Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electrical
Measurements
Laboratory
Table of Contents
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................................................i
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................................................. iv
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................... vi
Course Syllabus ............................................................................................................................................................. vii
Class Policies ................................................................................................................................................................... ix
1 Safety Practices in the Laboratory [1] .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Care in handling and use of a multimeter .................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations ................................................................................................................ 2
2 Laboratory Equipment, Tools and Components ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Laboratory Equipment ....................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Power Supply................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Function/Signal Generator ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Analog Oscilloscope ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.4 Digital Oscilloscope .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1.5 Equipment Calibration ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Laboratory Components................................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.1 Passive Components ................................................................................................................................ 14
2.2.1.1 Resistors............................................................................................................................................... 14
Resistor Value Reading ............................................................................................................................ 15
Potentiometer .............................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.1.2 Capacitors ............................................................................................................................................ 17
2.2.1.3 Inductors .............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.2 Active Components .................................................................................................................................. 19
2.3 Laboratory Tools ............................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.1 Multimeter ................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.1.1 Analog Multimeter ........................................................................................................................... 21
Using the Multimeter to Measure Voltage, Current and Resistance ..................................... 22
Zero-ing the Meter Scale ......................................................................................................................... 24
Connectivity/Continuity Test................................................................................................................ 24
2.3.1.2
ii
3 Electrical Measurements .................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1 Theory and Practice ......................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Error and Linearity ........................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1 Error ............................................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.2 Linearity........................................................................................................................................................ 34
3.3 Accuracy and Precision ................................................................................................................................... 36
3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of the Multimeter ................................................................................................. 37
3.4.1 Practical Power Supply........................................................................................................................... 37
3.4.2 Characteristic of the 1mA movement Galvanometer Scale ..................................................... 38
3.4.3 DC Ammeter ................................................................................................................................................ 39
3.4.4 DC Voltmeter............................................................................................................................................... 41
3.4.5 Ohmmeter .................................................................................................................................................... 43
4 Experiments ............................................................................................................................................................... 45
Experiment 0: Basic Measurements ................................................................................................................. 47
Experiment 1: Debugging Circuits ..................................................................................................................... 52
Experiment 2: DC Measurements (Current).................................................................................................. 57
Experiment 3: DC Measurements (Voltage) .................................................................................................. 61
Experiment 4: Resistance Measurements ...................................................................................................... 66
Experiment 5-a: Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Analog)......................................................................... 71
Experiment 5-d: Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Digital) ......................................................................... 79
Experiment 6: AC Detection Diodes .............................................................................................................. 87
Experiment 7: AC Analysis RLC Circuits ...................................................................................................... 94
Experiment 8: Transducers and Operational Amplifiers ......................................................................... 98
5 Documentation....................................................................................................................................................... 101
5.1 Documentation Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 101
5.1.1 Technical Development ........................................................................................................................ 101
5.1.2 Paper Format and Appearance ......................................................................................................... 101
5.2 Online Submission Guidelines.................................................................................................................... 102
6 Project ......................................................................................................................................................................... 103
6.1 Project Guidelines ........................................................................................................................................... 103
6.1.1 Project Proposal ...................................................................................................................................... 103
6.1.2 Project Testing and Construction..................................................................................................... 104
6.1.3 Project Documentation ......................................................................................................................... 104
6.1.4 Project Presentation .............................................................................................................................. 104
6.1.5 Criteria for Grading ................................................................................................................................ 105
6.2 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) ....................................................................................................... 105
References .................................................................................................................................................................... 107
iii
Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper for A4 Page Size ......................................................................................... 109
Appendix B: Some Notes from Transducer Datasheets ............................................................................... 110
Appendix C: Some Notes from Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Datasheets .................................... 112
Appendix D: Available Components in Instruments Room*...................................................................... 113
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1. Connecting wires ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Alligator clips .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3. Controlled-voltage supply (left) and controlled-current supply (right) modes. ................ 5
Figure 4. Controlled-voltage supply mode with 8.8V used to power-up a simple circuit. ................. 6
Figure 5. Triple output power supply unit (PSU). ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 6. Programmable DC Power Supply (Triple Output)........................................................................... 7
Figure 7. Sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz and 10Vpeak-to-peak (Vpp) level. ...................................................... 8
Figure 8. Sig-gen probe. The circuit-end are red and black alligator clips while the sig-gen end is
a BNC connector. ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9. Analog oscilloscope self-calibration using built-in 2Vpp 1kHz square-wave signal. ..... 10
Figure 10. Oscilloscope probes. ............................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 11. Digital Oscilloscope ................................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 12. Resistor types based on composition material and tolerance level. [5] ........................... 14
Figure 13. Resistor Color Code. [5] ........................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 14. Potentiometer: actual (left), electrical model (middle) and usual electrical symbols
(right). [6] ......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 15. Different types of capacitors, both non-polar and polar. [7] ................................................. 17
Figure 16. . Ceramic capacitor value reading. [8] ............................................................................................. 18
Figure 17. Different types of inductors. [9] ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 18. Analog multimeters. ............................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 19. Analog multimeter selector knob. [2] ............................................................................................. 22
Figure 20. Analog multimeter calibration scale. [3] ........................................................................................ 23
Figure 21. Zero-ing the meter scale. [4] ............................................................................................................... 24
Figure 22. Hand-held digital multimeters. .......................................................................................................... 25
Figure 23. Bench digital multimeter. ..................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 24. 1mA movement. ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 25. Protoboard. [10] ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 26. Protoboard wiring of two complex circuits: messy wiring (left) and clean wiring
(right). [10] ...................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 27. PHD Comics: Debugging. [12] ............................................................................................................. 31
Figure 28. (a) Simple resistive circuit, (b) ideal voltmeter, and (c) practical voltmeter ................. 33
Figure 29. Input-output relationship showing linearity. .............................................................................. 34
Figure 30. Difference between accuracy and precision. [13] ...................................................................... 36
Figure 31. Practical voltage source (left) and practical current source (right). [14] ........................ 37
Figure 32. 1mA movement inside structure (left) and its electrical symbol (right). [15]............... 38
Figure 33. Measuring current using the galvanometer as the ammeter. ............................................... 39
Figure 34. Extending the range of the ammeter. .............................................................................................. 40
Figure 35. DC Voltmeter structure using 1mA movement. .......................................................................... 41
Figure 36. Measuring voltage using the galvanometer with a series resistor as the voltmeter. .. 41
Figure 37. Ohmmeter structure using 1mA movement. ................................................................................ 43
Figure 38. Measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor using analog ohmmeter. .................. 44
Figure B. 1. Typical response curve temperature versus resistance of UEI447 NTC Thermistor.
............................................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Figure B. 2. Basic Centigrade temperature sensor (+2 + 150). ................................................ 111
Figure B. 3. Resistance as a function of illumination. ................................................................................... 111
vi
Introduction
Taking electrical measurements is an essential skill that every engineer must learn and
master. Without it, we will not know how to evaluate and improve things. This is an essential part
that somehow shapes the kind of technology we have today further on what it would be like
tomorrow. However, taking electrical measurements is not a simple read-and-record task. This
skill requires that a student must be able to determine (and hence apply):
a. what kind of measurements or experiments are best suited for a particular
application;
b. which tool or set of tools are essential to accomplish such task;
c. how to analyze, verify, and interpret or make-sense of the acquired data, and;
d. how to properly report data such that others can understand them without
vagueness, ambiguity and/or confusion.
EEE 34 (Electrical Measurements Laboratory) is the gateway of students in familiarizing
with the common equipment, components, and tools being used in EEE instructional laboratories
while observing safety practices. The main goal of the course is to provide students a further
understanding of the theoretical concepts gained in EEE 31 (Introduction to Electrical and
Electronics Engineering) and currently learning in EEE 33 (Electric Circuit Theory) by
implementing actual circuits and investigating the practical issues in measurements through
hands-on experiments.
This student laboratory manual aims to provide the students (as well as laboratory
instructors) a complete, uniform and coherent document in achieving the course goals and
objectives. This will also give laboratory instructors more time to focus in teaching and guiding
the students with the hands-on rather than providing the offline knowledge. The delivery of the
content, however, still depends on the prerogative of the instructor. In summary, this manual
aims to present EEE 34 in an efficient and effective way.
My sincerest gratitude to Siegfred Balon, Adrian Salces, and previous & current EEE 34
instructors whose work built the foundation of, and hence further improved, this course; to Jaybie
de Guzman for bringing up the concept of writing this laboratory manual and in his contribution
in providing some of the content. Finally, I wish to thank my past EEE 34 students for inspiring
me to write this laboratory manual.
vii
Course Syllabus
EEE 34 Electrical Measurements Laboratory
I.
Credits
II.
Prerequisites / Co-requisites
III.
Schedule
1 meeting/week, 3 hours/meeting
IV.
Course Description
V.
Course Goals
a.
b.
c.
d.
VI.
Course Objectives
a.
b.
c.
d.
VII.
1
2-3
Session #
Session objectives
Clarify class policies and note important ideas about
the course; demonstrate proper use of laboratory
facilities and equipment; Emphasize safety practice in
the laboratory
Introduce passive components used in EEE resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Perform basic electrical
measurements
Perform different methods of making DC voltage and
current measurement; identify when each method is
applicable; specify the degree of accuracy of any
measurement made and identify the main causes of
error.
Perform different methods of measuring resistance;
identify when each method is applicable; Specify the
degree of accuracy of any measurement made and
identify the main causes of error.
Topic
Syllabus Discussion,
Laboratory equipment
procedures and practice, Safety
Quiz
Electronic component value
reading, Basic Electrical
Measurements
DC Measurements
Resistance Measurements
viii
5
6-7
8-9
10
11
12
13
14-15
16
VIII.
AC Measurements (Power,
RMS, Peak-to-peak Voltage,
Phasor, Power factor)
2nd Practical Exam (for topics
covered in meetings 6-9)
Digital Instrumentation (Signal
Generator, Digital Multimeter)
Transducer Project
Project Presentation
References
Larry D. Jones & A. Foster Chin, Electronic Instruments and Measurements, 2nd Edition,
Prentice-Hall, 1991.
Joseph Carr, Elements of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3rd Edition,
Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and
Measurement Techniques, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1990.
Alan S. Morris, Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation, 2nd Edition, PrenticeHall, 1993.
IX.
Requirements
X.
Grading System
[100,92]
(92,88]
(88,84]
(84,80]
(80,76]
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
10%
45%
30%
15%
(72,68]
(68,64]
(64,60]
(60,0]
2.50
2.75
3.00
5.00
No 4.00 nor INC.
ix
Class Policies
Laboratory Instructor
Name:
Office Room:
Email Address:
Consultation Hours:
<name>
<faculty room>
<email address>
<TBA>
The following may change depending on the prerogative of respective laboratory instructor:
a. For every laboratory task, a student must form/join a group (maximum of 3 depending on available
workstations). Groupings (either random or choose-your-own) may vary from task to task. It is the
responsibility of the student to acquaint with his/her group-mates at the start of every experiment.
UP students are expected to be versatile and thus can work with all kind of team-mates.
b. Pre-Laboratory (Pre-Lab) report must be submitted in class before any corresponding
experiment. Separate Pre-Lab sheets are available in this manual. A student will NOT be allowed
to do the experiment in failure to submit the Pre-Lab report. Copied work is intellectual dishonesty
and will never be accepted.
c. Each group* must submit a laboratory report (Post-Lab) that summarizes the experiment and
answers the guide questions in the experiment through the results obtained. Further
observation and in-depth analysis will earn additional merit. The laboratory report must be
submitted in-print (not necessarily coloured) two weeks after the experiment (due 30 minutes
from official start of class). Late papers will automatically receive a zero grade. The Post-Lab report
must be in IEEE paper format (a sample template is given in Appendix B).
d. For any submitted report, never forget to cite reference/s if there is/are any. Failure to properly
document and acknowledge an existing work is considered intellectual malpractice.
e. Student/s arriving 30 minutes late will be considered absent and will receive no grade for the
laboratory reports on the experiment for that day. However, for the love of learning, he/she/they
can still join his/her/their group-mates in performing the experiment. No make-up class for
unexcused absence/s.
f. Student/s incurring more than three (3) absences will be advised to drop the course or will be
given a failing grade if the dropping period has lapsed.
g. Work ethics inside the laboratory must be observed. No phones or gadgets. However, they can be
used shortly for documentation purposes. Clean up your workplace when done. Make sure to turn
off all equipment and measuring tools/devices before leaving. Components used must be returned
properly.
h. Class standing will be available online at the middle of the semester.
i. In case of a class suspension, wait for announcements from the laboratory instructor regarding
deadlines and how the schedule of activities will be changed. Also, inform the laboratory instructor
for schedule conflicts (esp. Monday classes) with scheduled departmental exams as early as
possible.
j. All students should be aware of the safety practices, as well as the rules and regulations, imposed
in the laboratory. These are available in the succeeding sections.
Initial requirements:
1. Join our Facebook group/UVLe section with name _____________ and passkey ______________.
Announcements and other broadcast message will be posted here.
2. Accomplish a softcopy version of the traditional student index card the Student
Information Card (SIC). A sample template with guidelines can be found in our online
group.
*Grading of course requirements to be submitted by group is INDEPENDENT of any issue internal to the
group concerned (e.g. student A did not participate preparing this/that, student B is going to be late but the
final report is with him/her, etc.). Although a portion of grade is evaluated per group, the majority still is
individual assessment.
Safety is always the biggest concern when working in a laboratory, particularly when dealing with
electricity. This concern covers not only valuable research work and equipment, but extends to the lives of the
people as well. More often than not, accidents happen due to carelessness and improper handling or use of
equipment. Most accidents can be avoided through proper safety precautions and common sense. Here are a
few of them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
DO NOT TOUCH the power plugs connecting the table outlets to the floor outlets doing so risks being
subjected to an electric shock, and possibly death.
Take note of the limitations of the instruments and components (power, current, or voltage). Make sure
that you do not subject components and instruments to values of voltage and currents that can destroy
them.
When measuring voltage, it is good practice to use just one hand. Just clip one terminal to one node and
hold the other at the insulated part of the test probe, NEVER on the metal tip.
In measuring current, shut power off before breaking the circuit. Insert the ammeter before turning the
power on.
Report damages as soon as possible.
Violation of the aforementioned rules and regulations shall be met with punishments
ranging from, but not limited to grade deductions, a failing grade, suspension or expulsion
from the university or a combination thereof. Replacement of damaged equipment or
other properties shall also be demanded of the violator.
4
Another common connectors are called alligator clips, shown in Figure 2, as the
conducting clip resembles the mouth of an alligator. The terminologies here are quite intuitive
because the thinking/analysis difficulty must not depend on the identification of each tools or
equipment.
Alligator clips are just like connecting wires except that the end/s is/are of the form of
alligator clip/s (ugh cannot find another term for it). Connecting wires, alligator clips, and other
types of connectors represent the solid lines that we use to construct our circuits in theory. From
this point on, the reader must be able to distinguish alligator clips easily from other types of tobe-discussed connectors.
The adjust knobs set the desired level of voltage or current. The major knobs are for
coarse adjustments while the FINE tunes in finer granularity useful in setting supply with high
accuracy. Shown on left of Figure 3 is the controlled-voltage supply mode (look closely green LED
is lit on CV) while on the right it is in controlled-current supply (green LED is lit on CC).
Throughout the course, we will only use voltage supplies so it is necessary that our power supply
is in CV mode. To achieve this, turn the current adjust knob fully clockwise and the CV LED
should be lit. While on this mode, be extra careful that the red and black alligator clips do not get
shorted. Otherwise, the supply will force itself to go in CC mode (with a ticking sound). Such
short-circuit event is harmful not only to your circuit components but also to ones personal
health. Remember that it is not the voltage but the current that could be fatal.
The color code again is intuitive and we can see, is also uniform red for positive and
black for negative. Note that the GND port in the equipment is NOT the ground of the to-beconstructed-circuit but the ground of the equipment itself. The students are the ones
deciding/designing which node is the ground for their circuits. For example, suppose we have set
5.0V as shown on the left of Figure 3. This voltage level indicates a potential difference of 5.0V
between the positive and negative ports (i.e., from the negative port, there is a voltage rise of 5.0V
going to the positive port). We can therefore use either port as the reference or the ground of
the to-be-constructed circuit. If the black clip is used as ground/reference, then the red clip serves
as positive (+) 5.0V. If the red clip is used as ground/reference instead, then the black clip serves
as negative (-) 5.0V. The students should not be confused with this concept especially if we go
into applications requiring bipolar voltage supplies (e.g. +/-5V for operational amplifiers).
Figure 4. Controlled-voltage supply mode with 8.8V used to power-up a simple circuit.
In Figure 4, the power supply is providing the circuit with 8.8V. However, while the power
supply is in CV mode, it also indicates a current of 0.01A. Is there something wrong here? Actually,
there is none. The power supply also indicates how much current, with the set voltage level at CV
mode, the circuit is drawing. If we have set to 8.8V and the circuit is drawing 0.01A, how much
power (in Watts) does the circuit consume?
Lastly, notice the position of the decimal point both in current and voltage. Suppose we
target to get a voltage level of 0.1V. Since the supply only displays up to tenths digit, if it displays
0.1V, then we are not certain if we have 0.1000V or 0.1999V. Therefore, perhaps we can adjust
from 0.0999V and stop turning the knob just before it displays 0.1000V. Does that make sense?
Looking forward, imagine if all groups in one class uses single output DC supply and a
group needs at least 2 voltage levels each. Then, the workstations will be filled with a bunch of DC
supplies. With that, the laboratory also has triple output power supply units (PSU). An actual
photo is shown in Figure 5 .
In this DC supply (see Figure 5), Output A has fixed 5.0V supply (1000mA overload limit)
while Outputs B and C (250mA overload limit) are adjustable from 0V to 20V. The galvanometer
scale indicates the voltage/current level of Output B or C depending on the selection switch found
at the bottom. The interface ports here however is a bit different with that of the single output DC
supply. Alligator clips (for both ends) can be clipped on the metallic ports on one end and the
other to your circuit.
In any case, it is always a safe practice to set the desired voltage level first in ISOLATION
before using them to power-up your circuit (i.e. before turning the supply ON). Imagine if the
supply is already connected to your circuit and you suddenly turned it on not knowing that the
previous setting might be as high as 30V! Will the experience from what is going to happen be
worth it?
Fortunately, our laboratories are now equipped with more advanced equipment. Shown
in Figure 6 is a programmable DC power supply. It is similar to the one in Figure 5 but the settings
and controls are now digital (keyword programmable). Usage of this equipment is not difficult
once the operation of previously discussed power supplies are well understood. One evident
advantage of this one is the circuit does not need to be disconnected physically to isolate from
the supply. An ON/OFF button is available to switch these supplies. DC supply #1 is ON as shown
in Figure 6.
50 BNC
Connector
Female
Figure 7. Sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz and 10Vpeak-to-peak (Vpp) level.
Students from their physics courses should already be familiar with waveform concepts
such as amplitude, frequency, period, as well as the differences between a sinusoidal, square, and
triangular waveforms.
Shown in Figure 7, as an example, is the sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz with 10Vpeak-to-peak
(Vpp) level. Note that although it displays 10Vpp, the sig-gen might not necessarily be able to
supply the exact 10Vpp (e.g. it might be attenuated to, say, 8Vpp). If that is the case, how do we
determine if we are using a true 10Vpp? One way to test is to use the oscilloscope and ASSUME
that, as a measuring tool, it is well-calibrated (see Section 2.1.5 Equipment Calibration) and
working properly. The same case might hold for frequency setting but for most basic circuits,
accuracy deviation of about 100Hz is tolerable (e.g. 0.900kHz or 1.100kHz can most likely
represent the true 1.000kHz).
50 BNC
Connector
Male
Figure 8. Sig-gen probe. The circuit-end are red and black alligator clips while the siggen end is a BNC connector.
9
The only proper probe that must be used for sig-gen is the one shown in Figure 8. Notice
that one end uses red and black alligator clips (used for the positive and negative respectively).
Proper polarity should always be observed. The clips are to be connected to the circuit (similar
to the usage when dealing with DC power supply). In other words, the color-coding is NOT a
suggestion.
At the other end, the connector is a male 50 BNC connector. The female 50 BNC port is
shown in Figure 7. BNC is used for a secured/locked match and is not a straight-forward plugand-play connector. The laboratory instructor must demonstrate the proper mating and unmating of this type of connector. Of course, these are technical terms.
10
Figure 9. Analog oscilloscope self-calibration using built-in 2Vpp 1kHz square-wave signal.
An example of oscilloscope probe is shown in Figure 10. One end is also a male BNC
connector type while the other end is DIFFERENT with that used for sig-gen. In order to display
a stable signal, it should be referenced/grounded properly (i.e., signal is not floating). The probe
pin is suitable for inserting to a protoboard/breadboard. The probe cap with hook is an accessory
that can be used for clamping/probing on one leg (lead wire) of a circuit component, say, of a
resistor. These same probes can be used for digital oscilloscopes.
11
Probe Compensation
(attenuation setting
slide switch)
12
13
14
2.2.1.1 Resistors
Resistors are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components.
Resistors basically resist or regulate the flow of current running through the circuit.
There are several types of resistor based on composition material, tolerance accuracy,
and wattage. Each is suitable for a specific application. For example, high wattage resistors are
used in power electronics while film resistors (known for low-noise characteristic) are used for
radio communication electronics. For instructional purposes, we are only interested with the
resistance value and hence a typical 4-band resistor (can handle up to 0.25 Watts) is sufficient
(see Figure 12).
Figure 12. Resistor types based on composition material and tolerance level. [5]
15
410 5%
or basically 4.7k.
How can we be so sure that we are
reading the color band in the correct sequence
and not the other way around? Well, did we
just mention that the 4th band can only take on
gold, silver or none? Equivalently, the first
band cannot take on these colors.
16
Potentiometer
Two wire-lead resistors have fixed resistance value but often times, we need a specific
and/or out-of-fixed-standard resistance value in our circuit design and implementation. This
makes variable resistor or potentiometer (dubbed as pot) a useful tool. Potentiometer is a threeterminal component with variable or adjustable resistance. It can be thought of as two resistors
in series that simultaneously change values with movement of the wiper (see Figure 14).
Figure 14. Potentiometer: actual (left), electrical model (middle) and usual electrical symbols (right). [6]
A potentiometer is identified with its value (usually printed on its casing). Suppose that
we have a 10k potentiometer. Using an ohmmeter, the 10k or a close value can be measured
on end-to-end (in the diagram, it is 3-1 or 1-3 since resistors are passive components and do not
have polarity). We can get the variable resistance by tapping the terminal 2 and using either
terminal 1 or 3 for the other end. Adjusting the wiper (corresponds to terminal 2) changes the
resistances of 1-2 and 2-3 resistors simultaneously. To assess our understanding, suppose again
that we have a 10k potentiometer and 1-2 measures 4k, then the expected value to be
measured on 2-3 would be?
CAUTION: Adjusting the wiper on extreme positions (i.e., = 0 1, see Figure 14) can
result in a technical short on either leg which will draw overload current from the power supply
if the circuit is not properly designed.
Short circuit events can cause fire. Thus, as a good practice, a 100 resistor or near-value
is usually place in series with a potentiometer. In the event that an unintentional short was set in
potentiometer, the 100 will still be able to regulate the flowing current. However, diagrams in
our experiments do not include this safety resistor. This is for student to evaluate mistakes on
their own. The smell of a burnt potentiometer is not an inviting experience nor memory. Also, it
is for students to develop critical thinking in circuit design considerations. In summary, it is
essential that students understand the operation of each tool before they can realize its
limitations and possible precautions.
Some potentiometers available in our instructional laboratories are packaged in a
potentiometer box (combination of 100, 1k, 10k, 100k and 1M pots). However, some of
them might have already been damaged/burnt/shorted by previous curious students. Thus, it is
also a good practice to check potentiometers individually using ohmmeter before using
them. Singular potentiometers are also available in the laboratory.
The metal casing and the wiper knob, although made up of metallic conductors, are
isolated with the pins. Thus, it is safe to adjust the wiper while holding the metal casing even if
the circuit is powered-up. The size of pins of an actual potentiometer may vary. The actual one
shown in Figure 14 can be inserted in a protoboard. In other cases, alligator clips can be used. Just
be aware that adjacent clips may get shorted since potentiometer pins are spaced closely
together.
17
2.2.1.2 Capacitors
Another essential component in electronics is the capacitor. This device stores charges
and maintains energy in its electric field. The SI unit for capacitance is Farad (in honour of Michael
Faraday for his major contributions in the field of electromagnetism)
Although considered a passive component, there are polar and non-polar types of
capacitors. This depends on the materials used as dielectric inside the capacitor. Some materials
permit only one direction for the flow of displacement current while others permit bidirectionality. Non-polars include ceramic, mylar and film capacitors. Electrolytic and tantalum
capacitors are polarized. Most blown-up/burnt (usually the first affected in fault conditions)
components in a circuit are capacitors.
Figure 15. Different types of capacitors, both non-polar and polar. [7]
Extra care should be observed before powering-up circuit with polar capacitors. How do
we determine which leg is the positive/negative? If the component is brand new, the longer leg
should be the positive. In other cases (e.g. legs are cut at same length), markings should be
available on the body of the capacitor. As shown in Figure 15, electrolytic capacitor indicates
negative band while tantalum capacitor shows the positive mark.
Capacitance values are printed either as-is (see electrolytic type) or by code (see ceramic
type). Let us examine the electrolytic capacitor in Figure 15. The absolute maximum voltage it
can handle is 16V. If charged above that value, then the capacitor will explode. The capacitance
is 4700uF which is equivalent to 4.7mF. For the human brain, it is easier or convenient to process
the information 4.7mF. Why do you think that manufacturers prefer the label 4700uF as
compared to 4.7mF given the fact that they are just the same? Well, while you are thinking the
reason behind that logic, let us share a story of buying components in an electronics shop
EEE Student: (To sales assistant) 10 pieces of 4.7mF 16V electrolytic capacitor please.
Sales Assistant: Sorry but we do not have 4.7mF.
EEE Student: (Saddened because his long trip to the shop will be useless. Thinks for a moment. Asked the sales
assistant again.) Can I have 10 pieces of 4700uF electrolytic capacitor please?
Sales Assistant: Okay, Sir. What voltage rating?
EEE Student: ($#@@#$!$@$^* deep inside.) 16V. Thanks!
Sales Assistant: Okay. Wait for a moment.
18
Haha! What a funny story! Students might encounter a similar experience. Anyway, the
main reason why the dot marking is highly discouraged is that it might get erased easily.
Mistaking 47mF for a 4.7mF can greatly affect the circuit operation by design.
On another note, ceramic and mylar capacitors usually use 3- or
4-character code to indicate the capacitance value. The reading is
similar with the resistor color bands only that the value is already
printed here. Note however that the resulting value is not Farad but
pico-Farad (pF or 1012 ). Capacitance values are usually in the pico-,
nano-, micro- and milli- range so it would be easier to refer to the
smallest unit. An example is shown in Figure 16, with value,
10 = 47000 = 47 = 0.047
The last character usually denotes the temperature coefficient and
can be disregarded for instructional purposes.
Figure 16. . Ceramic capacitor value reading. [8]
2.2.1.3 Inductors
Lastly, we consider inductors as an essential component in electronics. This device keeps
magnetic flux and stores energy in its magnetic field. The SI unit for inductance is Henry (in
honour of Joseph Henry for his work on electromagnetic induction). We will not discuss inductors
in detail but shown in Figure 17 are common types of inductors.
Some inductors look like resistors but in a closer view, inductors are more curvy. The
reason is that inside it is a wound coil of magnetic wires as compared to the typical resistor
manufactured using carbon. Transformers (a magnet core with wires wound around) can serve
as inductors.
19
20
2.3.1 Multimeter
Multimeter, as the name implies, measures multiple electrical quantities including
resistance, voltage, and current. Some advanced multimeters can measure capacitance and even
inductance but for basic electronics using multimeters, we will only deal with the three
fundamental quantities provided by the Ohms Law. The multimeter, or meter shorthand, can be
therefore referred to depending on the intended function: voltmeter if measuring voltage;
ammeter if measuring current; ohmmeter if measuring resistance.
From this early point, let us always remind ourselves that in using multimeter to measure
current and voltage:
=
=
Multimeters, both analog and digital, easily get damaged through misuse by students who
do not understand the two statements above. The words above are in fact already redundant. For
EEE 34, it is OKAY to make this kind of mistake at first but repeating the same mistake is NOT
justifiable it is somehow unwise. The most common damage done to multimeters is a blown-up
fuse caused by overcurrent. Students forcefully connect the meter in parallel to measure current
which is totally wrong! If you still do not understand what is being discussed here, then think
of it again and again.
21
Notice that the multimeter on the left has fixed probes while the one on the right has
detachable probes but that is not really important. They also have the same set of selection knobs
since they use the same galvanometer scale (the calibration with the needle pointer). We will
discuss an in-depth analysis of analog multimeter in the next chapter under Section 3.4 CircuitLevel Analysis of the Multimeter. Inquisitive readers are advised to jump to that section before
proceeding with next sections in this chapter.
The color coding of the probes is intuitive red for positive and black for negative.
Basically, both probes are just conductor wires so they serve the same purpose. That is, they can
be technically interchanged. However, to avoid confusion, we follow the color code especially that
we are dealing with analog multimeter where proper polarity is a must.
22
23
Measuring resistance using analog multimeter is a bit different from measuring voltage
and current. The calibration and reading scale are located above the reflector strip obviously
with the symbol (see Figure 20). The extreme ends are and 0 representing open and short
conditions respectively. The ohmmeter selector knob, instead of a range, is a set of multipliers.
The resistance calibration scale is NOT linear as compared to that of DCV/DCmA. The distances
between markings with smaller value are large and they decrease as the value tends to . Why is
that so? Of course there is an engineering reason behind it and we will learn about it in future
experiment/s. Obviously, we can get higher accuracy if the needle pointer falls on values with
smaller resistance number. This is why it is preferred to use the highest possible multiplier
depending on the expected resistance value when measuring.
The current markings in light blue on each multiplier (see Figure 19) signifies the amount
of current that is running on ohmmeter leads when shorted. Energy is available since ohmmeter
operates with a battery. This implies a precaution in using an ohmmeter. In measuring resistance,
the circuit or resistor under test should not be powered-up. If it is, then the power supplied to the
circuit under test and the power given by the ohmmeter might affect the reading. Also, there are
components such as integrated circuits (ICs) that cannot handle current as high as 150mA (1x
setting). Care should be observed before measuring resistance on these kinds of electronic
components. On the other hand, the ohmmeter is also useful especially in testing other electronic
components if working or not (e.g. light-emitting diodes or LEDs how?).
Reflector
Strip
If the analog multimeter is not in use, turn it OFF by switching the selector knob to OFF
to conserve its battery! Digital multimeters automatically switch off when idle for a certain time.
24
To zero the scale, short the leads together and turn the zero adjust knob (see Figure 19)
until the needle pointer falls exactly on 0 mark as shown in Figure 21. There might be some
settings where the scale could not be zero-ed.
Note that human body can be thought of as a single wire conductor. Putting hands in
contact with the leads as shown in the figure above is fine only when zero-ing the scale. If already
measuring resistance of a resistor for example, then do not clip the legs of the resistor to the
ohmmeter leads using hands. The reading might be the combined resistance of the resistor and
human body. Better place the resistor on the insulated table or on the protoboard before taking
measurements.
Zero-ing the meter scale is essentially reaching the full-scale current. That is why the 0
scale in Figure 20 is aligned with the full-scale current (right-most mark) on the calibration
scale.
Connectivity/Continuity Test
Performing
connectivity
or
continuity
test
is
essential
for
basic
debugging/troubleshooting. In analog multimeters at ohmmeter mode, a shorted, connected or
continuous condition must display 0. A good wire conductor ideally has a resistance of 0.
This is most useful in checking continuity of connecting wires, alligator clips, connectors,
etc. Determining which holes are connected and which are not in a protoboard can also be
checked easily using connectivity test.
Digital and other analog multimeters have advanced indicator for connectivity test. Most
are of the form of a buzzer. It will sound once the device under test is checked to be connected.
25
Note that some connecting wires or clips are connected if placed in a certain position (e.g.
twisted), while at other orientation may appear to be not connected. Wires are covered with
plastic insulation so visual inspection might not be possible. Just be aware that this scenario is
not impossible happen. Most students get lost if their circuit is not functioning as expected only
to find out that one of their connecting wires is open.
2.3.1.2
Digital Multimeter
A user-friendly type of multimeter is the digital version. However, just like socially, we
should not take the friendliness of others for granted. These multimeters, although contains
protective circuits, still have their limits. So the user-friendly term might be a misleading one
for us. For example, some digital multimeters can detect over-voltage even if the selector knob
setting is unintentionally unchanged to the proper setting. If set on such condition for some
specific long time, the internal protection circuitry might eventually fail thus damaging the tool.
In summary, proper care should ALWAYS be observed in handling ANY laboratory tool or
equipment.
The digital display would be the most obvious distinction of a digital to that of an analog
multimeter as shown in Figure 22. The black probe is always placed on the COM (common) port
and the red probe on VD port. Other ports are used for high-current applications and those are
not in the scope of this course. We also have bench digital multimeters as shown in Figure 23.
This type of multimeter is more robust than the hand-held version (the size and weight can
explain why). Its proper use is no puzzle once the student is well-familiarized with analog and
digital multimeters.
26
So if the students were to ask, which is better to use, the analog or the digital multimeter?
Whatever the answer may be, engineers should develop a way of thinking on how to reason out
for the choices that they make (especially when defending, say, an engineering design). Engineers
do not make decisions right away. They first think of options and alternatives, then they weigh
them. After all, there should be a reason for everything.
27
There are two ports to connect in order to use this 1mA movement (see Figure 24). For
proper polarity, the color code is here once again. But wait, do currents have polarity? Of course
the answer is no, they do not have polarity. Rather, the red and black color code here represents
the direction of the current. Note that we are using analog device and proper polarity must
always be observed. The current must enter the positive (red) port and exit the negative (black)
port. If interchanged, then the needle will try to deflect more to the left (i.e., on the negative of
the scale) and this might damage the tool.
Since this tool measures current (up to 1mA only), what should be the best way to check
if this measuring tool is working properly or not?
28
2.3.3 Protoboard/Breadboard
Translating circuits from diagrams on paper to actual implementation is an essential skill
one needs to master in this course. The paper that we will use in laying-out our circuits is the
protoboard (short for prototyping board). It is sometimes called breadboard since the holes
resemble that of a bread (working in the laboratory can get one really hungry). For discussion
purposes, let us stick using the term protoboard.
The protoboard conveniently provides connected holes in a row. Since the holes are
arranged in a matrix fashion (see Figure 25), the question now is which rows are connected, and
equivalently, which are not. Let us begin by describing a short row and a long row.
Long row
Short rows
Connecting
wires
Canal
Basically, the holes in a short row are internally connected. Adjacent short rows, as well
as short rows across the canal, are NOT connected. The holes in a long row are internally
connected but depending on the brand, the other half may or may not be connected. The example
in Figure 25 shows a discontinuous red (+) and blue (-) lines. This indicates that long rows do not
continue on the entire length the protoboard. That is why we can see connecting wires jumping
from one long row to another on the other half. Long rows have (+) and () labels since these lines
are usually used as power ports (e.g. the + and of a 5.0V supply). But why do we reserve longer
lines for the power ports? It is fairly simple. If the circuit has a lot of components, it will consume
the whole protoboard space and most likely, all components will require power. Thus, power
ports can be easily accessed anywhere on the protoboard. The protoboard canal serves a purpose
especially when using dual in-line package ICs such as operational amplifiers (see Appendix C:
Some Notes from Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Datasheets or Figure 26). Try to look closely
on Figure 26 on how ICs are placed on the protoboard.
Engineers do not really need to memorize which holes are connected and which are not.
Remember that we have the tools. When in doubt, we can insert connecting wires in a pair of
holes and use a multimeter to do a connectivity test.
On a side note, true engineering education will not teach its students by making them
memorize stuff (e.g. formulas, here-and-there, this-and-that, etc.). Instead, it will teach its
students by guiding them in learning how to solve problems and overcome obstacles.
29
Figure 26. Protoboard wiring of two complex circuits: messy wiring (left) and clean wiring (right). [10]
Let us compare the wiring of two complex circuits shown in Figure 26. Both use a bunch
of components but the wiring on the left is a bit messy compared to the one on the right. Both are
working as intended so functionality will not be an issue. This scenario is somehow similar to
writing computer programs. As long as the code is working, students tend not to care because it
is already working. However, what will be the possible disadvantage of the circuit wiring on the
left compared to the one on the right (HINT: This also applies to computer programming)?
Obviously, the one on the left is prone to errors. Consequently, whenever there is error, it will be
hard to trace where the error arises. This leads us to our next section which is one of the most
important skills every EEE student must possess.
30
31
Engineering is the art of solving problems. In debugging circuits, we want to find and
correct errors. We develop algorithms and methods to achieve proper debugging. However, there
is no fixed way of using these debugging techniques. We figure them out through experiments.
Debugging circuit requires skills and experience, and as an art, it also requires creativity.
Revisit this section until the student develops the skill of debugging by him/herself. In
case of hopelessness, ask the help of the laboratory instructor. The instructor will probably throw
the question asked by students back to them. Present to the instructor how the tried solutions did
not work.
32
3 Electrical Measurements
Performing experiments is essential, but gathering data and analysing & interpreting
them are more valuable. This chapter briefly introduces basic concepts of measurement error
& linearity and accuracy & precision. In order to recognize or define error, we must first draw the
difference between theory and practice.
To put some sense on empirical results to be obtained from the experiments, the students
should have a good understanding of the ideal and practical conditions of power supplies, the
characteristic of a 1mA movement, and finally the differences between the modes of an analog
multimeter using the galvanometer scale.
33
Figure 28. (a) Simple resistive circuit, (b) ideal voltmeter, and (c) practical voltmeter
Suppose we are going to measure the voltage output Vout of the simple resistive circuit
at R2. Using the ideal voltmeter (see Figure 28b), by voltage division, we should be able to
measure 2.5Vdc theoretical value. However, practical voltmeters have some internal resistance
in parallel with them. The parallel resistance is usually high but for exaggeration, we will assume
a value of 1k (see Figure 28c).
Using the practical voltmeter, we can measure about 1.67Vdc at the output. The deviation
comes from the unwanted internal resistance of the practical voltmeter. The measured value is
far (or near?) from the theoretical value. If we are not aware that a practical voltmeter has this
internal resistance, then we can interpret the measured value as erroneous. So how do we
develop the right intuition to determine if our measurements make sense or not? This is where
we should bridge theory and practice.
An inquisitive and clever student will not settle on reading measurements he/she will
make sense out of it. That is, he/she can defend why such results were gathered. The error or
deviation in measured value depends on how our practical approach deviates from ideal case. In
our example, if the internal resistance approaches infinity (ideal), then the measured value should
also approach a value of 2.5Vdc (ideal).
Getting high deviation value in what we measure in practice does not mean that the
theories are wrong. In fact, the measurements we make should be guided by the principles set
by circuit theory.
34
| %
3.2.2 Linearity
For now, let us not consider time variation on our data. This simplifies our analysis into
one dimension only. Consider a system that has input and output. Let us take a headphone
amplifier for example where the electrical signals (input) are converted and amplified to produce
sound (output). There will be a certain range on the amplitude of electrical signals where the
headphone amplifier can convert in a proportional manner. However, as the input electrical signal
increases further, the headphone amplifier may saturate and produce an almost constant high
sound level. This scenario is depicted in Figure 29.
35
The linear region of a system, assuming voltages as input and output quantities, can be
described by,
=
where is the proportionality constant. In this region, an increase in the input will
produce an increase (or a decrease in some systems) with a certain proportionality factor. At the
non-linear region however, the relationship between the input and output can be described by
higher order equation such as,
= + + +
where 1 , 2 , , are the weights per degree of input.
The input can be thought of as the independent variable while the output as the
dependent variable. Students are encouraged to think of other examples of system that exhibit
linear and nonlinear input-output relationship.
36
Four (4) target boards with different levels of accuracy and precision are shown. Let the
bullseye be the expected or theoretical value and the trial shots as the gathered data. The x-axis
is increasing with accuracy while the y-axis with precision. Clearly, higher accuracy means that
the gathered data, no matter how sparse the data is, have minimal error. That is, data are close to
the theoretical value. On the other hand, precision suggests how gathered data are close to each
other (i.e., consistency) regardless of the amount of error.
The best condition is undoubtedly Figure 30d. However, it is important to recognize that
analysis is done after gathering the data. Performing an experiment is not targeting the
theoretical data. Some researchers tend to bias the process of (i.e., before or during the
experiment) gathering data just to conclude that they got an accurate and precise data. This is not
a good research practice. One must report what are actually collected. After all, there are no
correct nor incorrect data only improper execution of experiments.
37
Figure 31. Practical voltage source (left) and practical current source (right). [14]
A practical voltage source is represented with a series resistance while a practical current
source has a parallel resistance as shown in Figure 31. How do these resistances make the sources
non-ideal? If we connect a resistive network/circuit at nodes a and b of the voltage source with e
Volts, the circuit will draw energy or current i. There will be a voltage drop across the series
resistance r. Thus, instead of supplying the full voltage e to the circuit, a lower level of (e ir)
Volts is supplied. The reason why a parallel resistance on a current source makes it a practical
one is left for the students to analyze.
38
Nowadays, power supplies are designed such that these non-idealities are, if not
eliminated, minimized. We can assume that the power supplies in the laboratory are close to ideal
ones. This section only opens to us that such practicality exists.
Figure 32. 1mA movement inside structure (left) and its electrical symbol (right). [15]
The 1mA movement is characterized by its internal resistance (meter resistance) and
the full-scale current it can measure safely, . In this case, the full-scale current is obviously
1mA. The internal resistance varies from one galvanometer to another. Typical value ranges
from 50 to 300.
Note that the following discussions will use the galvanometer scale to measure not only
current but also voltage and resistance. Is that really possible? Using circuit analysis, the answer
is definitely a yes. We will limit our discussion on DC analysis. AC analysis will be tackled in later
experiments where digital multimeters will be used.
39
3.4.3 DC Ammeter
Using the 1mA movement to measure DC current is pretty straightforward. We only need
to insert the 1mA movement to the line where we want to determine the current. Suppose we
have a resistive circuit where we want to measure the current (call it circuit under test). In this
chapter, we denote the circuit under test in red while the circuit under discussion in black for
uniformity in circuit diagrams. For simpler analysis, we represent the circuit under test by its
Thevenin equivalent with a voltage source and series resistance as shown in Figure 33.
Nodes a and b are initially connected.
Next we want to identify the current flowing through the circuit. Break the circuit to split
a and b and insert the 1mA movement as suggested in Figure 33. The 1mA movement is now part
of the circuit and it is then re-closed. The current will now flow through the meter and the needle
will deflect to display a reading. This scheme is fairly simple. However, let us remember the
physical limitations of the 1mA movement.
First is that the 1mA movement has a finite internal resistance . One should be able to
recognize that the reading will be affected since there is an additional series resistance to the
circuit. The current without the meter is simply, = while the current with meter inserted
is, =
. Let
+
=
+
Clearly, if = then the accuracy would be unity (or 100%). depends on the
circuit under test and thus our ammeter should work with any circuits equivalent Thevenin
resistance value. For an ideal ammeter, what should be the value of ? What is the worst case
scenario relating and ? Lastly, is it possible to achieve > 1?
Given the quantified ammeter accuracy, the amount of error will be,
= ( )
40
The term insertion error is used since we get this error by literally inserting the ammeter
to the circuit. The importance of giving a specific name will be evident as we discussed the error
for the voltmeter case.
The second and last limitation of the 1mA movement is its full-scale limit. is constant
and the ammeter can only measure values less than or equal to this value. Is there a way to extend
the measurement range? For example if the needle deflects to full-scale 1mA position, the
extended-ammeter actually measures a higher value of say, 10mA? This is possible through
current division. Since the 1mA movement can only handle up to 1mA, the remaining 9mA current
(real measured current is 10mA) should flow somewhere else.
Let the target current (i.e., extended range) be . To extend the range of the ammeter, we
need a lower resistance value compared to that is connected in parallel with the 1mA
movement. This is a shunt (another term for parallel) resistor, where the majority of the
current will flow (see Figure 34). Remember that current tends to flow in a path with least
resistance.
Figure 34 shows how to extend the range of the 1mA movement. Simply connect a shunt
resistor across the 1mA movement. The question now is how do we determine the value of
to extend from to ? We must know the value of first. Then by KCL we have,
= +
With maximum current , the voltage across the nodes is,
=
Thus, the value of should be,
=
Since
( )
( )
41
3.4.4 DC Voltmeter
In the previous section, we have seen how simple it is to use the 1mA movement to act as
an ammeter. In this section, we will use the 1mA movement to measure voltage instead. By Ohms
Law, = . Since the 1mA movement measures current, we only need a resistor in series to
make it act as a voltmeter as shown in Figure 35.
Figure 36. Measuring voltage using the galvanometer with a series resistor as the voltmeter.
accuracy is,
=
+
42
Again, if = then the accuracy would be unity (or 100%). depends on
the circuit under test and thus our voltmeter should work with any circuits equivalent Norton
resistance value. For an ideal voltmeter, what should be the value of ? One might think an
outright answer of infinity. If is also very large or of about infinite value, then we have,
=
=
(? )
+
+
The above equation does not make sense in the very first place. Math tells us that this case
is indeterminate. To achieve maximum accuracy, ideally we want such that,
=
=
+
Similar to the DC ammeter, is it possible to have > 1? Given the quantified voltmeter
accuracy, the amount of error will be,
= ( )
For voltmeter, the error is termed as loading error due to the loading effect caused by
connecting the meter with finite resistance to a circuit. Ideally, all current in Figure 36
should stay within the circuit under test even if we connect the voltmeter in parallel. This was not
the case since we have read a current reading translating to our voltage reading .
Accuracy and error values represented above are dimensionless. Values in percentage are
preferred however when reporting data.
There should be no confusion between the ideal conditions of voltage source and
voltmeter, as well as between current source and the ammeter. For each combination, the former
is a source and the latter can be thought of as a sink.
43
3.4.5 Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter is the mode of multimeter that measures resistance. We have learned that both
the ammeter and voltmeter draw current from the circuit under test in order to get a reading. For
an ohmmeter, the case is different. In fact, ohmmeters have their own voltage supply. In actual,
this voltage supply is of the form of a battery.
The voltage being supplied by a battery is not constant over time. Will this affect the
resistance reading? How to correct or re-calibrate the ohmmeter for such changes? Analog
ohmmeters always have the zero adjust knob. It is basically a potentiometer used to zero
the ohmmeter (see Figure 37). The reader is encouraged to look back at the physical structure of
the analog multimeter in the previous chapter. This will help in interconnecting the concepts
discussed in this section. The ohmmeter circuitry constructed using the 1mA movement is shown
in the figure below.
b
Figure 37. Ohmmeter structure using 1mA movement.
Let us define the resistance seen looking into the ohmmeter structure as,
= ( + )
Shorting the leads a and b, we can zero the ohmmeter such that,
( + )
44
Figure 38. Measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor using analog ohmmeter.
=
+
The 1mA movement displays the position of the needle, hence the value of . If we know
the value of , then we can determine the resistance value of the unknown resistor
using the equation above.
45
4 Experiments
The concepts presented in the previous chapters serve as a strong foundation in
performing the required experiments, as well as developing critical analysis on the data to be
gathered. This chapter contains the inventory of required experiments for EEE 34. A pre-lab sheet
is available for students to answer and submit in class before each actual experiment either inprint or handwritten on a pad paper. The in-lab sheets however are not to be submitted. These
serve as guide for students throughout each experiment. After gathering data and analysing them,
some required discussion questions are to be answered. The complete, concise and coherent
documentation in IEEE format should be submitted per group two (2) weeks after the
experiment is finished. Note that some experiments might take up two (2) meetings depending
on available schedule. All experiments for EEE 34 should be performed throughout the semester.
The experiments presented here are in chronological order but the delivery still depends
on the laboratory instructor. A SAFETY QUIZ must be passed by a student before he/she proceeds
with any experiment. If the student fails the quiz, then he/she will be marked absent for the
experiment scheduled for that day. In other words, he/she can only perform an experiment until
he/she passed the safety quiz. The format and administration of the quiz again depend on the
laboratory instructor.
46
__________________________________________________________
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Experiment 0a (Pre-Lab)
Basic Measurements
2. Draw two separate diagrams showing a multimeter measuring (a) voltage across and (b)
current through a resistor in a simple one-loop circuit.
3. (This item is NOT required.) What are the different types of resistors, capacitors and
inductors? Why these components are manufactured using different types of material?
REFERENCE/S:
47
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) Learn to use the power supply, protoboard, and analog multimeter.
b) Learn to measure voltage, current and resistance in simple circuits.
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: You can use a digital multimeter (DMM) to counter-check your measurements using
analog multimeter (AMM).
A. Measuring Resistance using Ohmmeter
1. Zeroing the meter scale. Choose a resistance range. Short the two meter leads by
touching the metallic points together. Use the zero knob on the front of the meter to
adjust the pointer so it is aligned with the zero printed on the Ohms scale. On which
resistance range the sensitivity of the scale is the least (i.e., cannot be zeroed)? Explain
why.
2. Determine the nominal value of the three resistors issued to your group by reading
the color code. Record this nominal value in the table below.
3. Using the analog multimeter (AMM) as ohmmeter, select a resistance
range/multiplier that, for this resistor, will place the needle somewhere in the middle
or right-side of the scale. Zero the meter on this scale, then measure the resistor value.
Remember to re-zero if you change scales. You will be able to accurately read the
resistance to two significant places, why? Interpolate the third digit. Record the
measured value of the resistors using Table I.
Resistors
Ra
Rb
Rc
TABLE I
RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT RESISTORS
Color Code
Resistance ()
(indicate 4-band colors) based on Color Code
Resistance ()
based on AMM
48
B. Measuring Voltage using Voltmeter
1. Set the function switch on the front of the AMM to DC voltage (VDC), and the range
switch on the highest scale.
2. Turn on the power supply and turn the output voltage all the way up. Be careful to
observe the proper polarity. Touch the AMM leads to the output jacks on the power
supply as shown in Fig. 1. If the needle deflects the wrong way, i.e. to the left instead
of to the right, the meter lead positions need to be reversed. Select a scale that places
the needle as high as possible on the scale, without pegging the needle. Measure and
record the maximum output voltage of the supply.
Figure 1. Connection between power supply and analog multimeter set to VDC.
3. Turn the output voltage all the way down and measure and record the minimum
voltage this power supply can produce. If a FINE knob is available on your power
supply unit, turn this also to minimum.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 to another power supply (borrow from the group beside you).
Record your results in the table below. Did you achieve the ideal minimum and
maximum voltages? If not, explain why.
Power Supply
PS1
PS2
TABLE II
POWER SUPPLY VOLTAGES
Minimum Voltage (mV)
Maximum Voltage (V)
49
C. Determining Resistance Using Voltage and Current Measurements
1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the circuit shown below on a
protoboard using R1 = 1k and R2 = 5.1k.
Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to measure the voltage across R2
and explain why you think this will work.
2. Set the function switch on the AMM to read DC voltage (DCV), and the scale switch to
the range appropriate for measuring 10V. Turn on the power supply and then
measure the voltage across the resistor R2. Take note of the voltage polarity before
taking your measurement. If you dont get a reading, check your connections
carefully. Record the actual voltage to three significant figures.
Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to measure the current through R2
and explain why you think this will work.
3. Set the function controls on the AMM to read DC amperes (DCmA). Start with the scale
switch set to the highest scale. One step at a time, change the range switch so that
more sensitive current scales are selected. If the needle pegs at the upper end of the
scale, quickly switch back to the next higher scale. Read the current indicated on the
meter and record this value.
4. Using the measured values for the voltage across and the current through this
resistor, compute the power dissipated by the resistor R2. Show your solution.
50
TABLE III
USING OHMS LAW TO MEASURE RESISTANCE
Resistors () ()
Resistance of R2 ()
computed using Ohms Law
Ra
Rb
Rc
2. For the following error calculations, assume that the resistance value determined
using the ohmmeter in Part A is the actual value of the resistor R2. Compute error
between the measured and nominal/true (color code) value, using the equation,
% = |
| 100%
3. Repeat these error calculations for the computed resistance of D.1 as the actual value.
Record these values and tabulate the results by creating Table IV.
Resistors
Resistance ()
Color Code
TABLE IV
ERROR CALCULATIONS
Resistance () (%) Resistance ()
Ohmmeter
Ohms Law
(%)
Ra
Rb
Rc
4. Explain the possible origins of any error in these resistance values.
E. Power Ratings
1. Using the Fig. 2 but this time using R1 = 100 and R2 = 50, compute for the voltage
across, current through, and the power dissipated by each of the resistors. Show
solutions.
2. Replace R1 with 1k resistor. Compare with the previous case in terms of power
ratings. Explain using circuit analysis.
51
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Experiment 1 (Pre-Lab)
Debugging Circuits
2. Some students fear to vary or tweak the circuit against to what is provided in the
instructional schematic diagram. This fear originates from possible corresponding
costs and consequences to damage to components and equipment properties.
However, this fear serves as a barrier why many students cannot learn how to debug
circuits. In your own opinion, explain how you will overcome this fear?
REFERENCE/S:
52
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) To recognize the existence of a problem in a non-working circuit.
b) To determine the nature of the said problem.
c) To debug circuits in a systematic manner.
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
(3) 1k resistor
(1) 470k resistor
(1) red LED
(1) green LED
(1) 1uF capacitor
A. Connectivity/Continuity Test
Most, if not all, problems encountered in a non-working circuit are due to points that no
longer form electrically continuous connections. The causes may not be observable or easily
identifiable when the problem arises. Some of the possible causes include: a blown-up fuse or
component, corroded connectors, disconnected or faulty wires, loose connections or simply an
unintended open circuit.
Constructing circuits usually overlooks a very important assumption that all wires and
connectors are good. Using a bad wire can be troublesome especially if used in a complex circuit.
Thus, it is a good practice to check all wires and connectors first before using them in constructing
circuits.
1. Set the analog multimeter (AMM) in ohmmeter mode. The multiplier setting is
immaterial. Get five (5) connecting wires, five (5) connector clips, two (2) power
supply clips, one (1) oscilloscope probe, and one (1) signal generator probe. Label
each connector.
2. Use connectivity/continuity test to check if each connector is either good or bad. A
0 reading (or even if the needle deflects to the 0 direction) indicates a good or
connected condition. Construct a table and record the status of each connector.
3. Use connecting wires and connectivity test to verify the connected ports on a
protoboard. Draw the protoboard and indicate which group of ports (e.g. row,
column) are connected.
53
B. Theoretical and Practical Measurements
1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the circuit shown below on a
protoboard using R1 = R2 = 1k.
2. It is very useful to determine first the theoretical signal values in a circuit before
interpreting if acquired measurements are erroneous or not. In other words, the
actual values should guide the experimenter if the data being gathered are valid or
not. From the circuit, what are the theoretical voltages across the power supply, R1,
and R2?
3. Using a voltmeter Vdc, measure the voltage across the power supply, R1, and R2.
Tabulate your results. Did you get measurement values close to the actual ones? If not,
explain why.
4. Put another resistor R3 = 1k in parallel with R2. Repeat steps B.2 and B.3.
C. Simple Circuit to Test if a Component is Working Properly
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2. Use R = 1k, Vs = 10V, and two differentlycolored LEDs for D1 and D2. The diagram for LED is also provided.
2. Assuming your wiring is correct and all LEDs are in good condition, only one LED
should be lit. Which one (D1 or D2)? Measure the voltages Vin and Vout using a
voltmeter Vdc.
3. Now, reverse the position of both D1 and D2. Which LED is lit at this moment?
Note that this procedure tests if an LED is working or not. However, there are easier and
more creative ways to check the condition of an LED. This is just one way to demonstrate
testing of components using a simple circuit.
54
D. Complex Circuit
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3. The 555 IC pin-outs is shown in Figure 4.
This circuit emulates the traffic lights we see in the streets. Make the circuit work
and call the attention of your instructor once done. The dots indicate connected
nodes and jumps are not connected nodes.
2. Setup your circuit supposing that you carelessly constructed it (i.e., it should not
function properly). It might be wrong wiring, different components, faulty wires,
faulty components, etc.
3. Find a partner group that is also finished with D.1 and D.2. Exchange
circuit/protoboard. Debug the circuit. Document how your group debugged the
circuit in a systematic manner. It would be easier to provide a step-by-step process.
55
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
1. There are some scenarios wherein connectors are continuous only in a certain
orientation or position, or when held tightly/loosely, or left hanging. What might this
suggest?
2. Suppose the battery and light bulb circuit shown in Figure 5 failed to work, explain
how you will use the divide-and-conquer approach to debug the circuit. At which pair
of nodes will you start checking for voltage measurement? Explain.
56
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Experiment 2 (Pre-Lab)
DC Measurements (Current)
Voltmeter
Ohmmeter
3. Which of the meters (ammeter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter) need/s an internal power source
to operate? Which do/does not and why?
REFERENCE/S:
57
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC current measurements and to
know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any measurements made
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
58
2. For each of these same combinations, set up the circuit of Figure 2 and measure the
current that flows by replacing the short circuit between a and b with your 1mA
movement. Complete Table I with your measured values.
C. Extending the Range of the 1mA Movement
1. The full-scale range of a 1mA movement can be extended by connecting a shunt
resistor across it, as shown in Figure 3. Given knowledge on the value of your Rm,
compute for the value of the shunt resistor, Rsh that will extend the range of your
ammeter from 1 mA to 10 mA.
2. Use the scheme of Figure 4 to obtain a resistance with a value equal to that computed
in Procedure A above (use a 10-20 resistor). This setup will act as your shunt
resistance in Figure 3. Or you can just use a resistor with a value near to the one you
computed in Procedure C.1.
3. Setup the newly-constructed 10mA movement. Check its operation with the three
calibration values indicated in Table II. As shown in Figure 3, neglecting the internal
resistance of the newly-constructed 10mA movement, you can vary the voltage supply
instead to obtain the calibration current values. For example, if Vs = 2V and R = 1k
in series, then a 2mA current should flow through the circuit. Fill up the table
correspondingly.
TABLE II
CHECKING THE OPERATION OF THE 10mA MOVEMENT
Calibration
1mA movement
Corresponding
Current (mA) Reading (Deflection) Reading of Iu (mA)
Measured
Computed
2
4
6
8
10
Figure 1
59
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some questions can be
answered by further investigating the procedure stated above.
1. If we are to measure the internal resistance of the 1mA movement, why not use an
ohmmeter right away? State possible reasons.
2. Show that the method used in determining the internal resistance of the 1mA
movement is just an approximation. What is the internal resistance of your ammeter
based on the procedure? Assuming that the internal resistance you obtained is typical
of an ammeter, show that for the resistor R1 used in the procedure, the approximation
has high accuracy.
3. Based on the meter resistance of your 1mA movement, predict the accuracy that you
should obtain for each of the measurements made in Procedure B. Compare these
figures with the actual accuracy of your measurements. Account for any differences.
Extend Table I (or create a new table) to show these figures.
4. Show how you computed for the value of Rsh to be used to convert your 1mA
movement into a 10mA movement. What is the combined meter resistance of your
10mA movement?
5. Discuss the linearity and accuracy of the 10mA movement you constructed based on
the calibration points given to you in Table II. What are the possible sources of error,
(if there is any)?
60
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Experiment 3 (Pre-Lab)
DC Measurements (Voltage)
3. Explain how a potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider. Provide a circuit diagram.
REFERENCE/S:
61
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC voltage measurements and to
know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any measurements made
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
62
C.
R ()
1k
10 k
100 k
TABLE III
LOADING EFFECTS IN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Theoretical Vx (V)
RXY ()
RWY ()
Corresponding Vx (V)
63
64
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some questions can be
answered by further investigating the procedure stated above.
1. Show how you computed for the value of Rs to be used to convert your 1mA
movement into a 10 V voltmeter. What is the internal resistance of your 10 V
voltmeter?
2. Using a graph, plot the measured voltage Vreading (y-axis) vs. calibration voltage
Vcalibration (x-axis) in Table I. In the same graph, also plot the ideal function
Vreading = Vcalibration. Compare the two plots. Discuss the linearity and accuracy
of the 10V voltmeter you constructed based on the calibration. What are the possible
sources of error (if there is any)?
3. Based on the internal resistance of your 10V voltmeter, predict the accuracy that you
should obtain for each of the measurements made in Procedure C. Compare these
figures with the actual accuracy of your measurements. Account for any differences.
Extend Table II (or create a new table) to show these figures.
4. Prove that the measured voltage across a & b in Procedure D is equal to the unknown
voltage being measured. Why is there no loading effect when this technique is used to
measure voltages? Is this consistent with your results? Account for any errors.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with each technique used to
measure voltage in this exercise?
65
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Experiment 4 (Pre-Lab)
Resistance Measurements
2. Do these change the way you view theories in circuit analysis? If yes, how?
Otherwise, why?
REFERENCE/S:
66
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of measuring resistance
b) To know when each method can be applied
c) To be able to specify the accuracy of any measurements made
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
Resistor
Ra
Rb
Rc
TABLE I
SERIES OHMMETER METHOD
Deflection (D)
Corresponding Resistance Reading ()
Using the equation Ru = Ro (1 - D)/D, where Ro = Rm + R2, compute the corresponding resistance
readings and record these in Table I.
B. The Voltmeter - Ammeter Method
1. The same resistances Ra, Rb and Rc are to be determined using the circuit in Figure 2. Use
an analog multimeter as the voltmeter and the 1mA movement as the ammeter. Do not
use the digital voltmeter (DVM) as the intended loading effects will not be observed. Vs
may be set to any reasonable value provided that the 1mA movement does not go beyond
67
full-scale and the maximum power rating of Ru (unknown resistor) is not exceeded. In
other words, Ru should not get too hot while in the powered circuit. For each of the
unknown resistances connected in place of Ru, record the readings of the voltmeter and
the ammeter. Fill the readings into Table II.
TABLE II
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD A
Voltmeter
Ammeter reading
Corresponding Resistance
reading (V)
(mA)
Reading* ()
Resistor
Vs (V)
Ru
Ra
Rb
Rc
*neglecting loading effects from meters
2. Repeat the above procedure using the circuit of Figure 3 to fill in Table III.
TABLE III
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD B
Voltmeter
Ammeter reading
Corresponding Resistance
reading (V)
(mA)
Reading* ()
Resistor
Vs (V)
Ru
Ra
Rb
Rc
*neglecting loading effects from meters
68
Resistor Ru
Ra
Rb
Rc
TABLE IV
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METHOD
R3 () at Vs = 5V
R3 () at Vs = 10V
5. Answer the required discussion question #6 before asking the actual values Ra, Rb, and
Rc from your instructor. Do the values obtained make sense?
69
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some questions can be
answered by further investigating the procedure stated above.
1. Show that the relationship between unknown resistance Ru and deflection D for the series
ohmmeter circuit of Figure 1 is given by:
Ru = Ro (1 - D)/D, where Ro = Rm + R2 ; D = (I mA)/(1mA)
In our case, what is the value of Ro? Why was it not necessary to measure the value of R2
to be able to determine the value of Ro?
2. Use the equation given in IV.1 above to determine the values of Ra, Rb and Rc. Treat these
as your experimental results. Compare these with the actual values of Ra, Rb, and Rc given
by your instructor. NOTE: Let the color codes correspond to their theoretical values.
Account for any differences. Extend Table I (or create a new table) to show your results.
3. From the voltage and current readings obtained in Procedure B, compute the
corresponding resistance values of Ra, Rb, and Rc both for the circuit of Figure 2 and the
circuit of Figure 3. Neglect the loading effect of the meters. Compare these with the actual
values of Ra, Rb and Rc. Tabulate your results. Account for any differences obtained.
4. From the voltage and current readings obtained in Procedure B, re-compute the
corresponding resistance values of Ra, Rb and Rc taking into account the loading effect of
the meters. How do these compare with the previously computed values and with the
actual values of Ra, Rb and Rc?
5. Given the two possible arrangements for making resistance measurements using the
voltmeter-ammeter method, when should one method be used instead of the other if the
resistance is to be taken as the voltage reading divided by the current reading?
6. Derive the relationship between R1, R2, R3 and Ru for the Wheatstone bridge circuit of
Figure 4 under balanced conditions.
7. Taking into account the tolerances of the resistances used in the bridge, compute for the
range of possible values of Ra, Rb and Rc from the values of R3 obtained in Procedure C.
Do the actual values of Ra, Rb and Rc fall within the computed ranges?
8. What was the actual effect of varying the power supply voltage on the resistance
measurements made using the Wheatstone bridge method? What should the actual
effects have been?
9. Compare the three methods of making resistance measurements taking into
consideration simplicity, cost, speed, accuracy of measuring equipment, tolerance of
resistances used, and any other points that may be of interest.
70
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Experiment 5-a/d (Pre-Lab)
Introduction to Oscilloscopes
4. Given a sinusoidal signal, explain the amplitude, frequency and period through
illustration.
REFERENCE/S:
71
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep oscilloscope.
b) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a setting may vary from one to
another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.). Nonetheless, the basic knobs (and functionalities) should be
present on the front panel of any oscilloscope. The student is expected to familiarize him/herself with different
oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.
72
Part 2: The Display System Controls
Make sure the line voltage setting on the oscilloscope is correct before turning on the power. Turn
the oscilloscope on and allow it to warm up for approximately 30 seconds.
Locating the Beam:
A horizontal line should appear on the screen. You may have to use the Channel 1
vertical POSITION control knob to locate the line. Position the line at the center
of the screen. Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to horizontally center
the trace. Try to explore the extreme positions using these knobs. Return the beam
back to the center of the screen.
Focus:
The trace you have on the screen may be out of focus. Make it as sharp as possible
with the FOCUS control.
Intensity:
Set the brightness or illumination to a level comfortable to you. Refrain from
setting the screen too bright to preserve the screen (i.e. make it last longer).
Trace Rotation:
A trace rotation screw is sometimes available for adjusting the display should the
trace not be perfectly horizontal.
73
2. Set the probe to x1. Choose an appropriate VOLTS/DIV setting such that the
whole waveform is visible. Draw the exact waveform and indicate the
VOLTS/DIV and SEC/DIV used. What is the difference between a x1 and a x10
probe? What is the advantage of one over the other?
5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops to the right (clockwise).
What is the new Channel 1 scale factor?
6. How many major divisions is the height of the displayed waveform now? Is
this consistent with the measurement made in 4 above?
7. What is the effect of turning the VAR control knob of the VOLTS/DIV switch
out of its detent position? What possible use could this knob have?
74
8. With the probe connected to the PROBE ADJ terminal, switch the Channel 1
input coupling to AC. What is the eventual position of the waveform on the
screen?
10. Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What happens to the displayed
signal?
11. What is the difference between AC and DC coupling? When should one be used
in place of the other? (Use the trigger level to stabilize the waveform in case
it is unstable).
75
Part 4: The Horizontal System Control
Making Time Measurements:
Switch the vertical mode back to CH 1 and display the PROBE ADJ signal at the
center of the screen. Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to adjust the
display until one rising edge of the displayed waveform is aligned with the center
vertical graticule.
12. How many major and minor horizontal graticule markings is it to the next
rising edge of the waveform? How many seconds does this correspond to?
13. Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How many graticule markings
is one period of the displayed waveform now? Are your two measurements
consistent?
14. Set the SEC/DIV switch back to 0.5 ms. Turn the VAR control knob of the
SEC/DIV switch out of its calibrated x1 detent position. How does this affect
the display? What are the possible uses of this knob?
16. How many graticule markings is the period of the displayed waveform now?
Is this consistent with your previous measurements?
76
Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at some level control settings,
the trace never disappears.
19. Set the Trigger Mode switch to NORMAL. Now when you use the trigger
LEVEL control to move the triggering point, you'll find places where the trace
disappears. Explain this difference in behaviour between normal and auto
triggering.
Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV setting to the next more
sensitive position (clockwise).
20. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL control as you did in 18
above. Which VOLTS/DIV setting allows the trigger level control knob to have
a larger range of motion before the waveform becomes unstable? If you do not
perceive any difference, try an even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.
21. Is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions' level? Explain.
77
External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and redisplay the signal
generator output. Now set the trigger source to EXT.
23. Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL control knob? Why or why
not?
24. Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER input connector (this
means that the 2 probes are in parallel with the signal source). The display
can now stabilize when the external trigger input is connected to the signal
source? Why?
25. Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same manner as with internal
triggering when the vertical sensitivity is increased? (observed in 19)
26. In this case, is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions' level?
27. Do the SLOPE control and the mode AUTO and NORMAL setting still behave
in the same way?
Line Triggering:
28. Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should destabilize. Why?
29. Lower the signal generator output frequency (around 500 Hz) until the
display stabilizes. At what frequency is a stable display achieved?
Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain four to five frequencies at
which a stable display is obtained.
30. What signal frequencies can be displayed with stability with the trigger source
set to line? Why? What possible use could this feature have?
78
The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.
79
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
c) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep oscilloscope.
d) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a setting may vary from one to
another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.). Nonetheless, the basic knobs (and functionalities) should be
present on the front panel of any oscilloscope. The student is expected to familiarize him/herself with different
oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.
80
Set the SEC/DIV (or MAIN TIME/DIV; it is the horizontal SCALE knob in
most scopes) switch to 0.5 ms.
Trigger System Controls:
Find the trigger controls on the scope.
81
Confirm your estimate peak-to-peak voltage by using the measure function. Choose
Measure Voltage Peak-to-peak.
5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops to the right (clockwise).
What is the new Channel 1 scale factor?
6. How many major divisions is the height of the displayed waveform now? Is
this consistent with the measurement made in 4 above?
9. Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What happens to the displayed
signal?
10. What is the difference between AC and DC coupling? When should one be used
in place of the other? (Use the trigger level to stabilize the waveform in case
it is unstable).
82
Confirm your estimate by using the measure function for Time Period.
12. Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How many graticule markings
is one period of the displayed waveform now? Are your two measurements
consistent?
83
13. Move the Trigger LEVEL control knob back and forth through all of its travel.
How does this affect the start of the trace? Why?
14. Draw the resulting traces as you vary the SLOPE control from '' to ''. How
does each setting affect the display? Explain why.
Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at some level control settings,
the trace never disappears.
15. Set the Trigger Sweep switch to NORMAL. Now when you use the trigger
LEVEL control to move the triggering point, you'll find places where the trace
disappears or freezes. Explain this difference in behaviour between normal
and auto triggering.
Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV setting to the next more
sensitive position (clockwise).
16. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL control as you did in 13
above. Which VOLTS/DIV setting allows the trigger level control knob to have
a larger range of motion before the waveform becomes unstable? If you do not
perceive any difference, try an even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.
17. Is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions' level? Explain.
84
External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and redisplay the signal
generator output. Now set the trigger source to EXT.
19. Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL control knob? Why or why
not?
20. Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER input connector on the
scope (this means that the 2 probes are in parallel with the signal source) and
connect the probe tip to the signal generator output as well. The display can
now stabilize when the external trigger input is connected to the signal source.
Why? If not, try adjusting the trigger knob to find a stable signal.
21. Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same manner as with internal
triggering when the vertical sensitivity is increased? (observed in 16)
22. Do the SLOPE ('' , '') control and the mode AUTO and NORMAL setting still
behave in the same way?
Line Triggering:
23. Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should destabilize. Why?
24. Lower the signal generator output frequency (around 500 Hz) until the
display stabilizes. (Adjust the SEC/DIV as well to display 3-4 periods of the
trace). At what frequency is a stable display achieved?
25. Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain four to five frequencies
at which a stable display is obtained.
26. What signal frequencies can be displayed with stability with the trigger source
set to line? Why? What possible use could this feature have?
85
The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.
86
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__________________________
__________________________
Experiment 6 (Pre-Lab)
AC Detection Diodes
3. Given a sinusoidal signal, v(t) with amplitude Vs, derive its average (Vave) and RMS
(Vrms) value.
REFERENCE/S:
87
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVE
To maximize the oscilloscope's function as a tool in AC analysis
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
88
(push/latch button in some oscilloscopes). This effectively follows the polarity based on
the Figure 1.
To view the diodes V-I characteristics, set the oscilloscope coupling to X-Y and set the
vertical mode to DUAL with both at 1V/div. Sketch the Id (y-axis) vs Vd (x-axis)
characteristics of the diode. Note that Vr is used to represent Id (series configuration)
since the current through the resistor is proportional to the voltage across it. Use Vs =
10Vpp sinusoid 1kHz.
Circuit No. 1
89
Circuit No. 2
Circuit No. 3
Circuit No. 4
NOTE: Before proceeding with the succeeding sections, ask your instructor to discuss the
difference between Vave and Vrms.
C. The Half Wave Detector
1. Compute for the value of Rs in the circuit of Figure 3 that will allow the 1mA movement
to indicate a full scale reading when the supply voltage Vs is 10 Vpeak (this is equivalent
to 20 V-peak-to-peak or 20Vpp). Assume a sinusoidal input voltage waveform.
NOTE: The 1mA movement measures the average current passing through it.
90
2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from a potentiometer. The current reading
in the 1mA movement should correspond to the level of peak voltage from the input,
hence, a half(full)-wave detector! Check the operation of your detector by comparing its
reading with the reading of the multimeter (average voltage or Vdc at the output) for the
different AC input voltages from your signal generator. Tabulate your results.
Peak Voltage
Vs (V)
10
8
5
2
TABLE I
HALF-WAVE DETECTOR
1mA movement Voltmeter Reading
Reading (mA)
at the Output (Vdc)
Computer Vs
from Im
3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the waveform. Indicate the
volts/div and time/div settings used.
D. The Full Wave Detector
1. Repeat Procedure C with the circuit in Figure 4. Use the full-wave bridge rectifier.
NOTE: Be careful in handling the full-wave bridge rectifier. The lead legs are fragile and
bending/twisting too much can easily snap a leg off. The full-wave bridge rectifier has 4
diodes inside.
TABLE II
FULL-WAVE DETECTOR
Peak Voltage 1mA movement Voltmeter Reading
Computer Vs
Vs (V)
Reading (mA)
at the Output (Vdc)
from Im
10
8
5
2
E. Peak Detection
1. Compute for the theoretical value of Rs in the circuit of Figure 5 that will allow the 1mA
movement to indicate the peak value of Vs with full scale range of 10 V.
HINT: What is the theoretical value of Vout?
2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from potentiometer. Check the operation
of your detector by using it to measure the peak values of the different AC input voltages
from your signal generator. For each reading, record the RMS value of the input signal
from the function generator as measured by a multimeter. Tabulate your results.
Peak
Voltage Vs
(V)
10
8
5
2
RMS Voltage of
Input using
Voltmeter
TABLE III
PEAK DETECTOR
1mA
Voltmeter
movement
Reading at the
Reading (mA)
Output (Vdc)
Computer Vs
from Im
91
3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the waveform. Indicate the
volts/div and time/div settings used.
92
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some questions can be
answered by further investigating the procedure stated above.
1. Discuss how a digital multimeter measures the voltage of a conducting diode.
2. How do the voltage you obtained in Procedure A compare with those typical for silicon
diodes (about 0.7V)?
3. Derive the relationship between the ammeter reading and the amplitude of the input for
sinusoidal inputs to the circuit of Figure 3. From the relationship, derive the equation that
recalibrates the ammeter reading to indicate input RMS voltage.
4. How do the readings obtained by your half-wave detector compare with those readings
obtained by the multimeter? What is the basic source of difference between the two? Is
this consistent with your data? Suggest how the relationship derived in #3 above can be
modified to achieve more accurate readings. What would your ammeter scale look like?
5. Derive the equation that recalibrates the ammeter reading to indicate input RMS voltage
for the full-wave detector circuit of Figure 4.
6. How do the readings obtained by your full-wave detector compare with those readings
obtained from the multimeter? What is the basic source of difference between the two?
Is this consistent with your data?
7. What equation was used to compute for the value of Rs in Procedure E? Justify using this
equation.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of full-wave detection versus half-wave
detection?
9. For each of the input voltage in Procedure E, compute for the theoretical value of peak
voltage. Incorporate these computed values in to your tabulated data. How do these
values compare with the values you measured using your peak detector? What is the
basic source of error?
10. For the peak detector circuit of Figure 5, what is the maximum possible decay of the
voltage across the capacitor taking into account the capacitance value and values of Rs
and Rm? Is this decay insignificant when compared with the full scale range of the peak
detector?
93
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__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Experiment 7 (Pre-Lab)
AC Analysis RLC Circuits
2. Discuss how to compute for impedances ZR, ZL, ZC. What is the relationship between ZL,
ZC and XL, XC respectively?
REFERENCE/S:
94
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the student with the basics of AC circuit analysis.
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
95
C. K.V.L. in AC circuits
C.1. Inductive Circuits
Connect the oscilloscope probe as shown in Figure 2 using the same source as in PART A.
Use CHOP mode and invert the signal in CHANNEL 2. Adjust your VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV
settings to obtain a fairly large and wide (at least one to two periods) waveform. Draw the traces
indicating the significant points. Include volts/div and time/div settings.
By how much does VR lag VZ? In degrees, how much is this equivalent to? Add the two
traces using the ADD function of the oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating the significant points.
Take note of the amplitudes of the traces. With the use of a phasor diagram, show that the sum
of VR and VZ equals VT.
C.2. Capacitive Circuits
Wire up Figure 3 using R=1K and C=0.1uF. For VS, use 7 volt (p-p), 1500 Hz sine wave
without DC offset. Use the VERTICAL mode in ALT mode and invert the signal in CHANNEL 2.
Adjust your VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV settings to obtain a fairly large and wide waveform. Draw
the traces indicating the significant points.
By how much time does VR lead VC? In degrees, how much is this equivalent to? Add the
two traces using the ADD function of the oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating the significant
points, taking note of the amplitudes of the traces. Again, using phasor diagrams, show that the
sum of VR and VC equals VT.
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the calculations you performed in part A.3.
2. In part B.2, discuss the relationship between the voltage reading in DMM (in AC mode)
and the voltage measured using oscilloscope. Are the actual measurements consistent
with what you expect theoretically?
3. What is the relationship of the voltage from the multimeter reading to the voltage
measured using the oscilloscope?
4. Analyze and discuss your results in part C.1 using the concepts you learned about the
voltage and current relationships in an inductive (RL) circuit.
5. Analyze and discuss your results in part C.2 using the concepts you learned about the
voltage and current relationships in capacitive (RC) circuit.
96
97
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__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Experiment 8 (Pre-Lab)
Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
Do/answer the following (indicate all references used):
1. What are transducers? What are the types of transducer?
3. What is an operational amplifier? Describe its basic operation using ideal condition.
4. What are the basic circuit topologies using operational amplifiers and their uses?
REFERENCE/S:
98
Date:
Section:
__________________
__________________
OBJECTIVES
a) Describe the operation and electrical characteristics of commonly-used transducers and
sensors.
b) Perform measurements using transducers, sensors and electrical measurement circuits.
c) Account errors introduced by non-ideal characteristics of the transducers and sensors on
the measurements made.
d) Use operational amplifier to condition the signal produced by transducers and output
corresponding signal/indicators.
II.
III.
PROCEDURE
A. Thermistor
1. Expose the thermistor to ambient temperature (about 25C). Do
not touch the body of the thermistor itself.
2. Record the time it takes for the resistance reading to stabilize from
the instant of point of contact. Stable reading is when the measured
value varies insignificantly. Measure and record the resistance of
the thermistor.
3. Place the thermistor in contact with the human body (average
normal body temperature is 37C). Placing it between the
hands/fingers is usually most convenient. Repeat A.2.
4. Plug-in the soldering iron and wait for about 2-3 minutes until it reaches its heating
temperature (about 120C)*. Place the tip of the iron in contact with the body of the
thermistor. Be extra careful that the tip touches ONLY the thermistor. Repeat A.2 then
unplug the soldering iron.
5. Tabulate your resistance measurements and plot them against temperature.
6. Compare with datasheet values (see Appendix B: Some Notes from Transducer
Datasheets).
* CAUTION: Be EXTRA careful such that the soldering iron does not come into contact with
anything not intended including yourself!
99
100
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some questions can be
answered by further investigating the procedure stated above.
1. Briefly explain the theory involved in the operation of each transducer used in this
experiment.
2. Compare the thermistor and the LDR in terms of linearity, sensitivity and response time.
What type of applications is each suited to and why?
3. Think of and list down other applications of the transducers used in this exercise.
4. Research on three (3) transducers not used in this experiment and briefly discuss the
theory behind their operation and cite their applications.
5. In Part D., what are the peak levels of output voltage? How is this related to the supply
voltages VCC+ and VCC-?
101
5 Documentation
As mentioned in the previous chapter, and for emphasis, we can say that performing
experiments is essential. Gathering data and analysing & interpreting them however are more
valuable. Documenting reports is one of the major objective of EEE 34. One must learn how to
report data in an academic perspective. In the field of EEE, the most accepted format is the one
provided by the largest professional organization in the world IEEE. A sample format to be used
for Post-Lab documentation can be found in Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper for A4 Page Size.
102
8. Avoid hanging title, subtitle or header. (e.g. the title of a section and its first paragraph are
cut through next column/next page).
9. Do not include the 'Acknowledgment' part. It is NOT necessary for laboratory reports.
10. Some are printing their reports not from their original machine. Thus, to avoid
compatibility between document processors of your own machine (where you edited
your report) and the machine printing the final paper, it is a good practice to convert the
file first to a PDF format. This will preserve your intended format.
103
6 Project
The project is the capstone requirement for EEE 34. After applying the concepts learned
in circuit theory into actual setups, it is then time for students to showcase their ability and skills
in building and constructing something, and finally make it work. This requirement aims to give
the students a fun and fulfilling experience with electronics. This chapter will discuss the project
guidelines and will enumerate most common questions students ask during project development.
Students can visit the library to look for books with interesting electronics project or from
reliable sources in the internet.
104
III.
IV.
Abstract
Introduction
Project Development
A. Circuit Description
B. Circuit Operation
C. Project Construction
D. Problems Encountered
E. Delegation of Tasks
F. List of Materials
Project Applications
Conclusion
References
105
Documentation
Defense
Presentation Slides
Question & Answer
(45%)
(10%)
(5%)
(10%)
(10%)
106
7. Is it safe to use a larger supply voltage for our circuit?
Check the datasheets of all components on absolute maximum ratings (especially
power ratings).
8. Can we improve the design for our project implementation?
If you think it will improve your work, then feel free to do so.
9. We are done with our project (with documentation and presentation slides). Can we
present on an earlier date?
Yes. Anytime within the official class hours. Consult with your instructor for the
specific schedule.
10. Is the datasheet for a component universal?
Yes. Even if the manufacturers are different, the characteristics of a certain
component should be standardized. For example, the 2N3904 from Texas
Instruments should have the same characteristics with the 2N3904 produced by
Analog Devices.
11. Can we sit-in to other class schedules?
Yes. Provided that there are extra stations/equipment. Please refer back to
Section 1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations.
12. Our circuit is not working and date of presentation is drawing near. What shall we do?
Do not be disheartened. Quitters do not have a place here in EEE. You still need to
present even if your project is not working. However, you need to justify and
explain the causes why your project is not working at the very least. Include in
your presentation all the debugging tasks you did to troubleshoot your circuit. It
is better to present something than get a grade of 0%. On the contrary, do not be
relaxed.
13. Can we present once we are done?
Please refer to FAQ #9. The instructor will not accept ambush presentations.
Students should at least reserve a schedule prior to project presentation.
14. We are paying high laboratory fees in our tuition. Why do we experience lack of
components in the Instruments Room?
Procuring materials in the government takes a long process. The faculty and the
admin are doing their best to address this situation. Also, EEE 34 is not the only
laboratory course in EEE.
15. Ahmmm?
Check the datasheet.
107
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
Analog
multimeter
reading
scale.
Image
adapted
http://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/analog-multimeter.html.
accessed: January 2015.
[4]
How to use a Multimeter. Image adapted from http://www.wikihow.com/Use-aMultimeter. Last accessed: January 2015.
[5]
Resistors.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.electronicstutorials.ws/resistor/res_2.html. Last accessed: January 2015.
[6]
Structure & circuit symbols for variable resistor/'pot'. Image adapted from
www.st-andrews.ac.uk. Last accessed: January 2015.
[7]
[8]
Capacitor value reading. Image adapted from http://www.electronicstutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html. Last accessed: January 2015.
[9]
[10]
[11]
Debugging
circuits.
Article
file
from
http://wwwinst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ee43/sp03/labs/. Last accessed: January 2015.
[12]
PHD
Comics
Debugging.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.phdcomics.com/comics/archive.php?comicid=673. Last accessed:
January 2015.
from
Last
108
[13]
[14]
Voltage and Current Sources. Image adapted from http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/visource.html. Last accessed: January 2015.
[15]
[0b-1]
LED anode and cathode. Image adapted from www.eng.utah.edu. Last accessed:
January 2015.
[0b-2]
Flashing LED circuit. Image adapted from http://www.555-timercircuits.com/flashing-led.html . Last accessed: August 2015.
[0b-3]
555
Timer
IC
Pinouts.
Image
adapted
http://www.instructables.com/id/Flashing-LED-using-555-Timer/.
accessed: January 2015.
from
Last
[0b-4]
Troubleshooting
circuits.
Image
adapted
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/trouble1.html. Last
January 2015.
from
accessed:
[4-1]
109
110
Figure B. 1. Typical response curve temperature versus resistance of UEI447 NTC Thermistor .
111
112
113
The list above is a good reference to what components are available in the Instruments Room.
However, EEE supports various instructional laboratories aside from EEE 34. The list availability
or supply might change without prior notice.
*Kindly take note the version (and hence revision date) of this laboratory manual.
114
*Kindly take note the version (and hence revision date) of this laboratory manual.
115
EEE 34
Electrical
Measurements
Laboratory