Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Wind result from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure gradient.
On a global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds from the poles
toward the equator is convective circulation. Solar radiation heats the air near the
equator, and this low density heated air is buoyed up. At the surface it is displaced by
cooler more dense higher pressure air flowing from the poles. In the upper atmosphere
near the equator the air thus tend to flow back toward the poles and away from the
equator. The net result is a global convective circulation with surface wins from north to
south in the northern hemisphere.
It is clear from the above over simplified model that the wind is basically caused
by the solar energy irradiating the earth. This is why wind utilization is considered a part
of solar technology.
It actuality the wind is much more complex. The above model ignores the earths
rotation which causes a coriolis force resulting in an easterly wind velocity component in
the northern hemisphere.
There is the further complication of boundary layer frictional effects between the
moving air and the earths rough surface.
Mountains, trees, buildings, and similar
obstructions impair stream line air flow. Turbulence results and the wind velocity in a
horizontal direction markedly increase with altitude near the surface.
Local winds are caused by two mechanisms. The first is differential hating of land
and water. Solar isolation during the day is readily converted to sensible energy of the
land surface but is partly absorbed in layers below the water surface and partly consume
in evaporating some of that water. The land mass becomes hotter than the water, which
causes the air above the land to heat up and become warmer than the air above water. The
warmer lighter air above the land rises and the cooler heavier air above the water moves
into replace it. This is the mechanism of shore breezes. At night, the direction of the
breezes is reversed because the land mass cools to the sky more rapidly than the water,
assuming a sky. The second mechanism is caused by hills and mountain sides. The air
BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering
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above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night, more rapidly than the
air above the low lands. This causes heated air the day to rise along the slopes and
relatively cool heavy air to flow down at night.
Wind turbines produce rotational motion; wind energy is readily converted into
electrical energy by connecting the turbine to an electric generator. The combination of
wind turbine and generator is sometimes referred as an aero generator. A step-up
transmission is usually required to match the relatively slow speed of the wind rotor to the
higher speed of an electric generator.
In Indian the interest in the windmills was shown in the last fifties and early
sixties. A part from importing a few from outside, new designs was also developed, but it
was not sustained. It is only in the last few years that development work is going on in
many institutions. An important reason for this lack of interest in wind energy must be
that wind, in India area relatively low and vary appreciably with the seasons. Data quoted
by some scientists that for India wind speed value lies between 5 km/hr to 15-20 km/hr.
these low and seasonal winds imply a high cost of exploitation of wind energy.
Calculations based on the performance of a typical windmill have indicated that a unit of
energy derived from a windmill will be at least several times more expensive than energy
derivable fro electric distribution lines at the standard rates, provided such electrical
energy is at all available at the windmill site.
The above argument is not fully applicable in rural areas for several reasons. First
electric power is not and will not be available in many such areas due to the high cost of
generation and distribution to small dispersed users. Secondly there is possibility of
reducing the cost of the windmills by suitable design. Lastly, on small scales, the total
first cost for serving a felt need and low maintenance costs are more important than the
unit cost of energy. The last point is illustrated easily: dry cells provide energy at the
astronomical cost of about Rs.300 per kWh and yet they are in common use in both rural
and urban areas.
Wind energy offers another source for pumping as well as electric power
generation. India has potential of over 20,000 MW for power generation and ranks as one
of the promising countries for tapping this source. The cost of power generation from
wind farms has now become lower than diesel power and comparable to thermal power in
several areas of our country especially near the coasts. Wind power projects of aggregate
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capacity of 8 MW including 7 wind farms projects of capacity 6.85 MW have been

established in different parts of the country of which 3 MW capacity has been completed
in 1989 by DNES. Wind farms are operating successfully and have already fed over 150
lakes units of electricity to the respective state grids. Over 25 MW of additional power
capacity from wind is under implementation. Under demonstration programmer 271
wind pumps have been installed up to February 1989. Sixty small wind battery charges
of capacities 300 watts to 4 kW are under installation. Likewise to stand-alone wind
electric generators of 10 to 25 kW are under installation.
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CHAPTER 2
Applications of Wind Energy

Wind power can also be used compress air for use in various applications,
including the operation of gas turbines for generating electricity during the peak-demand
periods of a public utility system. For this type of application, conventional gas turbines
can be modified to separate the compressor, generator, and power stages by clutches. In
one mode of operation, the motor generator operating as a motor and powered by a wind
machine drives the air compressor. The compressed air is fed into a storage tank or into a
large cavern, aquifer, or depleted natural gas well. Under this mode, the power turbine is
inoperative, and no fuel is consumed.
In a second mode of operation, when the demand for power exceeds the supply of
the base-load utility system, the compressor is disengaged, and the power turbine is
connected to the generator. The burner that drives the power turbine is fed fuel and
compressed air from storage to generate power for the utility system.
The temperature of air is raised when it is compressed without loss of heat (i.e.
adiabatic compression). In this case, less heat will need to be added to the air, when it is
eventually used to drive a turbine at a given efficiency, than if its heat has been allowed to
escape from the a given efficiency, than if its heat has been allowed to escape from the
storage container and the temperature of the air had been allowed to drop to the ambient
temperature (i.e. isothermal storage). Adiabatic storage is obviously better, from the
standpoint of energy conservation, than isothermal storage.
Wind powered pumps can be used to desalinate water, using reverse osmosis units.
Wind powered pumps can also be used to save fuel and electricity by compressing the
working fluids used in heat pumps for space heating applications.
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FIG 2.1: Wind turbine air compressor
Fig 2.2: Block diagram of wind turbine air compressor
2.1 Direct heat applications

Mechanical motion derived from wind power can be used to drive heat pumps or
to produce heat from the friction of solid materials, or by the churning of water or other
fluids, or in other cases, by the use of centrifugal or other types of pumps in combination
with restrictive orifices that produces heat from friction and turbulence when the working
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fluid flows through them. This heat may then be stored in materials having a high heat
capacity, such as water, stones, eutectic salts, etc.,
A home heating system that uses a wind powered pump and a restrictive orifice to
derive direct heat for a building, without first generating electricity also has been
developed.
2.2 Electric Generation Applications

Wind power can be used in centralized utility applications to drive synchronous
A.C. electrical generators. In such applications. The energy is fed directly into power
networks through voltage step-up transformers.
WECS units can be integrated with existing hydro electrical networks and used in
a water-saver mode of operation. When the wind is blowing, electrical an amount equal
to the being can reduce generation at the hydroelectric plants in the network produced by
the WECS units. Thus, the wind turbines supply part of the network load that is ordinarily
produced by the hydroelectric generators. Under these conditions some of the water that
would have been used by the hydroelectric plant to supply the load is saved in the
reservoir and made available for later use when the wind is not blowing.
Additional hydroelectric generating facilities are provided at the hydro plant to
allow the water that was saved in the reservoir to be used at greater rate when the wind
was not blowing, thereby providing a firm generating capacity equal to the firm
generating capacity of the hydro plant plus the average generating capacity of the windpowered plant.
In dispersed applications, wind power can be used to generate dc electrical power
that, in turn, can be used for dc applications or space heaters, such as resistance heaters or
can be stored in batteries and then inverted for used by A.C. loads. In centralized or
dispersed applications requiring constantly available sources of power, the energy can
also be stored in the form of mechanical motion of a flywheel or as hydrogen and oxygen
gases derived from the electrolytic dissociation of water.
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Fig 2.3: Electric generation application
2.3 Battery Charger

The hydrogen and oxygen can be stored in liquid form in tanks, or in gaseous
form in tanks, caverns, aquifers, depleted natural gas wells, etc. The stored hydrogen can
be used either as a fuel or direct space heating or industrial process heat, or it can be
reconverted to electricity through the use of fuel cells, gas turbine generators that burn
hydrogen, or by other means.
Fig 2.4: Battery charger
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CHAPTER 3
Literature Review
3.1 Wind Power
Wind is powered by the sun. In fact, all renewable energy, and even energy in
fossil fuels, ultimately comes from the sun. The sun heats our planet to different
temperatures in different places and at different times. This unequal distribution of heat is
what creates wind as warm air rises and cooler air descends to fill the void. Wind is the
ongoing movement of this air.
The force of the wind can be very strong, as can be seen after the passage of a
hurricane or a typhoon. Historically, people have harnessed this force peacefully, its most
important usage probably being the propulsion of ships using sails before the invention of
the steam engine and the internal combustion engine. Wind has also been used in
windmills to grind grain or to pump water for irrigation. At the beginning of the twentieth
century electricity came into use and windmills gradually became wind turbines as the
rotor was connected to an electric generator. A country or region where energy production
is based on imported coal or oil will become more self-sufficient by using alternatives
such as wind power. Electricity produced from the wind produces no CO2 emissions and
therefore does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. Wind energy is relatively labor
intensive and thus creates many jobs.
Actually, a total of 8,484 MW wind power capacity was installed in the EU in
2008, figure 1. This puts wind energy ahead of any other power technology for the first
time. The 36% of all new electricity producing capacity installed in the EU in 2008 was
wind energy followed by natural gas (6,932 MW - 29%), oil (2,495 MW - 10%), coal
(762 MW - 3%) and hydro (473 MW - 2%) .
3.2 Wind Turbine

The wind energy system transforms the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical or
electrical energy that can be harnessed for practical use. Mechanical energy is most
commonly used for pumping water in rural or remote locations, the "farm windmill" still seen
in many rural areas of the U.S. as a mechanical wind pumper, but it can also be used for many
other purposes as grinding grain, sawing, pushing a sailboat, etc.
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In addition, the maximum power that can be obtained from a turbine can be measure
as: =12 2=12 3 where is the mass flow, is the wind speed, the density of
the air and A the area where the wind speed has been reduced. The equation for the maximum
power is very important to understand since it tells us that power increases with the cube of
the wind speed and only linearly with density and area. The available wind speed at a given
site is therefore often first measured over a period of time before a project is initiated.
The wind turbines are classified as the horizontal axis wind turbine and the
vertical axis wind turbine based upon whether the axis of rotation is
parallel or perpendicular to the ground.
3.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

Today the HAWT is the most cost-effective means of capturing wind energy. They
are positioned on land or at sea in a proven windy area. Most horizontal axis turbines are
built with two or three blades.
HAWTs have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower,
and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane,
while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. It most have
a gearbox, which turns the low rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more
suitable to drive a generator, this can be seen in figure 2.
There are a number of sizes and power ratings of different HAWTs. The largest
turbine that was created to generate electricity has blades that are the length of a High
School football field. The wind turbine stands an amazing twenty floors high and the
rotors are up to twenty-five feet in diameter. A wind turbine of this size is able to supply
the electrical needs of a small business or home. A single small turbine can be used to
generate electricity for a water pump, home or telecommunication devices. A small
turbine is capable of producing fifty kilowatts of power.
A wind farm is used to generate electricity in bulk. Several wind turbines, grouped
together, form a wind farm. The electrical power that is generated from the turbines is
distributed to customers from a utility grid. The utility grid works much in the same way
as a conventional power plant.
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Fig 3.1: HAWT
3.2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Vertical axis wind turbines are different from traditional wind turbines in that their
main axis is perpendicular to the ground. Their configuration makes them ideal for both rural
and urban settings and offers the owner an opportunity to offset the rising cost of electricity
and to preserve the environment. Besides, they do not need the complicated head mechanisms
of conventional horizontal axis turbines.
VAWTs in addition to being simpler and cheaper to build have the following
advantages:
VAWTs are not affected by the direction of the wind which is useful in areas where
the wind changes direction frequently or quickly.
VAWTs are better able to harvest turbulent air flow found around buildings and other
obstacles. This situation is more common in areas where people live.
VAWTs are ideal for both rural and urban applications including roof top
installations.
The generator or other devices can be installed at the ground level, making it simpler
to install or maintain.
VAWTs do not kill birds and wild life, it is because the slow moving and highly
visible.
VAWTs can be significantly less expensive to build.
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They produce less noise compare with horizontal ones.
VAWTs are more aesthetically pleasing.

The first aerodynamic vertical axis wind turbine was invented by
Georges Darrieus in France and first patented in 1927. The common

Darrieus rotor has two or three blades; they have shaped like an eggbeater. In the past the Darrieus rotor has been tested in different
dimensions. In fact, one of the largest turbines ever built was the 96m
high 64m diameter and it is located in Quebec, Canada. Another version of
the Darrieus Wind Turbines is the, also called H-rotor. The main difference
from the egg-beater shape is the straight aerodynamic profiles. Other
VAWT configurations include the Savonius, which is popular because of the
simplicity of manufacture, and the straight bladed VAWTs. All these
turbines can be observed in figure 3.
Fig 3.2: Darrieus Wind turbine (left), H-rotor (right)
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CHAPTER 4
Type of Vertical Wind Turbines

4.1. Darrieus
4.1.1 Historical background
French aeronautical engineer Georges Jean Marie Darrieus patented in 1931 a
Turbine having its shaft transverse to the flow of the current, and his previous patent
(1927) covered practically any possible arrangement using vertical airfoils.
Its one of the most common VAWT, and there was also an attempt to implement
the Darrieus wind turbine on a large scale effort in California by the FloWind
Corporation; however, the company went bankrupt in 1997. Actually this turbine has been
the starting point for further studies on VAWT, to improve efficiency.
4.1.2 Use and operation

The swept area on a Darrieus turbine is , a narrow range of tip speed ratios around
6 and power coefficient Cp just above 0.3.
Fig 4.1: Power Coefficient (Cp) vs. Tip Speed Ratio ( ) For Various Wind Turbines
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Each blade sees maximum lift (torque) only twice per revolution, making for a
huge torque (and power) sinusoidal output that is not present in HAWTs. And the long
VAWT blades have many natural frequencies of vibration which must be avoided during
operation.
Fig 4.2: Angle of attack
One problem with the design is that the angle of attack changes as the turbine
spins, so each blade generates its maximum torque at two points on its cycle (front and
back of the turbine). This leads to a sinusoidal power cycle that complicates design.
4.2 Savonius
4.2.1 Historical background
Savonius wind turbines were invented by the Finnish engineer Sigurd J. Savonius
in 1922, but Johann Ernst Elias Bessler (born 1680) was the first to attempt to build a
horizontal windmill of the Savonius type in the town of Furstenburg in Germany in 1745.
4.2.2 Use and operation

The Savonius is a drag-type VAWT, so it cannot rotate faster than the wind speed.
This means that the tip speed ratio is equal to 1 or smaller, making this turbine not very
suitable for electricity generation. Moreover, the efficiency is very low compared to other
types, so it can be employed for other uses, such as pumping water or grinding grain.
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Much of the swept area of a Savonius rotor is near the ground, making the overall energy
extraction less effective due to lower wind speed at lower heights.
Its best qualities are the simplicity, the reliability and the very low noise
production. It can operate well also at low wind speed because the torque is very high
especially in these conditions. However the torque is not constant, so often some
improvements like helical shape are used.
Fig 4.3: Savonius rotor
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CHAPTER 5
Wind Data and Energy Estimation

The seasonal as well as instantaneous changes in wind both with regard to
magnitude and direction need to be well understood to make the best use of them in
windmill designs. Winds are known to fluctuate by a factor of 2 or more within seconds
(and thus causing the power to fluctuate by a factor of 8 or more). This calls for a proper
recording and analysis of the wind characteristics.
There are various ways the data on wind behaviour is collected depending on the
use it is intended to be put into. The hourly mean wind velocity as collected by the
meteorological observations is the basic data used in a windmill designs. The holy means
is the one averaged over a particular hour of the day, over the day, month, year and years.
The factors, which affect the nature of the wind close to the surface of the earth, they are:
(i)
Latitude of the place,
(ii)
Altitude of the place,
(iii)
Topography of the place,
(iv)
Scale of the ours, month or year.
Winds being an unsteady phenomenon, the scale of the periods considered are an
important set of date required in the design. The hourly mean velocity (for many years)
provides the data for establishing the potential of the place for tapping the wind energy.
The scale of the month is useful to indicate whether it is going to be useful during
particular periods of the year and what storage if necessary is to be provided for. The data
based on scale of the hour is useful for mechanical aspects of design.
Since the winds near the surface of the earth are derived from large scale
movements of atmospheric winds, the location height above ground level at which the
wind is measured and the nature of the surface on earth have an influence on the velocity
of wind at any given time. The winds near the surface of the earth are interpreted in terms
of boundary layer concept, keeping in mind the factors that influence its development.
The wind velocity at a given height can be represented in terms of gradient height and
velocity.
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In as much as the height of the windmill rotor depends on the design wind
velocity and cost of supporting structure. The above factors have a bearing on the design.
Similarly, winds being an unsteady phenomenon, the scale of periods considered for this
the temporal parameters (scale of our, month and year) is an important set of data
required in the design. While the hourly mean velocity (for many years) provides the data
for establishing the potential of the place for tapping the wind energy. The scale of the
month is useful to indicate whether it is going to be useful during particular periods of the
year and what storage if necessary is to be provided for as already mentioned above. The
data based on scale of the hour is useful for mechanical aspects of design. In addition to
the data on the hourly mean velocity, two other informations required are:
-
Spells of low wind speeds, and
Gusts
The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS (wind energy conversion
system) is an important matter when wind electric is looked at from the systems points of
view of aero turbine generators feeding power into a conventional electric grid. If the
WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electric generated energy per year
may be sub optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high cost for
wind generated electrical energy, and no returns on investment. Even if the WECS is to
the a small generator not tied to the electric grid, the sitting must be carefully chosen if
inordinately long break even times to the avoided. Technical, economic environmental,
social, and other factors are examined before a decision is made to erect a generating
plant on a specific site. Some of the main considerations are discussed below.
1. High annual average wind speed. A fundamental requirement of the successful
use of WECS, obviously, is an adequate supply of wind has stated above. The wind
velocity is the critical parameter. The power in the wind Pw, through a given cross
sectional area for a uniform wind velocity V, is
Pw=KV3
Where K is a constant. It is evident; because of the cubic dependence on wind
velocity that small increases in V markedly affect the power in the wind, EX. Doubling V,
increases Pw by a factor of 8. it is obviously desirable to select a site for WECS with high
wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principal fundamental parameter
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of concern in initially appraising a WECS site. For a more detailed estimate value, one
would like to have the average of the velocity cubed.
Anemometer data is normally based on wind speed measurements from a height
of 10m. For the most accurate assessment of wind power potential it is absolutely
essential that anemometer data be obtained at the precise site and hub height for any
proposed WECS.
Strategy for sifting is generally recognized to consists of
1. Survey of historical wind data,
2. Contour maps of terrain and wind are consulted.
3. Potential sites are visited.
4. Best sites are instrumental for approximately one year.
5. Choose optimal site.
(2) Availability of anemometry data. It is another important sitting factor. The
principal object is to measure the wind speed, which basically determines the WECS
output power, but there are many practical difficulties with the instrumentation and
measurement methods.
The anemometer height above ground, accuracy, linearity,
location on the support tower, shadowing and inaccurate readings there from, icing inertia
of rotor whether it measures the horizontal velocity component or vertical, and
temperature effects are a few of the many difficulties encountered. The anemometry data
should be available over some time period at the precise spot where any proposed able
over some time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built and
that this should be accomplished before a sitting decision is made.
(3) Availability of wind V(t) curve at the proposed site. This important curve
determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is the principal initially
controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and hence revenue returns of the
WECS machines.
It is desirable to have average wind speed
V 12-
16km/hr(3.5_4.5m/sec) which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS
generators cut in i.e. start turning. The V (t) curve goes to zero there will be no generated
power during that time. If there are long periods of calm the
WECS reliability will
be lower than if the calm periods are short. In making such reliability estimates it is
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desirable to have measured V(t) curve over about a 5 year period for the highest
confidence level in the reliability estimate.
(4) Wind structure at the proposed site. The ideal case for the WECS would be a
site such that the V(t) curve was flat, i.e. a smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but
a typical site is always less than ideal. Wind especially near the ground is turbulent and
gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in velocity. This departure from homogeneous
flow is collectively referred to as the structure of the wind.
(5) Altitude of the proposed site. It affects the air density and thus the power in
the wind and hence the useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the
winds tend to have higher velocities at higher altitudes.
One must be careful to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are
not the same except for a sea level WECS site.
(6) Terrain and its aerodynamic. One should know about terrain of the site to be
chosen. If the WECS is to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill
facing the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a speed up of the wind
velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind here may not flow horizontal
making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aero turbine is always
perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
(7) Terrain and its aerodynamic. One should know about terrain of the site to be
chosen. If the WECS is to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill
facing the prevailing wind, then it may be possible to obtain a speed up of the wind
velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind here may not flow horizontal
making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aero turbine is always
perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains, which channel the prevailing
winds into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
(8) Local Ecology. If the surface is bare rock it may mean lower hub heights hence
lower structure cost. If trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tent to
restructure the wind, then higher hub heights will be needed resulting in large system
costs than the bare ground case.
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(9) Distance to Roads or Railways. This is another factor the system engineer
must consider for heavy machinery, structures, materials, blades and other apparatus will
have to be moved into any chosen WECS site.
(10) Nearness of site to local centre/users. This obvious criterion minimizes
transmission line length and hence losses and costs. After applying all the previous
sitting criteria, hope fully as one narrows the proposed WECS sites to one or two they
would be relatively near to the users of the generated electric energy.
(11) Nature of ground. Ground condition should be such that the foundations for a
WECS, destroying the foundations for a WECS are secured. Ground surface should be
stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash out the
foundations of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
(12) Favourable land cost. Land cost should be favourable as this along with
other sitting costs, enters into the total WECS system cost.
(13) Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not
present at the site, as they may affect aero turbine blades, or environmental is generally
adverse to machinery and electrical apparatus.
The wind shear, and consequently the available wind power at a given altitude, is
also affected by the roughness of the earths surface in a given location. If the area
contains buildings, trees, wind machines, or other obstacles, the variation of the wind
speed with altitude above ground level is usually greater for these obstructed areas than
for the case of open water and flat plains. The characteristics of a good wind power site
may be summarized as follows:
1. A site should have a high annual wind speed.
2. There should be no tall obstructions for a radius of 3 km.
3. An open plain or an open shore line may be good location.
4. The top of a smooth, well rounded hill with gentle slopes lying on a flat plain
or located on an island in a lake or sea is a good site.
5. A mountain gap that produces to wind funnelling is good.
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CHAPTER 6
Power Generation
6.1 Generating Systems
6.1.1 Introduction
Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary mechanical energy. A mechanical
interface, consisting of a step-up gear and a suitable coupling transmits the energy to an
electrical generator. The output of this generator is connected to the load or system grid.
The controller senses the wind direction, wind speed, power output of the generator and
other necessary performance quantities of the system and initiates appropriate control
signals to take suitable corrective actions. The system should be protected from excessive
temperature raise of the generator, electrical faults and extra wind conditions.
The choice of an electrical generator and control method to be employed (if any)
can be decided by consideration of the following three factors:
(i)
The basis of operation i.e. either constant tip speed or constant tip speed
ratio.
(ii)
The wind-power rating of the turbine and
(iii)
The type of load demand e.g. battery connection.
Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to 1kW,
medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.
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Fig 6.1: Block diagram of wind turbine
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Electrical generators types applicable to each of these ratings are:

Small permanent, magnet, D.C. generators.
Medium - permanent magnet, D.C generator, induction generator, synchronous generator.
Large induction generator, synchronous generator.
The electrical control strategy employed for any particular scheme can be
designed to effect control of the generator, the power transmission link or the load.
6.2 Schemes for electric generation

Several schemes for electric generation have been developed. These schemes can
be broadly classified under three categories:
(i)
Constant speed constant frequently systems (CSCF)
(ii)
Variable speed constant frequency systems (VSCF)
(iii)
Variable speed variable frequency systems (VSVF)
(1) Constant speed constant frequency system (CSCF).

Constant speed drive has been used for large generators connected directly to the
grid where constant frequency operation is essential.
(a) Synchronous Generator.
For such machines the requirement of constant speed is very rigid and only minor
fluctuations about 1% for short durations (fraction of second) could be allowed.
Synchronization of wind driven generator with power grid also will pose problems with
gusty winds.
(b) Induction Generator.
If the stator of an induction machine is connected to the power grid and if the
rotor is driven above synchronous speed Ns (Ns=120f/p), the machine becomes a
generator and delivers constant line frequency power to the grid.(f=line frequency and
p=number of poles for which the stator winding is made).Per unit slip is 0 and 0.05. The
output power of wind drive n induction generator is uniquely determined by the operating
speed. The pull out torque condition should not be exceeded. When this happens the
speed continues to increase and the system may run away. The torque-speed
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characteristics of an induction machine in the motor and generating modes. Induction

generators are basically simpler than synchronous generators. They are easier to operate,
control and maintain, have no synchronization problems and are economical. However,
they draw their excitation from the grid and hence impose reactive volt ampere burden.
But static capacitors can be used to overcome this problem.
(ii) Variable speed constant frequency scheme. (VSCF scheme).
Variable-speed drive is typical for most small wind generators used in autonomous
applications, generally producing variable frequency and variable voltage output. The
variable speed operation of wind-electric system yield higher outputs for both low and
high wind speeds. This results in higher annual energy yields per rated installed kW
capacity. Both horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines will exhibit this gain under
variable speed operation. The popular schemes to obtain constant frequency output are as
follows:
(a) AC-DC-AC link.
With the advent of high powered thyristors and high voltage D.C.
transmission systems, A.C. output of the 3-phase alternator is rectified using a
bridge rectifier and then converted back to A.C. using line commutated inverters.
They utilize an A.C. source (power lines) which periodically reverses polarity and
causes the commutation to occur naturally. Since frequency is automatically fixed
by the power line, they are also known as synchronous inverters. The block
diagram of the system.
Fig 6.2: AC-DC-AC link
(b) Double Output Induction Generator.

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In this system a slip-ring induction motor is used. Rotor power output at slip
frequency is converted to line frequency power by rectification and inversion output
power is obtained both from stator and rotor and hence this device is called double output
induction generator. Rotor output power has the electrical equivalence of additional
impedance in the rotor circuit. Therefore, increasing rotor outputs led to increasing slips
and higher speeds. Such an operation increases the operating speed range from N 3 to 2
N3, i.e. slip varying from 0 to 1.0.
(c) A.C. Communication generator.

This system is also known as Scherbius system employs two polyphone windings
in the stator and a commutator winding on the rotor. Basic problems in employing this
device for wind energy conversion are the cost and care required by the commutator and
the brush gear.
Fig 6.3: A.C. Communication generator
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CHAPTER 7
Safety Systems
7.1 Safety systems of the wind turbines:
(i) The computer. The wind turbine is controlled by a computer which monitors
the most important gauging instruments and compares the results. If errors are found the
wind turbine is stopped.
(ii) Emergency stop. If a situation arises which calls for the wind turbine to be
stopped immediately, the emergency stop is used. The wind turbine will stop in few
seconds by feathering the blades directly into the wind. It can not be stated again before
what caused the emergency stop has been rectified.
(iii) Revolution Counters. To prevent the rotor from racing, two revolution
counters have been mounted on the shaft.
These operates quiet independently and
activate the emergency stop if the revolutions of the turbine exceed 24 rpm which is
maximum.
(iv) Win Velocity. This is measured and controlled by the computer in two ways.
First gusts of wind are registered and if they are too strong the turbine is stopped. Then
average wind speeds are measured over periods of 10 minutes, and the wind turbine is
also stopped if there are too high.
(v) The Parachutes. Each blade tip has a parachute, which is activated if the rpm
exceeds 28. An iron plumb bob, otherwise held in place by a magnet, is released from the
blade trip, the centrifugal force exceeding the force of the magnet pulling out the
parachute. This decrease the speed of the wind turbine considerable enough to stop it
from racing. The parachute is an extra safety device should other fail. Till now they
never had been used.
(v) Lightning Rods. The tree blades and the mill or wind turbine cap are
protected from lighting by these rods going from the tip of each blade to the ground.
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7.2 Environmental Aspects

Wind turbines are not without environmental impact and their operation is not
entirely risk-free. Following are the main effects due to a wind turbine.
(i) Electromagnetic interference. Interference with TV and other electromagnetic
communication systems is a possibility with wind turbines as it is with other tall
structures. TV interference is most likely in areas where there is a weak signal because of
the distance from the transmitter, where existing reception is none too good due to the
surrounding hills and where the wind turbine is exposed in good position to receive and
scatter the signals. Dispensing with aerials and sending TV signals by cable in areas that
would otherwise be affected can overcome interference.
(ii) Noise. The noise produced by wind farms falls into two categories. The first
type is a mechanical noise from the gearbox, generating equipment and linkages and the
second type of aerodynamic in nature produced by the movement of the turbine blades.
One component of the latter is the broad band noise which ranges upto several kilo hertz
and the other is a low frequency noise of 15-20 Hz. Revolving blades generate noise
which can be heard in the immediate vicinity of the installation, but noise does not travel
too far.
(iii) Visual Effects.
Megawatts power generating wind turbines are massive
structures which would be quite visible over a wide area in some locations. Variety
characteristics such as co lour pattern, shape, rotational speed and reflectance of blade
materials can be adjusted to modify the visual effects of wind turbines including the land
scape in which they are installed.
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CHAPTER 8
Literature Survey
The literature survey presented are classified into three major domains namely
Wind turbine airfoil aerodynamics, Design and performance of wind turbine,
Optimization of wind turbine and simulation techniques.
8.1 Wind Turbine Airfoil Aerodynamics

The aerodynamics of airfoils of wind turbine was studied by various researchers
with a view to optimizing the wind turbine performance. Some of the literature related to
airfoil aerodynamics is presented briefly in this section.
The parking conditions of wind turbine rotor in upstream and downstream
velocities were analyzed and reported by Apadopoulos et al. (1995). They have created
power coefficient curve and assessed wake features due to variation of wind velocities
and at stalled condition. They observed increased turbulent levels near the blade tips and
around the hub height for various wind speeds. At the wake zone, they observed that there
was no increase in turbulent energy and it was due to flat wake velocity profile and the
absence of strong shear layers that produce turbulence. A limitation of this study is the
terrain complexity in association with the fact that the prevailing wind velocity was
particularly high, leading to a relatively weak wake.
The evolution of turbulence characteristics in wind turbine wakes were studied by
Crespo and Hernandez (1996). They evaluated turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its
dissipation rate () by experimental methods and numerical methods using CFD. The
characteristic values of turbulence velocity and length were calculated by algebraic
combinations of k and . The spectrum of unperturbed basic flow was recovered for
increasing turbulent kinetic energy by neglecting the effect of wake. The standard
deviation of the axial velocity was used to measure the turbulence in wind turbine wakes.
Since turbulence was isotropic neither in the atmospheric surface layer nor in the wake
zones, in order to validate the results of the numerical model, it was necessary to make
assumptions that relate k to the standard deviation in the wind direction. They
considered two wake regions one at near the hub and the other away from hub for their
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analysis leaving the intermediate zone that had turbulence. The region next to the
downstream of the rotor, where expansion occurs, was not considered in their analysis.
A numerical multi-disciplinary optimization method for design of horizontal axis
wind turbines was proposed by Fuglsang and Madsen (1999). The objective was to
minimize the cost of generating energy. They considered design fatigue load, extreme
wind loads and annual generation of energy. They developed an empirical approach to
identify the sensitivities of the above parameters. The empirical approach saved
substantial computing time. They considered 1.5 MW stall regulated rotor for
optimization. They optimized the shape of the rotor to withstand the maximum strain and
for economical use of material. The cost of energy was reduced compared to the
traditional design with the same swept area. The optimum specific power was found to be
460 W/m2, which is lower than that of modern Danish wind turbines. They suggested that
airfoil sections should have a relatively high maximum lift at the entire span including the
tip region for optimum characteristics. Further, they suggested that an increase in the
swept area can be achieved by increasing the length of the blade where as the tip section
should not have minimum lift airfoils.
The aerodynamic characteristics of wind turbines which are closely related to the
geometry of the blade profiles were studied by Kamoun Badreddine et al. (2005). He
developed an accurate lower order code for the analysis of airfoil in CFD software, based
on the singularities method. In this method, sourcevortex distributions over the airfoil
contour were used to compute the flow characteristics. In the analysis of the flow
characteristics, the 2D incompressible potential flow model was used. The accuracy and
the validity of the results had been tested using experimental data obtained from Wind
Turbine Airfoil Catalogue of Ris National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark, in August
2001 and obtained good agreement.
Zhou et al. (2011) presented the measurements of mean and fluctuating forces on
an NACA0012 airfoil over a large range of angle () of attack (090) and low to small
chord Reynolds numbers (Re) in the range of 5.3 103 to 5.1 104. They measured
forces using a load cell, displayed good agreement with the results estimated from the
LDA-measured cross-flow distributions of velocities in the wake based on the momentum
conservation. The dependence of the forces on both and Re is determined. It has been
found that the stall of an airfoil, characterized by a drop in the lift force and a jump in the
drag force, occurs at Re 1.05 104 and it is absent at Re = 5.3 103. A theoretical
analysis is developed to predict the dependence of mean lift and drag on .
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The airfoil with low Reynolds number was designed by Ronit K. Singh et al.
(2012) for applications in small horizontal axis wind turbines to achieve better start up
and low wind speed performances. They performed experiments on the improved airfoil
(AF300) in an open circuit wind tunnel at Reynolds numbers of 38,000, 75,000, 128,000
and 205,000. A CFD analysis was also performed to get additional information on the
flow characteristics. Pressure distributions were obtained over the surface of the airfoil
and the lift and drag forces were measured with a dynamometer at different angles of
attack.
8.2 Design and Performance of Wind Turbine

The understanding and study of design and performance of wind turbines is
important in the course of optimization of its performance. The research and finding of
the researchers related to the design and performance of wind turbine is briefly presented
in this section.
The optimum design parameters for horizontal axis wind turbines was developed
and tested by Collecutt and Flay (1996). They considered the design parameters such as
the rotor diameter, rated power and tower height. The results of the study indicated that
the cost of energy production reduces by the optimization of the relative combination of
rotor diameter and rated power with respect to site mean annual wind speed. They
optimized wind turbine for the mean annual wind speed range of 6-8 m/s. The cost of
energy generation may be reduced up to 10% by properly choosing the wind turbines to
suit the rated wind speed.
A direct approach for the determination of aerodynamic performance
characteristics of horizontal axis wind turbines was examined by Karam Y. Maalawi and
Mahdy T.S. Badawy (2001). They developed analytical equations for optimizing chord
and twist distribution for an ideal windmill along with an exact trigonometric function
method. The variation of the angle of attack along blade span relative wind velocity was
obtained directly from unique equation with specific rotor size and blade geometry. In
their case study, the analysis of an existing turbine model was carried out and the results
were compared with the findings of other investigators. They used an ideal actuator disk
model and obtained the optimum variations of the axial and rotational induction factors.
They proposed a method to predict the performance of horizontal-axis wind turbines and
applied to the existing machines of ERDA NASA MOD-0, with the capacity of 100 KW.
The optimum aerodynamic blade geometry as well as the trimmed-rotor solutions were
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obtained and investigated in detail. Further, the authors concluded that the proposed
method of analysis eliminated the complications of other numerical methods.
Two families of NACA airfoils sections for horizontal-axis wind turbines were
studied with the objective of increasing the power output and reported by Maalawi and
Badr (2003). They considered the design parameters like number of blades, type of airfoil
section and the blade root offset from hub centre. They developed a computer program to
automate the overall analysis procedures and predicted the variation of the power and
thrust coefficients with the design tip speed ratio for various rotor configurations. In the
program they varied the airfoil type along the blade and specific index number was
assigned to each type. At any desired value of the angle of attack for a specified
Reynolds number the lift and drag coefficients were determined. They refined the chord
and twist distribution of the blade geometry by approximation of theoretical values. The
effects of wind shear and the effect of tower shadow were also reported. The
dimensionless chord and twist are calculated at equidistant stations along the blade for
different values of blade number and TSR. The chord and rate of taper decreased with
TSR for most of the selected airfoil types and number of blades. They predicted that
substantial reduction in the power output occurs when the tower shadow or wind shear is
taken into consideration. They determined maximum power output for specific airfoil
type, number of blades, hub size and TSR.
Kamoun Badreddinne et al. (2005) optimized various parameters for horizontal
axis wind turbines using lifting line theory. They compared their finds with the existing
results using blade element momentum theory. They developed a simplified model
capable of improving the performance of wind turbines using wind velocities more than
10 m/s.
Kishinami et al. (2005) obtained the power coefficient values varying between
0.23 and 0.41 at 4.5 m/s speed rate using NACA profiles as the blade profile. Hirahara et
al. (2005) also found that the highest power coefficient was 0.40 using NACA 2404
profiles as the blade profile at 3.7 m/s and 21.4 m/s speed stages. Ozdener (2005) used
NACA 4415 profile as the wind turbine blade profile and reported rotation rates up to
2722 rpm and power coefficient up to 0.275 at wind speed levels ranging between
5.4 m/s and 10.5 m/s. Maalawi and Badr (2003) had the highest power coefficient value
of 0.49 on the NACA 23012 profile.
A mathematical model was developed and implemented by Lanzafame and
Messina (2007) for improving wind turbine design based on the blade element
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momentum theory and simulated for wide range of wind velocities in on design and off
design conditions. It is difficult to predict the correct lift and drag coefficient values and
correct evaluation of the axial and tangential flow factors using BEM theory. Hence, they
considered tangential flow factor and developed a model for the representation of the lift
and drag coefficients to optimize rotor performance at low wind velocities occurring at
start-up phase of the turbine. Based on experimental results, they performed simulations
to evaluate the best lift and drag coefficient representation. The turbine rotor performance
was studied using the developed model and the results were compared with experimental
findings.
The investigation of rotation rates and power coefficients correspond to rotor
models of miniature wind turbine manufactured using NACA profiles by Ali Vardar and
Ilknur Alibas (2007). They used 180 rotor models of 310mm diameter prepared from
Balsa wood with various design parameters. The models were tested in a wind tunnel and
rotation rates of each rotor were determined based on wind speed. They achieved a
maximum power coefficient rate up to 0.425 with 3077 rpm. They predicted and
suggested the existence of following correlation.
Rotation rate of rotor and blade angle
Power coefficient and blade angle
Power coefficient and rotor blade number
Best rotor models with high rotation rates were moderately effective in terms of
power coefficient.
Development of small domestic wind turbine for built up areas were studied by Wang
et al. (2008). In their study, a small wind turbine with scoop to grasp slow and turbulent
wind flow in built up areas was designed, tested and optimized using the methodology
with theoretical, physical and computational methods. The blades were modeled using
BEM theory with FORTRAN code. From the model the chord and blade angle
distribution along the radius were obtained. Using CFD a virtual wind tunnel was
modelled to investigate the performance of the rotor with selected design options. In
design, the various shapes of scoops were incorporated and tested. The power curves were
drawn using CFD and annual power output was predicted using the new proposed
method.
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Chalothorn Thumthae and Tawit Chitsomboon (2009) studied the numerical

simulation of horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) with untwisted blade to determine
the optimal angle of attack that produces the highest power output. The CFD numerical
solution was carried out by solving conservation equations in a rotating reference frame
wherein the blades and grids were fixed in relation to the rotating frame. A computational
result obtained with 12o pitch angle was compared favourably with the experimental data
of the National Renewable Laboratory (USA), for both in viscid and turbulent conditions.
Numerical experiments were conducted by varying the pitch angles and the wind speeds.
The power output reached the maximum at pitch angles of 4.12o, 5.28o, 6.66o and 8.76o
for the wind speeds 7.2, 8.0, 9.0 and 10.5 m/s respectively. The optimal angles of attack
were also obtained. During analysis, 80% span length of the blade from hub, it was
observed that the optimal angle of attack were nearer to the maximum lift point. As the
Reynolds numbers are increased, the angle of attack increases as the speed increases.
Ahmed et al. (2009) proposed a new method based on analytical approach for
performance study of wind turbines. They divided a blade into 100 radial elements for
designing rotor and predicting its peak performance. In each element, the chord length,
twist angle and power coefficient were determined. They used the iterative process for the
convergence of speed interference factor and maximization of power coefficient.
Mathematical simulation based on analytical approach of performance evaluation was
compared with the experimental results of 10KW HAWT rotors.
Lanzafame and Messina (2010) studied the performance of a horizontal axis wind
turbine, operating at its maximum power coefficient. It continuously was evaluated by a
generated code based on Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theory. It was evaluated for
performance and Annual Energy Production (AEP) at both constant and variable standard
rotational velocities with maximum power coefficient. They demonstrated the
methodology for determining the law of governing the rotational velocity of the rotor.
They highlighted that the power coefficient was maximum forspecific range of wind
velocities. They registered 13% increase of AEP for a turbine operating at variable
velocity.
8.3 Optimization of Wind Turbine

The development of evolutionary algorithms like Genetic, neural network etc.,
attracted the researchers in the area of wind turbine design to optimize its parameters.
These algorithms use random scattered search with local optimum and global optimum
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conditions. The various authors have attempted to optimize the parameters related to
turbine and wind farms. Some of the literatures related to the optimization of wind turbine
parameters are discussed in this section.
Fuglsang and Madsen (1999) used a global methodology involving many aspects
of blade design including aerodynamics, blade structure, fatigue loads, noise generation
and economical costs that are used to define an objective function as the ratio of the total
cost of the turbine to the annual energy production. This objective function is optimized
by using gradient based methods.
Benini and Toffolo (2002) used evolutionary methods to optimize wind turbines.
They fix the turbine power and include in the objective function economical costs. A very
complete approach to blade optimization is realized by Hampsey (2002). His optimization
procedure includes changes in the airfoil shape, but to avoid the computational cost
involved in obtaining lift and drag tables, he used a 3D panel method to obtain the force
distributions.
The optimization of wind turbine blades was proposed by Jureczko et al. (2005).
They used two methods for optimization. In the first method, the blade shape was
modified to improve the stiffness and stability. In the second method, the dynamic and
mechanical properties of wind turbine were modified. They used their optimization tool
for minimizing the vibrations of blades. They developed a modified genetic algorithm and
implemented it for optimizing various objective functions with various constraints.
The performance of horizontal axis wind turbines by accurately modeled using the
vortex lattice method was studied by Lanzafame and Messina (2007). They used Genetic
algorithm based optimization process for optimizing the aerofoil and geometry, the blade
structure and the complete rotor system. They worked both in structural and aerodynamic
optimization.
Sargolzaei and Kianifar (2009) proposed artificial neural networks (ANNs) for
estimating the power factor and torque of wind turbines, based on the experimental data
gathered from seven prototype vertical Savonius rotors tested in wind tunnel. In their
research, the rotors having diverse features that were situated in the wind tunnel had been
tested repeatedly for 46 times in order to minimize the experimental errors. They
suggested that the Reynolds number had a negligible effect on power ratio than the tip
speed ratio (TSR). The main input parameter was predicted using neural network.
Moreover, different tip speed ratios and different blade angles had been used for
simulating the rotors power factor and torque. The simulated results provided reasonable
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predictions and estimations of maximum power of rotors and increasing the effectiveness
of Savonius turbines. The artificial neural networks simulations and the experimental
results indicated that the increase in tip speed ratio enhanced power ratio and torque.
Maximum and minimum amount of torque occurred for all the tested rotors at an angle of
60o and 120 respectively.
Mohammad Monfared et al. (2009) proposed a novel fuzzy logic and artificial
neural networks based approach for wind speed forecasting. They provided better
precision for wind speed forecasting than conventional methods. They used minimum
neuron numbers associated with quicker learning process and exact wind speed
prediction. They produced reasonably agreeable results by their proposed approach.
Andrew Kusiak and Haiyang Zheng (2010) studied the power optimization by
computing optimal control settings of wind turbines using data mining and evolutionary
strategy algorithms. Data mining algorithms identified functional mapping between
power output and controllable and non-controllable variables of a wind turbine. An
evolutionary algorithm was applied to determine control settings for maximizing the
power output of a turbine based on the identified model.
Bharanikumar et al. (2010) presented a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
control algorithm for variable speed wind turbine driven using a permanent magnet
generator. The wind-turbine, the permanent-magnet generator (PMG), the three-phase
rectifier, the boost chopper and the inverter were considered in the system. The efficiency
of Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) was maximized by operating the wind
turbine generator with variable rotor speed in proportion to the wind speed. In their
algorithm, they used tracing of point at which maximum power occurs for every speed.
The maximum wind power was determined by adjusting the rotating speed of the
permanent-magnet generator in the real time. The simulation was made using MATLAB /
SIMULINK and the results were compared with those of the laboratory set-up.
8.4 Research Gap

The various airfoils are tested using experimental procedures and the results are
presented by various researchers in the literature. There are no generalized correlations
that could be applied to predict the coefficient of lift and drag for various NACA airfoils.
The effect of Reynolds number on coefficient of lift and drag has been attempted by some
of the researchers using experimental set-up. It can be performed using the proposed
modified correlation of the coefficient of lift and drag. From the literature, it is
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understood that the Blade Element Momentum (BEM) method used for maximising the
power coefficient needs improvement. In the present work, BEM method is combined
with Iterative method and Genetic Algorithm and it is used to optimize the wind turbine
power coefficient.
In the literature, it is stated that the most difficult issues for the BEM theory are
mathematical representation of the correct lift and drag coefficient values and correct
evaluation of the axial and tangential flow factors. These difficulties are rectified in this
research work by developing the correlation for coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag
and the evaluation of axial and tangential flow factors by Iterative method.
In the present study, an iterative approach for computing the performance of the
horizontal axis wind turbine is proposed and mathematical code is developed to compute
the axial and tangential flow factors. In the literature survey on performance of wind
turbine system, the convergence of axial and tangential flow factors are very limited and
deals with optimizing the wind turbine parameters without considering convergence of
flow factors.
This study also considered the effect of drag and tip loss correction factor are
considered for calculating the axial, tangential flow factors and power coefficient. The
results of power coefficient is compared with the effect of drag and tip loss correction
factor.
A case study was made including the design of wind turbine, performance analysis
with various assumptions and CFD analysis of airfoils. The airfoils NACA 4410 and
NACA 2415 were taken into consideration for evaluating this proposed approach. The
results are discussed and compared with those obtained by other investigators. It is shown
that the approach used in this study is efficient and saves much of the computational time
compared with the commonly used iterative procedures.
In the literature it is found that Genetic Algorithm is used for the optimization of
chord and twist angle. It is not used for the optimization of power coefficient, angle of
attack and tip speed ratio. In this research work, Genetic Algorithm is used to optimize
the power coefficient, angle of attack and tip speed ratio of wind turbine blade at various
wind velocities. The use of computational simulation can therefore be particularly useful
for the optimization of wind turbine blade. Therefore, in the present research work,
Genetic Algorithm code is developed for the computation of optimum power coefficient
at various wind velocities.
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8.5 Objective of Research Work

The objectives of the research are:
To develop the correlations for predicting coefficient of lift and drag of NACA 4
series airfoils and validate with experimental results. To propose the modified
correlation that can be applied for various NACA airfoils of different thickness.
To analyze the effect of Reynolds number on the coefficient of lift and drag of
various airfoils using the modified correlations for coefficient of lift and drag on
NACA airfoils.
To optimize the coefficient lift, drag and pressure using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) method for various angles of attack of airfoil and validation with
experimental results.
To optimize the power coefficient of horizontal axis wind turbine rotor using
iterative approach and to develop an iterative method to identify the convergence
of axial and tangential flow factors.
To optimize the power coefficient, angles of attack and tip speed ratio of wind
turbine with NACA airfoils at various wind velocities using Genetic Algorithm.
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CHAPTER 9
Wind turbine design parameters

The wind turbine parameters considered in the design process are:
Swept area
Power and power coefficient
Tip speed ratio
Blade chord
Number of blades
Solidity
Initial angle of attack
9.1 Swept area

The swept area is the section of air that encloses the turbine in its movement, the
shape of the swept area depends on the rotor configuration, this way the swept area of an
HAWT is circular shaped while for a straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine the swept
area has a rectangular shape and is calculated using:
S=2RL
where S is the swept area [m2], R is the rotor radius [m], and L is the blade length [m].
The swept area limits the volume of air passing by the turbine. The rotor converts
the energy contained in the wind in rotational movement so as bigger the area, bigger
power output in the same wind conditions.
9.2 Power and power coefficient

The power available from wind for a vertical axis wind turbine can be found from
the following formula:
Pw = S VO3
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Where Vo is the velocity of the wind [m/s] and is the air density [kg/m3], the reference
density used its standard sea level value (1.225 kg/m^3 at 15C)
The power the turbine takes from wind is calculated using the power coefficient:
The faction of the free-flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called
the power-coefficient; thus
Power of wind rotor
Power coefficient Cp
=
Power available in the wind
Cp value represents the part of the total available power that is actually taken from wind,
which can be understood as its efficiency.
9.3 Tip Speed Ratio

The power coefficient is strongly dependent on tip speed ratio, defined as the ratio
between the tangential speed at blade tip and the actual wind speed.
TSR = Tangential speed at blade tip/actual wind speed
=R/Vo
where is the angular speed [rad/s], R the rotor radius [m] and Vo the ambient wind
speed [m/s]. Each rotor design has an optimal tip speed ratio at which the maximum
power extraction is achieved.
9.4 Blade chord

The chord is the length between leading edge and trailing edge of the blade
profile. The blade thickness and shape is determined by the airfoil used, in this case it will
be a NACA airfoil, where the blade curvature and maximum thickness are defined as
percentage of the chord.
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9.5 Number of blades

The number of blades has a direct effect in the smoothness of rotor operation as
they can compensate cycled aerodynamic loads. For easiness of building, four and three
blades have been contemplated
9.6 Solidity
The solidity is defined as the ratio between the total blade area and the projected
turbine area. It is an important non dimensional parameter which affects self-starting
capabilities and for straight bladed VAWTs is calculated with
=Nc/R
where N is the number of blades, c is the blade chord, L is the blade length and S is the
swept area, it is considered that each blade sweeps the area twice.
This formula is not applicable for HAWT as they have different shape of swept area.
Solidity determines when the assumptions of the momentum models are applicable, and
only when using high 0.4 a self starting turbine is achieved
9.7 Initial angle of attack

The initial angle of attack is the angle the blade has regarding its trajectory,
considering negative the angle that locates the blades leading edge inside the
circumference described by the blade path.
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Chapter 10
Design of the Project
10.1 Square plate:
Fig 10.1: Square plate
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10.2 Gear Wheel:
Fig 10.2: Gear wheel
10.3 Shaft:
Fig 10.3: Shaft
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10.4 Bearing 6204
Fig 10.4: Bearing
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Chapter 11
Fabrication
Fig 11.1: Fabricated model
11.1. Specification
Height = 6 feet
Width = 3 feet
No. of blades
Darrieus 3
Savonius 4
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11.2 Components Used
Fig 11.2: Components used
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Battery 12 volts 7.5 amps

Shaft 15mm diameter
Gear 1:3 gear teeth ratio
Ball bearing 15 mm inner diameter and 40 mm outer diameter
Inerter
MS square hollow pipe 18 gauge
Led bulb
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CHAPTER 12
Experimentation
12.1 Theoretical Output
12.1.1 Darrieus
Swept area = 2RL

= 2 x 0.61 x .457
= 0.5575 m2
Power available from wind
Pw = S Vo3
Pw = x1.225 x .5575 x1.083
Pw = 0.43 W
Power output = 0.43 W
12.1.2 Savonius
Swept area = 2RL

= 2 x 0.305 x 0.457
= 0.2787 m2
Power available from wind Pw = S Vo3
Pw = x 1.225 x 0.2787 x 1.083
Pw = .21 W
Power Output = 0.21 W
Total Output = 0.64 W
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12.2 Experimental Observation
Velocity
Km/hr
3.9
4.06
4.22
4.7
5
Voltage
V
6
7
7.5
8.5
9.5
Current
mA
24
27.5
30
39.5
44.8
Power
W
.144
.192
.225
.336
.425
Efficiency
%
22.32
26.19
27.45
30
32
Average Efficiency = 27.59%
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CHAPTER 13
Advantages and Disadvantages

13.1 Advantages of Wind Energy
It is a renewable source of energy
Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-polluting, so it has no
adverse influence on the environment.
Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport.
On a small-scale up to a few kilowatt system is less costly. On a large-scale costs

can be competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs could be
achieved by mass production.
13.2 Advantages of Vertical Wind Turbine
The major advantage of this design is that the rotor blades can accept the wind
from any compass.
Another added advantage is that the machine can be mounted on the ground
eliminating tower structures and lifting of huge weight of machine assembly, i.e. it
can be operated close to the ground level.
Since this machine has vertical axis symmetry, it eliminates yaw control
requirement for is rotor to capture wind energy. A dual purpose and relatively
simple shaft axis support is anticipated as well as ground level power output
delivery due to presence of vertical shaft. This may in turn, allow easier access
and serviceability.
Airfoil rotor fabrication costs are expected to be reduced over conventional rotor
blade costs.
The absence of pitch control requirements are synchronous operation may yield
additional cost savings.
The tip speed ratio and power coefficient are considerably better than those of the
S-rotor but are still below the values for a modern horizontal-axis, two-bladed
propeller rotor.
Page
13.3 Disadvantages of Wind Energy
Wind energy available in dilute and fluctuating in nature.
Unlike water energy wind energy needs storage capacity because of its
irregularity.
Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard may
kilometres away.
Wind power systems have a relatively high overall weight, because they involve
the construction of a high tower and include also a gearbox, a hub and pitch
changer, a generator coupling shaft etc. for large systems a weight of 110 kg/kW
(rated) has been estimated.
Large areas are needed, typically, propellers 1 to 3 m in diameter, deliver power in

the 30 to 300 W ranges.
Present systems are neither maintenance free not-practically reliable. However,

the fact that highly reliable propeller engines are built for aircraft suggest that the
present troubles could be overcome by industrial development work.
13.4 Disadvantages of Vertical Wind Turbine
At very high speeds, stalling occurs and the rotation stops automatically.
Rotor power output efficiency of a Darrieus wind energy conversion system is
also somewhat lower than that of a conventional horizontal rotor.

Because a Darrieus rotor is generally situated near ground proximity, it may also
experience lower velocity wind compared to a tower mounted conventional wind
energy conversion system of comparable projected rotor disc area. This may yield
less energy output.

Because a Darrieus rotor encounters greatly varied local flow conditions per
revolution, greater vibratory stresses are encountered which will affect rotor
system life
Page
CHAPTER 14
Scope of Future Work

An economical, small scale Vertical Axis Wind Turbine is fabricated using
aluminium sheet and mild steel materials etc. From test results of Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine over a wide range of wind speeds, it is noted that this turbine produces 2.5 watts
for a wind speed of 5 km/hr and which can be even increased by following measures.
Optimizing the design of blades so as to give better aerodynamics.

Using a best alternator which produces more voltage for low rpm.
Using gear mechanisms to increase rpm for alternator input and hence can have
higher power output.

Structural fabrication should be more accurate in order to have proper functions of
windmill.
Using fixed base system to reduce the weight of the whole system.
Page
Reference
Jha, Ph.D., A.R. (2010). Wind turbine technology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Amina El Kasmi, Christian Masson, An extended k-epsilon model for turbulent

flow through horizontal-axis wind turbines, Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, Volume 96, Issue 1, January 2008, Pages 103-122,
retrieved 2010-04-26
Sandra Eriksson, Hans Bernhoff, Mats Leijon, (June 2008), "Evaluation of

different turbine concepts for wind power", Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 12 (5):
14191434,doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.05.01, ISSN 1364-0321,
retrieved 2010-04-26
Steven Peace, Another Approach to Wind, retrieved 2010-04-26
Kathy Svitil, Wind-turbine placement produces tenfold power increase,

researchers say, retrieved 2012-07-31
Chiras, D. (2010). Wind power basics: a green energy guide. Gabriola Island, BC,
Canada: New Society Pub.
Sutherland, Herbert J; Berg, Dale E; Ashwill, Thomas D. (2012). "A

Retrospective of VAWT Technology" (PDF). Sandia National Laboratories.
Retrieved 19 September 2014.
Page

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

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Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

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Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Mountains, trees, buildings, and similar

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

capacity of 8 MW including 7 wind farms projects of capacity 6.85 MW have been

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Applications of Wind Energy

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

FIG 2.1: Wind turbine air compressor

Fig 2.2: Block diagram of wind turbine air compressor

2.1 Direct heat applications

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

2.2 Electric Generation Applications

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Fig 2.3: Electric generation application

2.3 Battery Charger

Fig 2.4: Battery charger

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

3.2 Wind Turbine

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

3.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Fig 3.1: HAWT

3.2.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWTs can be significantly less expensive to build.

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

They produce less noise compare with horizontal ones.

VAWTs are more aesthetically pleasing.

Georges Darrieus in France and first patented in 1927. The common

Fig 3.2: Darrieus Wind turbine (left), H-rotor (right)

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Type of Vertical Wind Turbines

4.1.2 Use and operation

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Fig 4.2: Angle of attack

4.2.2 Use and operation

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Fig 4.3: Savonius rotor

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Wind Data and Energy Estimation

Latitude of the place,

Altitude of the place,

Topography of the place,

Scale of the ours, month or year.

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

Spells of low wind speeds, and

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine

The anemometer height above ground, accuracy, linearity,

It is desirable to have average wind speed

WECS reliability will

BMSIT&M Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design and Fabrication of Vertical Wind Turbine