 e2 x/L
[e 1] = 0.632 63,
0
mm
2
2
0 mm
(d) The region 1.0 mm x 1.0 mm is shaded on the probability density graph.
2
Solve: (a) Normalization of the wave function requires that
( x)
dx = 1. Therefore,
x3
4
1 = c (1 x )dx = c x = c 2
3
3
1
1
2
c=
3
= 0.87 cm 1/2
4
(b) The value of ( x) decreases from 0.87 at x = 0 cm to 0.75 at x = 0.5 cm and then to 0 cm at x = 1 cm. Thus, the graph
is bowed upward over the interval 0 x 1 cm. ( x) = 0 for x > 1 cm. The graph is also symmetrical about x = 0 cm.
(c) The probability density is ( x ) = c 2 (1 x 2 ) = 34 (1 x 2 ). The value of ( x )
decreases from 0.75 at x = 0 cm
to 0.56 at x = 0.5 cm and then to 0 at x = 1 cm. This graph is also bowed upward, although not as sharply as ( x). The
graph of ( x )
is shown in the above figure.
(d) The number of electrons is

N (in 0.00 cm x 0.50 cm) = N total Prob(in 0.00 cm x 0.50 cm)
0.50 cm
0.50
3
Prob(in 0.00 cm x 0.50 cm) = ( x ) dx = (1 x 2dx) =
4 0.00
0.00 cm
2
0.50
3
x3
= 0.344
x
4
3
0.00
Thus, the number of electrons detected in the interval 0 cm x 0.5 cm is 10,000 0.344 = 3440 3.4 103.
39-16
Chapter 39
2
Solve: (a) Normalization of the wave function requires that
( x)
dx = 1. By changing variables to = 2x/L,
we find
L
2 x
2 L
1 = c 2 sin 2
dx = c
2
L
sin
L 2
c=
2 2
d = c 2
2
L
(b) The wave function is ( x) = 2/L sin(2 x/L) for 0 x L and ( x) = 0, x < 0 m or x > L. Note that the wave
function is nonzero only in the range 0 m x L.
(c) The probability density ( x) = (2/L)sin 2 (2 x/L) is zero at x = 0 m, x = 12 L and x = L. The graph of ( x)
is
shown in the figure above.

Prob(0 x L/3) = c 2
L/3
sin 2 (2 x/L)dx =
2 /3
1 1
sin 2
2 4
0
L L
2 2
2 /3
sin 2 d
= + 0.2165 = 0.402 40,

3
Solve: (a) The given probability density means that 1 ( x) = a/(1 x) in the range 1 mm x 0 mm and 2 ( x) =
b(1 x) in the range 0 mm x 1 mm. Because 1 ( x = 0 mm) = 2 (x = 0 mm), a = b and thus a = b.

(b) At x = 1 mm, P(x) = 12 a; at x = 0 mm, P(x) = a; and at x = 1 mm, P(x) = 0. Furthermore, P(x) is a linear function
of x for 0 x 1 mm.
(c) Normalization of the wave function requires integrating over the entire range. This gives
P( x)dx =
x2
b
a
0
a
1 x dx + b(1 x)dx = a [ln (1 + x)]1 + b x 2 = a ln 2 + 2 = a ln 2 + 2 = a ln 2 + 12
0
0
1
where we have used a = b from part (a). Because
P( x)dx = 1,
39-17
we get a = b = 1/ ln 2 + 12 = 1/1.193 = 0.84.
(d) The probability that the particle will be found to the left of the origin is
0
P( x)dx =
1
1 x dx = a [ln(1 x)]1 = a ln 2 = 1.193 (0.693) = 0.581 58,

0
39.42. Model: A pulse is a wave packet, so it must satisfy the relation f t 1.

Solve: (a) The wavelength of 600 nm corresponds to a center frequency of
f0 =
3.0 108 m/s

600 109 m
= 5.0 1014 Hz
(b) The pulse duration is 6.0 fs, that is, t = 6.0 1015 s. Because the time period of the center frequency is T = f 01 =
2.0 1015 s, the number of cycles in the pulse is

t 6.0 1015 s
=
= 3.0
T 2.0 1015 s
(c) The frequency bandwidth for a 6.0-fs-long pulse is
1
1
f =
=
= 1.7 1014 Hz
t 6.0 1015 s
This bandwidth is centered on f 0 = 5.0 1014 Hz, so the necessary range of frequencies from f 0 12 f to f 0 + 12 f is
from 4.2 1014 Hz to 5.8 1014 Hz.
(d) The pulse travels at speed c, so the length is x = ct = (3.0 108 m/s)(6.0 1015 s) = 1.8 106 m = 1.8 m.
This is 3, in agreement with the finding that there are three cycles in the pulse.
(e) The graph has three oscillations spanning 1.8 m = 3.
39.43. Model: Electrons are subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

Solve: When we confine a particle in a box, we know the particle is somewhere in the box. So the uncertainty in our
knowledge of its position is at most x = L. With a finite x, the uncertainty px cannot be zero. If speed is less than
10 m/s, then the range of velocities is 10 m/s to +10 m/s. Thus vx is 20 m/s.
The uncertainty principle is
px = mvx =
h
h/2
=
2x
L
L=
h
6.63 1034 J s
=
= 18 m
2mvx 2(9.11 1031 kg)(20 m/s)
The smallest box length is 18 m.
39.44. Model: A dust speck is a particle and is thus subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Solve: The uncertainty in our knowledge of the position of the dust speck is x = 10 m. The uncertainty in the dust
specks momentum is
p x =
h/2 6.63 1034 J s

=
= 3.32 1029 kg m/s
x 2(10 106 m)
39-18
Chapter 39
Equivalently, the uncertainty in the dust particle velocity is

v x =
px 3.32 1029 kg m/s

=
= 3.32 1013 m/s
m
1.0 1016 kg
The average velocity is 0 m/s, so the range of possible velocities is 1.66 1013 m/s to + 1.66 1013 m/s. The particle
could have a top speed of up to 1.66 1013 m/s. The maximum kinetic energy the speck has is
K=
1 2 1
mv = (1.0 1016 kg)(1.66 1013 m/s) 2
2
2
= 1.4 1042 J
To get out of the hole, the particle would have to acquire potential energy
U = mgh = (1.0 1016 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )(1.0 106 m)
= 9.8 1022 J
The energy gain needed to get out of the hole is much larger than the available kinetic energy. The particle does not
have anywhere near enough kinetic energy that it could transform into potential energy and escape. Using K = mgh,
the deepest hole from which the dust speck could have a good chance of escaping is
h=
K
1.4 1042 J
=
= 1.4 1027 m
mg (1.0 1016 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )
39.45. Model: The electron is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Model the nucleus as a one-dimensional box.
Solve: (a) The uncertainty in our knowledge of the position of the electron is x = 10 fm. The uncertainty in the
electrons momentum and velocity are

p x =
h/2 6.63 1034 J s

=
= 3.32 1020 kg m/s
x 2(10 1015 m)
v x =
p x 3.32 1020 kg m/s

=
= 3.64 1010 m/s
m
9.11 1031 kg
The range of possible velocities is 1.82 1010 m/s to + 1.82 1010 m/s, so the range of speeds is from 0 m/s to
1.82 1010 m/s.
(b) The minimum range of speeds for an electron confined to a nucleus exceeds the speed of light, so it is not
possible.
39.46. Solve: (a) For a photon, E = hf which means E = hf . Assuming the photon is a wave packet, the relationship
that is applicable to a wave packet f t 1 becomes
t 1 E t h
h
(b) The energy of a photon cannot be exactly known. The uncertainty in our knowledge of a photons energy depends
on the length of time t that is available to measure it.
(c) The uncertainty in the energy is
h 6.63 1034 J s
= 6.63 1026 J = 4.1 107 eV

t
10 109 s
(d) The energy of the photon is
E=
hc
(6.63 1034 J s)(3.0 108 m/s)
500 109 m
so the fractional uncertainty in the photons energy is
= 3.978 1019 J
1 eV
1.6 1019 J
= 2.49 eV
E 4.14 107 eV
=
= 1.7 107
E
2.49 eV
39-19
39.47. Model: The dust particle is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Ignore air-resistance effects.
Solve: (a) The uncertainty in the momentum and velocity of the dust particle are
p x =
h/2 6.63 1034 J s

=
= 3.315 1028 kg m/s
x 2(1.0 106 m)
v x =
px 3.13 1028 kg m/s

=
= 3.32 1013 m/s
m
1.0 1015 kg
Thus the range of velocities is 1.66 1013 m/s to + 1.66 1013 m/s, or the range of speeds is 0 m/s to 1.66 1013 m/s.
Assuming the dust particle falls freely with the acceleration due to gravity, the time taken by the dust particle to travel a
vertical distance of d = 1.0 m is
yf yi = 1.0 m = vit 12 gt 2 = (0 m/s)t 12 (9.8 m/s 2 )t 2
t = 0.45 s
With a horizontal velocity of 1.66 1013 m/s, the horizontal distance traveled in this time is d x = vxt = 7.5 1014 m.
Half the particles move to the right and half to the left, so the diameter of the circle in which they land exceeds 1.0 m
by 1.5 1013 m. This certainly cannot be detected.
(b) To get a circle with a 1.1 m diameter, we need the dust particle to move 0.05 m in either direction to increase
radius from 0.50 m to 0.55 m. With the horizontal velocity obtained in part (a), to get this distance under the force
of gravity will take
0.05 m
t=
= 3.0 105 s
1.66 1013 m/s
We can now find the free-fall distance:

yf yi = vit + 12 at 2 = (0 m/s)t + 12 (9.8 m/s)(3.0 105 s) 2 = 4.4 1011 m
Assess: This is larger than the diameter of the earths orbit around the sun.
39.48. Model: An atom is a particle and is thus subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Solve: (a) Since the atom is confined within a box 1.0 mm in length, the uncertainty in our knowledge of its position
is x = 1.0 mm. The uncertainty in the atoms momentum and velocity are
p x =
h/2 6.63 1034 J s

=
= 3.32 1031 kg m/s
x 2(1.0 103 m)
v x =
p x 3.32 1031 kg m/s

=
= 8.6 106 m/s
m
23 1.67 1027 kg
This range of possible velocities will be centered on vx = 0 m/s, so all we can know is that the atoms velocity is
somewhere in the range 4.3 106 m/s vx 4.3 106 m/s and thus its speed is in the range 0 m/s v 4.3 106 m/s.
1
(b) With vrms = vmax = 2.15 106 m/s, the lowest possible temperature is
2
T=
2
mvrms
(23 1.67 1027 kg)(2.15 106 m/s) 2
=
= 4.3 1015 K
3kB
3(1.38 1023 J/K)
Assess: The limit set on temperature by the uncertainty principle is much lower than 1 nK.
2
Solve: We first need to see if the wave function is normalized:
( x) dx =
( x2 + b2 )
dx =
b 1 1 x
1
tan
= = 1
b
b 2 2
39-20
Chapter 39
The function was already normalized. The probability is

b
( x) dx =
Prob( b x b) =
dx
( x2 + b2 )
[tan 1 (1) tan 1 ( 1)] =
b 1 1 x
tan
b
b b
1
= 50,
2
2
39.50. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by the probability density P ( x) = ( x) .
Solve: (a)
( x) =
1 mm x 0 mm
(1 + x 2 )
= c(1 + x)2
0 mm x 1 mm
=0
elsewhere
Because the value of the wave function must be the same at x = 0 (note that the x = 0 mm point is covered in both the
left (1 mm x 0 mm) and the right (0 mm x 1 mm) parts of the wave function),
b
1 + (0 mm)
= c(1 + 0 mm) 2
b=c
(b) So the wave function is
( x) =
1 mm x 0 mm
(1 + x 2 )
= c(1 + x)2
0 mm x 1 mm
=0
elsewhere
and the probability density is
c2
( x) =
1 mm x 0 mm
(1 + x 2 )
= c 2 (1 + x) 4
0 mm x 1 mm
=0
elsewhere
( x) and ( x) are shown below .
1 mm
(c) Prob(x 0) =
( x) dx =
0 mm
1 mm
c 2 (1 + x) 4 dx, when the wave function is normalized to unity. Let us first find c
0 mm
to normalize the function:

0
c2
(1 + x2 ) dx + c
(1 + x) 4 dx = 1
39-21
The first integral is

0
x
tan 1 x
1 2
2
= c2
+
= + c = 0.643c
2 2
2
2
4
8
(1
x
)
2(1
x
)
+
+
1
1
dx
c2
The second integral gives
1
2x
4 x 4 6 x3 4 x 2
31
c ( x + 4 x + 6 x + 4 x + 1)dx = c +
+
+
+ x = c 2 = 6.20c 2
4
3
2
5
0 5
0
2
Thus the sum of the two integrals is

c 2 (6.843) = 1 c = 0.382
Finally,
1 mm
Prob(x 0) =
c 2 (1 + x) 4 dx
0 mm
1 mm
2
=c
( x 4 + 4 x3 + 6 x 2 + 4 x + 1) dx
0 mm
2x
1 mm
4 x 4 6 x3 4 x 2
= (0.38) +
+
+
+ x
4
3
2
5
0 mm
5
= (0.38) 2 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 1
5
31
= (0.382) 2 = 0.91 = 91,
5
2
Solve: (a) The normalization condition demands
( x)
dx = 1. Hence,
1 2
dx + c 2 x 2dx + c 2 x 2 dx +
2
dx = 2 c 2 x 2 dx + 2
2
x2
dx = 1
x3
2
3
1
2c 2 + 2c 2 = c 2 + 2c 2 = 1 c =
3
x
3
8
1
0
(b)
39-22
Chapter 39
(c) The probability density is

2
( x) = x 2
8
( x 1 nm )
8x2
( x) =
( x 1 nm )
The figure above shows the ( x) - versus- x graph.

Prob( 1.0 nm x 1.0 nm) =
1.0 nm
c 2 x 2dx = 2c 2
21.0 nm
1.0 nm
2
23
x 2 dx = c 2 = = 25,
3
38
0.0 nm
The number of electrons detected is (0.25)(106 ) = 2.5 105.

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39

WAVE FUNCTIONS AND UNCERTAINTY

The electron is most likely to be found at the point or points where ( x)

is a maximum. The graph given in the

is a minimum. From the figure, ( x) = 0 at x = 1 nm. Thus, the electron is least

likely to be found at x = 1 nm.

P( x)dx = 1. For this condition to be true

Exercises and Problems

Wave Functions and Uncertainty

Section 39.2 Connecting the Wave and Photon Views

2000/N (10 V/m) 2 (0.10 mm)

39.9. Model: See Example 39.1.

Assess: This result is similar to the result of Example 39.1.

Section 39.3 The Wave Function

m . Thus the units of are m

39.11. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by ( x) .

electrons landing in a 0.010-mm-wide strip is

( 13 mm1 ) (0.010 mm)(1.0 106 ) = 3333 3.3 103

(b) Likewise, the number of electrons landing in a 0.010-mm-wide strip at x = 2.000 mm is

Wave Functions and Uncertainty

and negative values each time ( x ) reaches zero.

of the graph of part (b).

39.13. Model: The probability of finding a particle at position x is determined by ( x) .

will land in a x = 0.010-mm-wide strip at x = 0.000 mm is

(b) Since (0.500 mm) = 0.25 mm 1, the probability is 2.5 103.

(c) Since (1.000 mm) = 0.0 mm 1, the probability is 0.0.

(d) Since (2.000 mm) = 0.25 mm 1, the probability is 2.5 103.

Section 39.4 Normalization

Solve: (a) The normalization condition for a wave function:

dx = area under the curve = 1. In the present

case, the area under the ( x ) -versus-x graph is 2a nm. Hence, a = 12 nm 1.

downward, would also be an acceptable wave function.

Solve: (a) According to Equation 39.18,

dx = area under the curve = 1. The area under the ( x) -versus-x

graph is 4a fm. Hence, a = 0.25 fm 1.

graph. Where the

positive, would also be an acceptable wave function.

Solve: (a) According to Equation 39.18,

dx = 1. We calculate this integral by drawing the graph of ( x)

and finding the area under the curve.

Wave Functions and Uncertainty

The area of the ( x)

( x) dx = (0.25c 2 )(1.0 nm) + (c 2 )(2.0 nm) + (0.25c 2 )(1.0 nm) = 2.5c 2

Prob( 1.0 nm x 1.0 nm) =

nm 1 (2.0 nm) = 0.80

Solve: (a) According to the normalization condition,

dx = 1. From the given ( x)-versus-x graph, we first

The area under the ( x) -versus-x graph is

c 2dx = (8.0 mm)c 2 = 1.0 c =

(b) The graph is shown above.

Prob(1.0 mm x 1.0 mm) =

c 2dx = c 2 (2.0 mm) =

Section 39.5 Wave Packets

3.0 108 m/s

Since f = 2.0 GHz, the minimum pulse duration is

The number n of oscillations in this laser pulse is

Section 39.6 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Wave Functions and Uncertainty

Assess: This is a few dozen atomic diameters.

39.25. Model: Protons are subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

P (49.0 mm x 51.0 mm) =

P (75 mm x 99.5 mm) =

This means the time period of the pulse train is