Treatise On Elementary Geometry (1892)

LIBRARY
OF THK
University of California.
IFT OF
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CHAUVENET'S
TREATISE ON
Elementary Geometry
REVISED AND ABRIDGED
BY
W.
E.
BYERLY
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HABVABD ONIVERSITY
PHILADELPHIA
J.
B.
LIPPII^COTT COMPANY
1892.
as
>
Copyright, 1887, by J. B. LippIncott Compant.
3TEROTYPERSAN0PRI!NT^s il
l'
PREFACE.
In preparing this edition of Chauvenet's Geometry
I have endeavored to compel the student to think and
to reason for himself,
fact that
and I have
tried to
emphasize the
he should not merely learn to understand and
demonstrate a few set propositions, hut that he should

acquire the
power of grasping and proving any simple
geometrical truth that
power,
it
may he
vising proofs of
this
sitions,
him
and
this
must be remembered, can never be gained by
memorizing demonstrations.
On
set before
new
Systematic practice in de-
propositions
is
indispensable.
account the demonstrations of the main propo-
which
at first are full
more and more condensed,
and complete, are gradually

until at last they are
some-
times reduced to mere hints, by the aid of which the

full
proof
is
to be developed;
and numerous additional
theorems and problems are constantly given as exercises

for practice in original
work.
A syllabus, containing
the axioms, the postulates, and
the captions of the main theorems and corollaries, has
been added to aid student and teacher in reviews and

examinations, and to
more easy and
make
definite.
the preparation of
new
proofs
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY.
In the order of the propositions I have departed considerably from the larger Chauvenet's Geometry, with
the
double
simplifying the
object of
and of giving the student,
demonstrations
as soon as possible, the
few
theorems which are the tools with which he must most

frequently
work
in geometrical investigation.
Teachers are strongly advised to require as
full
and
formal proofs of the corollaries and exercises as of the
main
propositions,
and
to lay
much
stress
upon written
demonstrations, which should be arranged as in the

illustrations given at the
end of Book
I.
In preparing a written exercise, or in passing a written

examination, the student should have the syllabus before
him, and
may
by number.
then conveniently refer to the propositions
In oral recitation, however, he should quote
the full captions of the theorems on which he bases his

proof.
W.
Cambridge, Mass.,
1887.
E.
BYEELY.
CONTENTS.
PA OB
INTKODUCTION
PLANE GEOMETEY.
BOOK
I.
Rectilinear Figures
12
Exercises on Book
49
BOOK
The
Circle. Ratio.
II.
Incommensurables. Doctrine of Limits.
Measure of Angles
55
Exercises on Book II
94
BOOK
III.
Theory of Proportion. Proportional Lines. Similar Polygons
101
Exercises on Book III
125
BOOK
IV.
Comparison and Measurement of the Surfaces of Rectilinear Figures

Exercises on Book
130
IV
146
BOOK
V.
Regular Polygons. Measurement of the Circle

Exercises on Book V
149
Miscellaneous Exercises on Plane Geometry
173
Syllabus of Plane Geometry.
169
Postulates, Axioms, and
Theorems
182
7
CONTENTS.
GEOMETEY O^ SPACE.
BOOK
VI.
PAGK
The Plane.
Diedral Angles.
Exercises on Book
Polyedral Angles
....
VI
195
220
BOOK
VII.
POLYEDRONS
224
Exercises on Book VII
254
BOOK
VIII.
The Three Bound Bodies. The Cylinder. The Cone.

The Sphere. Spherical Triangles. Spherical Polygons
257
Exercises on Book VIII
287
BOOK
IX.
Measurement of the Three Bound Bodies

Exercises on Book IX
290
Miscellaneous Exercises on Solid Geometry
309
Syllabus of Propositions in Solid Geometry.
308
Theorems
311
IKTEODUOTIOK
1.
Every person
possesses a conception of space indefi-
nitely extended in all directions.

finite,
bodies occupy
Material
or limited, portions of space.
The portion of space
which a body occupies can be conceived as abstracted from

the matter of which the body
a physical
merely the
composed, and
The material body
geometrical solid.
called
is
solid.
fornij or figure,
filling
geometrical solid
of a physical
them simply
solids,
and we
called a
the space
is,
is
therefore,
In this work,
solid.
since only geometrical solids will be considered,
brevity, call
is
we
shall, for
shall define
them
formally, as follows
Definition.
and has
2,
A solid is a
length, breadth,
limited or bounded portion of space,
and
The boundaries of a
Definition.
but no
A surface
thickness.
If a surface
is
is
thickness.
solid are surface^.
that which hae length and breadth,
bounded,
its
boundaries are
If two surfaces intersect, their intersection

Definition.
line
is
lirês.
is
line.
that which has length, but neither
breadth nor thickness.

9
10
If a line
terminated,
is
it is
terminated by points.
If two lines intersect, they intersect in a point.
A point
Definition.
nor
has
position,
but neither
length, breadth,
thickness.
3.
If
be a
we
line,
and
moving
some
point.
move from a given
If a point starts to
in
path
its
is
tion in
which the point moves
path
a curved
If a point
position,
definite direction; if it continues to
the same direction,
is
in space, its path will
often convenient to regard a line as the
it is
path, or locus, of a
move
move
suppose a point to
a straight
is
line.
it
must
move
in
If the direc-
continually changing, the
line.
moves along a
line, it
said to describe the
is
line.
By
the direction of a line at any point
tion in
we mean
which a point describing the line
is
the direc-
moving when
it
passes through the point in question.

Definitions.
straight line is a line
which
-f
has everywhere the same direction.
curved line
one no portion of
is
which, however short,
broken line
is
straight.
a line composed of
is
different successive straight lines.

4.
Definitions.
simply a plane,
any two points
plane surface, or
a surface such that, if
is
in
it
are joined
straight line, the line will
lie
by a
wholly in
the surface.
A curved
surface
is
a surface no portion of which, however
small, is plane.
5.
Definitions.
geometrical figure
points, lines, surfaces, or solids,
is
any combination of
formed under given condi-
INTRODUCTION.
11
Figures formed by points and lines in a plane are
tions.
called plane figures.
Those formed by straight
lines alone
are called rectilinear^ or right-lined^ figures; a straight line
being often called a right
extension and position.
which
line.
may
be defined as the science of
More
specifically, it is the science
Geometry
6. Definitions.
treats of the construction of figures
ditions,
under given con-
of their measurement and of their properties.
Plane geometry treats of plane
The consideration of
all
figures.
other figures belongs to the geom-
etry of space, also called the geometry of three dimensions.

7.
Some terms of frequent
use in geometry are here de-
fined.
A theorem
is
is
a truth requiring demonstration.
an auxiliary theorem employed
another theorem.
tion.
An
late (in
axiom
is
A problem is a
lemma
in the demonstration of
question proposed for solu^
a truth assumed as self-evident.
A postu-
geometry) assumes the possibility of the solution of
some problem.
Theorems, problems, axioms, and postulates are
all called
propositions.
A corollary is an immediate consequence deduced from one

or more propositions. A scholium is a remark upon one or
more
propositions, pointing out their use, their connection,
their limitation, or their extension.

position,
made
An
hypothesis
is
a sup-
either in the enunciation of a proposition or
in the course of a demonstration.
PLANE GEOMETRY.
BOOK
RECTILINEAR FIGURES.
ANGLES.
1.
Definition.
jplane
angle^ or
amount of divergence of two
which would meet
The point
and the two
From
is
produced
(i.e.,
simply an angle,
which meet
lines the sides
the definition
is
isolated angle
vertex, as " the angle
at the same point
prolonged).
by
it is
of the angle.
clear that the
mag-
independent of the length of
may
its sides.
be designated by the letter at
OA, OB,
namely, by one letter on each of
together with
sides,
its
O;" but when several angles are formed

different lines, as
OC, we designate the angle intended by three

letters;
the
is
in a point or
called the vertex of the angle,
nitude of an angle
An
if
lines
the
one at
its
its
vertex,
yC^'^^
-i
which must be written between the other two.

Thus, with these lines there are formed three different angles,
which are distinguished as AOB, BOC, and AOG.
Two
vertex
adjacent.
12
AOB, BOO, which have

common side OB between them,
angles, such as
and a
the same
are called
BOOK
Two
Definitions.
2.
13
I.
angles are equal
when one can be
superposed upon the other, so that the vertices shall co-
and the
incide
sides of the first shall fall along the sides of
the second.
Two
by placing them in the same plane

together and a side in common, care being
angles are added
with their vertices
taken that neither of the angles
The angle formed by the
other.
angles
3.
is
superposed upon the
is
exterior sides of the
clear notion of the
magnitude of an angle
obtained by supposing that one of
its sides,
as OjB,
first
coincident with the other side OA^ and
that
it
has revolved about the point
upon
upon
tion
two
their sum.
will
be
was
at
(turning
as the leg of a pair of dividers turns

its
hinge) until
OB.
During
has arrived at the posi-
it
this revolution the
movable
side
makes
with the fixed side a varying angle, which increases by

sensible degrees, that
is
is,
continuously
By con-
any magnitude may be
said to describe^ or to generate^ the angle
tinning the revolution, an angle of
in-
and the revolving line
AOB.
generated.
4. Definitions.
to
make two
When
one straight line meets another, so as
adjacent angles equal, each of these angles
called a right angle;
and the
is
first line is
said to be perpendicular to the second.
Thus,
each
is
if
^ 00 and BOC are equal
angles,
a right angle, and the line
CO
is
perpendicular to AB.
Intersecting lines not perpendicular are said to be oblique
to each other.
An
An
acute angle
obtuse angle
is less
is
than a right angle.
greater than a right angle.

2
14
5.
Definition.
Two
and forming no angle with each other
same plane which
lines in the
produced
are
same plane
straight lines lying in the
that
is,
two
straight
however
will not meet,
far
parallel.
TKIANGLES.
6.
Definitions.
plane triangle
is
a portion of a plane
bounded by three intersecting straight
lines; as
A 50.
The
sides of the triangle are the portions of the
bounding
between the points of
lines included
intersection; viz.,
AB, BC, CA.
The angles
of the triangle are the angles formed by the

sides
with each other;
angular points. A, B,
viz.,
CAB, ABC, BCA.
The three
which are the vertices of the
C,
angles,
are also called the vertices of the triangle.
If a side of a triangle
is
produced, the angle
which the prolongation makes with the adjacent side
is
called
an
exterior angle
as
A CD.
A triangle is called scalene (ABC) when no two

are equal isosceles (DEF) when two of its sides
equilateral {GUI) when its three sides are equal.
;
A right
which
is
triangle is
right-angled at
right angle,
The
one which has a right angle
is
]V.
The
side
MP,
of
its sides
are equal
as
MNP,
opposite to the
called the hypotenuse.
base of a triangle
is
the side upon which
it is
supposed
BOOK
may be assumed as the base

BEF^ whose sides DE and DF
In general, any side
to stand.
but in an isosceles triangle

are equal, the third side
When any
side
base, the angle
EF is always called the base.
^(7 of a triangle has been adopted as the
BA G opposite
the vertical angle, and
its
to
AD
the base
is
let fall
called
The perpen-
from the vertex upon
then called the altitude of the triangle.
Definition.
7.
it is*
angular point
the vertex of the triangle.

dicular
15
I.
Equal
figures are figures
to coincide throughout if one
is
which can be made
properly superposed upon
the other.
Eoughly speaking, equal

size
figures are figures of the
and of the same shape
same
size
same
equivalent figures are of the
but not of the same shape; and similar figures
are of the same shape but not of the same
size.
POSTULATES AND AXIOMS.

8.
line,
Postulate
I.
Through any two given points one
straight
and only one, can be drawn.
Postulate II.
Through a given point one
straight line, and
only one, can be drawn having any given direction.

9.
Axiom
I.
straight line
is
the shortest line that can
be drawn between two points.
Axiom
II. Parallel lines
have the same
direction.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETEY.
16
PROPOSITION I.THEOREM.
At a given point
10.
the line can be drawn,
Let
a straight
in
and but
line
one perpendicular to
one.
be the given point in the line AB.
Suppose a
line
OD, constantly passing through
revolve about 0, starting from the position

at the position
OA
to
0,
and stopping
OB.
The angle which 01) makes with

than the angle which
it
OA
will at first be less
makes with OB, and
will eventually
become greater than the angle made with

OB.
Since the angle
ously
(3),
the line
DOA
OB
...m which
one position
DOB
are equal.
increases continu-
must pass through
the angles
Let
OC
DOA
and
BOA
j
]/_
Then 0(7
he this position.
is
perpendicular to ^jB by (4).*
There can be no other perpendicular to
OD is revolved
from the position 0(7 by the
in either direction, one of the adjacent
AB
at 0, for if
slightest
amount
angles will be in-
creased at the expense of the other, and they will cease to
be equal.
11.
line
Corollary. Through
the vertex of
any given angle one
can be drawn bisecting the angle, and but one.
Suggestion.
Suppose a
line
OD
to revolve
about O, as in the proof just given.
An
Arabic numeral alone
refers to
an
article in the
in referring to articles in another Book, the
given.
number
same Book
of the
Book
but
is
also

V,
BOOK
17
I.
II.THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
12. All right angles are equal.
AOG and AIQfC be any two right angles.
Let
A'CfC upon AOC^
Superpose
along the line
OC coincide
we
wise
(J
upon the
and making the
point
fall
point
the
placing
line C/A'
then will
with 00, for other-
I., is
AB at the
B'
(y
same point
0, which,
by Propo-
impossible.
The angles A'C/C and
AOC are then equal by definition (2).

III.THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
13.
should have two perpen-
diculars to the line

sition
OA;
The two adjacent angles which one straight
with another are together equal
to
line
makes
two right angles.
If the two angles are equal, they are right angles

definition (4),
and no proof
If they are not equal, as
is
by
necessary.
AOD
and BOD,
still
the
sum of
AOD and BOB is equal to two right angles.

Let
OC
be drawn at
perpendicular to
AB.
The angle
angles
AOC
angle
BOD,
AOD
and
and
AOD
the
BOD
is
the
COD
and
sum of the two
(2).
Adding the
sum of the two

the sum of the
is
angles
three angles
AOC, COD,
BOD.
The
first
of these three
is
a right angle, and the other two
are together equal to the right angle
of the angles
BOC
hence the sum
AOD and BOD is equal to two right angles.
18
14.
Corollary
common
angles having a
formed on one
is
The sum of
I.
all
vertex^
and
a straight
line,
The sum of
all
side of
two right angles.
15.
Corollary
II.
the angles that can be
a point
in
a plane
formed about
four
is
right
angles.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
If
line
perpendicular to a second
is
line,
then
reciprocally the second line is perpendicular to the first.

16. Definition.
When
right angle, each
of the other.
sum of two
angles
is
equal to a
called the complement
Thus, J) 0(7
ment of A ODj and

of
is
the
A OD
is
is
the comple-
the complement
DOC.
When
the
two right
sum of two
angles, each
Thus,
ment of the other.
and
AOD is the
angles
is
is
equal to
called the supple-
BOD
supplement of
is
the supplement of
AOD,
BOD.
It is evident that the
complements of equal angles are
and
also that the supplements of equal
equal to each other
angles are equal to each other.
BOOK
19
I.
PROPOSITION IV.THEOREM
sum
If the
17.
of two adjacent angles
angles^ their exterior sides are in the
two right angles
same straight
in the
BOD
For
and
is
OA
and
OB
AOD^ BOD,
be equal
are
line.
the supplement of
is
line.
A 02),
therefore identical with the angle
OD
which
then
equal to two right
same straight
Let the sum of the adjacent angles

to
is
(Proposition
AO
are the same
makes with the prolongation of
TIL).
OB
Therefore
and the prolongation of
line.
Every proposition
18.
clusion.
The
consists of
an hypothesis and a
converse of a proposition
is
con-
a second proposition
of which the hypothesis and conclusion are respectively the

conclusion and hypothesis of the
sition III.
may
Hypothesis
sides in the
two adjacent angles have their exterior
same straight
Proposition TV.
Hypothesis
two right
For example, PropO'
be enunciated thus
if
of these adjacent angles
And
first.
if
the
line,
then
Conclusion
the
sum
equal to two right angles.
may
be enunciated thus
sum of two
angles, then
have their exterior
is
adjacent angles
Conclusion
sides in the
Each of these propositions
is,
these
same straight
is
equal to
adjacent angles
line.
therefore, the converse of the
other.
proposition and its converse are, however, not always
both true.
20
PROPOSITION v.THEOREM.
two straight lines intersect each other, the opposite (or
19. If
vertical) angles are equal.
Let
AB and CD intersect in
then will
the opposite, or vertical, angles
AOG
and
BOD be equal.
For each of these angles
tion III.,
like
by Proposi-
the supplement of the same angle
they are equal

In
is,
BOC, and
hence,
(16).
manner
it
can be proved that the opposite angles
AOD and BOC are equal.

1.
Theorem. The
EXERCISES.
line
which
bisects
one of two vertical angles
bisects the other.

2.
Theorem.
bisect
The straight
lines
which
a pair of adjacent angles formed
by two intersecting straight

pendicular
to
Suggestion.
lines are per-
each other.
Prove
EOH = FOH.
Q
PROPOSITION VI.THEOREM.
20.
Two
triangles are equal
when two
sides
and
the included
angle of the one are respectively equal to two sides
and
the
included angle of the other.
In the triangles ABC,
EF, and the included

'
angle
equal to the
included angle
DEF,
AB be
AD
let
equal to
DE,
BC to
D
E; then
.X*
the triangles are equal.

B
For,
triangle
superpose
ABC
F F
the
upon the triangle DEF, placing the point
BOOK
21
I.
upon the point E, and making the

side
EF.
point
Then, since
will fall
equal to
J5(7 is
BC
side
fall
EF by hypothesis, the
upon the point F.
Since the angle
equal to the angle E^ and the side
is
BG
has been made to coincide with the side EF^
fall
along
the point
ED^ by
definition (2)
will fall
Since the point
BA
must
equal to
with the point D, the side
FD^ by
triangles
Postulate
ED^
GA must
I. (8).
have now been proved to coincide
throughout, and are equal, by definition
When two
Scholium.
is
has been proved to coincide with the
coincide with the side
21.
BA
and, as
on the point D.
point F^ and the point
The two
along the
(7).
triangles are equal, the equal
angles are opposite to the equal sides.
PROPOSITION VII.THEOREM.
22.
Two
triangles are equal
when a
side
and
angles of the one are respectively equal to
the two adjacent

side
and
the two
adjacent angles of the other.
In the triangles ABG,

let
the angles
to the angles
adjacent to
and
DEF,
superpose
the
,
BEF,
making the
Since J5(7
respectively equal
then
..1.^^
triangle ABG upon the
triangle
be equal to EF, and
BGhe
E and F
EF;

For,
BG
let
adjacent to
placing the point
side
is
BG fall along the
equal to
\\ \
E
..--'''
F F
/
E
upon the point E, and

EF.
side
EF, the point G
will fall
upon the
point F.
Since the angle
is
equal to the angle E,
by
hypothesis,
22
and the
5(7 has been made to coincide with the side EF^
side
BA must fall
along
ED^ and
the point
somewhere
will fall
on the side ED, or on that side extended.
Since the angle
and
BC
point
is
coincides with
will fall
equal to the angle P, by hypothesis,
EF^ CA must
somewhere on the
along
fall
line
FD,
FD, and
the
or on that line
extended.
Since
FD,
has been proved to
upon ED, and
lie
also
must coincide with the only point they have
it
in
upon
com-
mon, the point D.
Hence the
triangles coincide throughout,
and are
equal.
PEOPOSITION VIII.THEOREM.
23. In
an
isosceles triangle the angles opposite the
equal sides
are equal.
^5 and AC he
Let
ABC;
the equal sides of the isosceles triangle
B and C are equal.

A draw a line AD, bisect-
then the angles
Through the vertex

ing the angle
BAC, and meeting the
side
BC
In the triangles
is
ABD
equal to the side
AD
is
atD.
and
ACD
the side
AChy hypothesis,
AB
the side
common, and the included angle
BAD
is
equal to
CAD by construction. The triangles are

by Proposition YI., and the angle C of the
the included angle

therefore equal,
one
is
24.
equal to the angle
of the other, by (21).
Corollary. The straight
line bisecting the vertical angle
of an isosceles triangle bisects the base,
and
is
perpendicular
the base.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
An equilateral triangle
is
also equiangular.
to
BOOK
23
I.
PROPOSITION IX.THEOREM.
Two
25.
triangles are equal
when
the three sides of the one
are respectively equal to the three sides of the other.
In the triangles ABC,

to DF, and
BG
to
EF
DEF,
AB
let
suppose
For,
ABG
the
EF, but
falls
triangle
to be placed so that its
base ^(7 coincides with
its
The
6^
by a
BE,
AG
^^
^^
\
^
\^^
equal
so that the vertex
on the opposite side of
D and
be equal to
then
EF from
X),
as at G,
and join
straight line.
EBG is isosceles, since the side ED is equal

EG by hypothesis; therefore the angles EBG
triangle
to the side
EQD are equal, by Proposition YIII.

The triangle FBG is isosceles, since the side FI)
equal
to the side FG by hypothesis; therefore the angles FDG
and FGD are equal, by Proposition YIII.
If to the equal angles EDG and EGB we add the equal
angles FBG and FGB, the sums will be equal, and we have
the whole angle EBF equal to the whole angle EGF.
The two triangles EBF and EGF have now the side EB
equal to the side EG by hypothesis, the side BF equal to
the side FG by hypothesis, and the included angle EBF
and
is
proved equal to the included angle

angles are equal,
EGF.
Hence the
tri-
by Proposition YI.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
line
drawn from
the vertex of
angle to the middle point of the base
and
bisects the vertical angle.
is
an
isosceles tri-
perpendicular
to the base,
24
PROPOSITION X.THEOREM.
Two
26.
right triangles are equal
when they have
nuse and a side of the one respectively equal
and a
to the
the hypote-
hypotenuse
side of the other.
In the right triangles ABC, A'B'G\
let
the hypotenuse
AB
be equal to the hypotenuse
and the
A'B',
side
equal to the side
^C
BC^ ;
be
then
Extend the
making
join
CD
and
side
BC to
and extend B'C^ to
B'C, and join A' and
The
in
common
right angle
In
like
making C^jy equal
to
IT.
ABC
the side
CD
having the side
equal to the side
A CD equal
since they are adjacent angles
by
hypothesis, are equal,
manner the
to the triangle
The
iX,
and the triangle
and the included angle
ACB,
angle
ADC
triangle
struction
D,
equal to BC, and
CB by
con-
to the included
and
ACB
is
by Proposition YI.
may
triangle A!D^C'
be proved equal
MB'C,
triangles
to the side A!B!
BAD
and B'A!D^ having the
by hypothesis; the
side B'D'^ because
side
side
BD
AB
equal
equal to the
they were constructed the doubles oi
and B'C'^ which were equal by hypothesis; and the
side
BG
AD
equal to the side A!D\ since they have been proved to be

equal respectively to the sides
AB
each other, by Proposition IX., and
The
triangles
have two
sides
ABC
and A!B' ; are equal
B is
to
equal to B'.
and A!B'C' have now been proved to
and the included angle of the one respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the other, and
are equal,
by Proposition VI.
BOOK
25
I.
PROPOSITION XI.THEOREM.
a triangle are equals the sides opposite
27. If two angles of
them are equals and the triangle
Let the angles
BAG
equal, then are the sides
AB
For, if
BG
and
and
to
is isosceles.
BCA
ABC
of the triangle
be
AB and BG equal.
are not equal, one
Suppose
be greater than the other.
must
AB greater
than BG.
Then cut
oif
BG, and join

triangle
ADG
AB
from
and
a part
AD
equal to
Compare now the
G.
with the whole triangle ABG, of which
it is
part.
The two
AD
triangles
equal to the side
angle
have the
BG
hy
side
AC
by Proposition
are equal, which
is
common
the side
construction; and the included
equal to the included angle
Therefore,
in
BGA by
hypothesis.
ADG and ABG

Consequently, AB could not
YI., the triangles
impossible.
have been greater than BG.

In
like
manner we can prove that
BG
cannot be greater
than AB.
Therefore, since neither can be greater than the other,
and
BG
are equal.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
An equiangular
^ r n
(h
triangle is also equilateral.
AB
26
PKOPOSITION XII.THEOEEM.
28. If two angles of
the greater angle
a triangle are unequal^ the side opposite
greater than the side opposite the less angle.
is
ABC let the angle C be

B then AB is greater than A C.
In the triangle
angle
For, suppose the line
CD
to be drawn, cutting
from the greater angle a part
off
Then
greater than the
BDC
is
an
isosceles
triangle,
BCD = B.
by Propo-
and DC = DB. But in the triangle

ADC we have ^D + DC > AC, by Axiom I. or,
putting DB for its equal DC,AD + DB:>AC;ovAB:>Aa
sition XI.,
PROPOSITION XIII.THEOREM.
29. If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angle opposite
the greater side is greater than the angle opposite the less side.
In the triangle
side
BC;
ABC
let
the side
then will the angle
AB
be greater than the
be greater than
the angle A.
For, if
equal to
is
not greater than
J., it
must be
or less than A.
cannot be equal to A, for in that case
and
BC would be equal, by Proposition XI.
C
less
cannot be
less
than
J.,
for in that case
than BC, by Proposition XII.
Therefore
is
AB
greater than A.
AB
would be
BOOK
27
I.
PROPOSITION XIV.THEOREM.
the one respectively
30. If two triangles have two sides of
angles unequal,
included
the
and
equal to two sides of the other,
angle has the greater

the triangle which has the greater included
third side.
ABC and ABB be the two

AC are respectively equal
Let
AB,
triangles in
sides
to the
sides
AB, AD, but the included angle
BAC
is
BAD;
which the
greater than the included angle
then
greater than
Ôis
For, suppose the
line AE to
CAD and
bisecting the angle
BD.
be drawn,
meeting
BC
AED and AEC are equal, by

Proposition YI., and therefore ED = EC. But in the triangle
BDE we have
BE + ED:> BD, by Axiom
and substituting EC for its equal ED,
BE+ EC> BD, or BC > BD.
in
E;
join
The
DE.
triangles
I.,
PROPOSITION XV.THEOREM.
If two triangles have two sides of the one respectively
31.
equal to two sides of the other, and the third sides unequal, the
triangle which has the greater third side has the greater included
angle.
ABC and DEF let AB = DE, AC = DF,
In the triangles
and
let
5(7 be greater than
then will the angle
EF
be greater
than the angle D.

For, if
were equal to D,
would be equal
tion YI.
D,
and
BC would
to
if
be
BC
EF, by Proposi-
less
were
less
than
than EF, by Proposition XIY.
28
PEOPOSITION XVI.THEOEEM.
given pointy without a straight
From a
32.
drawn
dicular can be
Let
AB be the given line
Take a second
and but
to the line^
line^
one.
P the given point.

and at some point F of DE let
and
line DJS,
a perpendicular be erected (Proposition
Superpose this
I.).
second figure upon the

first,
placing
the
line
DF
upon the
line
AB,
and then move the
fig-
ure along, keeping
DF
always
one perpen-
with AB, until the perpendicular FGr passes through

then have a perpendicular to
shall
Let
PC
coincidence
in
in the figure
below be
AB
P; we
drawn through P.
this perpendicular.
No other perpendicular from P can be drawn to the line AB.

For, suppose that a second perpendicular
Extend
FG
to P',
FD could be drawn.
making GF' equal
PC, and join
to
J>
andP'.
The two
the side
struction; the side
angle F'GD,
have
FGF
equal to the included
by Proposition
III.
There-
YI., the triangles are
FDG is equal to the

FDG is a right angle
and the angle
angle F'FG.
therefore
must
F'GF
F'G by conGF common; and the
by Proposition
equal,
and
equal to the side
included angle
fore,
FGF
triangles
FG
lie
But
F'DG must
in the
be a right angle,
same straight
we have two
straight lines
by
I., is
Postulate
line,
by hypothesis;
and FD and
drawn between
impossible.
DF
by Proposition lY.
P and
and
P', which,
BOOK
29
I.
Since this impossible result follows necessarily from the
assumption that a second perpendicular can be drawn from
P to AB, that assumption must be false.

EXERCISES.
Theorem. A perpendicular
1.
upon the base
isosceles triangle
let
from
fall
the vertex of
bisects the base
and
an
bisects the
vertical angle.
Theorem.
2.
Two
and an adjacent angle of
the hypotenuse
when they have
the one respectively
equal to the hypotenuse and an adjacent angle of the other.

Suggestion. Superpose the second triangle
making the given equal angles
upon the
first,
coincide.
PROPOSITION XVII.THEOREM.
The perpendicular
33.
from a point
Let
PC
a straight
to
line
AB.
Then
Extend
PC
PC, and join
The
the shortest line that can be
drawn
line.
PD
be the perpendicular and
any oblique
line
is
from the point ^P to the
PC is
to P',
PD.
shorter than
making CP' equal
to
D and P'.
triangles
PCD
by Proposition YI.
P'CD are equal,

Therefore P'B = PD.
and
PP' <^PP
+ DP', by Axiom
Therefore PC, the half of PP',
is less
I.
than PD, the half
of PJ)P\
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
and meeting
Two oblique
lines
drawn from a -point
the line at equal distances
from
to
line,
the foot of the per-
pendicular from the given point, are equal.

2.
Theorem.
line
meet
it
Two equal oblique

at equal distances
dicular.
3*
lines
from
drawn from a point
to
the foot of the perpen-
30
PROPOSITION XVIII.THEOREM.
a perpendicular
34. If
is
erected at the middle of
a straight
linCj then,
in the perpendicular is equally distant
Uvery point
1st.
from
the extremities of the line ;
Every point without the perpendicular
2d.
from
AB
Let
CD
is
unequally distant
the extremities of the line.
and
finite straight line
be a
a perpendicular at its middle point.
Then
1st.
distant from
P on CD equiFor, join P and
any point
is
and B.
A and P and J5.

The triangles FCA and FOB are
by
Proposition YI.
2d.
Any
dicular
FA
equal,
FB are
and
equal.
without the perpen-
unequally distant from
is
For,
B.
point
therefore
and
being on one side or the other
of the perpendicular, one of the lines QA,
QB must cut
be QA and let
is
less
C^
the perpendicular; let

it
cut in
than the broken
< P + FB.
QB < QA.
But
P;
it
FB. The straight

QFB^ by Axiom I.
join
line
FB = FA ;
therefore
QB
line
that
<:
QB
is,
QF +
FA, or
35. Definition.
containing
and no
In
all
geometric locus
is
the geometric figure
the points which possess a
common
property,
others.
this definition, points are understood to
property
when they
Thus, since
all
satisfy the
have a common
same geometrical
conditions.
the points in the perpendicular erected at
the middle of a line possess the
common
property of being
equally distant from the extremities of the line (that
is,
BOOK
31
I.
they shall be equally distant from
satisfy the condition that
those extremities), and no other points possess this property^
the perpendicular
the locus of these points; so that the
is
preceding proposition
is
fully covered
by the following
brief
statement
The perpendicular
erected at the middle of
a straight
line is
the locus of the points which are equally distant from the extremities
of that
line,
PROPOSITION XIX.THEOREM.
36.
from
Uvery point in the
but within the angle,
angle ; that
is,
Let
point in
it,
AD
and every point not
and equally
in the bisector,
an angle
distant
the locus of the points
is
from
its sides.
be the bisector of the angle JBAC,
and PE, PF,
distances of
equally distant
is
unequally distant from the sides of the
the bisector of
within the angle

1st.
is
an angle
bisector of
the sides of the angle
from
any
the perpendicular
AB
and
AC
then
PE = PF.
For, the
right
having the angles
and
2)
AP
PAE
and
common, are equal
therefore
2d.
triangles
Let
APE, APF,
PAF
equal,
(32, Exercise
PE = PF.
be any point not in the bisector, but within
the angle; then the perpendicular distances
QE
and
QH
are unequal.
For, suppose that one of these distances, as QE, cuts the
bisector in
some point P; from
P let PF be
dicular to
AC, and join QF.
We
P < P + PF,
qe:< QE.
fore
or
drawn perpen-
QF also^
QE ^ there-
have QJff <C
QF<iQP + PE,
or
QF <
32
When
may
bisector,
is
sides, as
vertex
A;
AB,
will fall at the
QS
the perpendicular
than the oblique
less
obtuse, the point Q, not in the
be so situated that the perpendicular on one
of the
then
BAG
the angle
Or, a point '
may
be so situated
that the perpendicular '^', let
on one of the
is
QA.
line
AB,
sides, as
fall
meet
will
that side produced through the vertex
must cut the
AC
side
some
in.
point,
this perpendicular
K^ and we then have
EXEBCISE.
Theorem,
The
locus of the points equally distant
from two
which
bisect all
intersecting straight lines is the
formed by
the angles
(v.
19,
Exercise
when no one
lines,
of
lines
the given lines.
2.)
37. Definition.
pair of
broken
its
line,
ABCBE^
as
called convex
is
component straight
^
produced, can enter the space
if
by the broken
enclosed
straight line joining
its
and the
line,
extremities.
PROPOSITION XX.THEOREM.
38.
A convex
envelops
it
broken line
and has
the
same
Let the convex broken

ities
A, E^ as the line
enveloped
by
it;
than any other
less
is
is,
which
extremities.
line
AFQE have the
ABODE, and
that
line
wholly
same extrem-
be
in-
Ch
by
AE.
cluded within the space bounded
ABCDE and the straight

Then AFGE < ABCDE.
For, produce AF and FG
line
to
meet the enveloping
line in
BOOK
H and
K.
Imagine
ABODE
If the straight line
moving from
to E.
ABCH, the path AHDE

ABODE, the portion HDE
for
further, the straight line
path
if,
33
I.
AFKE will
GE be
finally,
be a
being
FK be
still
AH be substituted
will be shorter
than the path
common
shorter path from
AFGE
GKE,
is less
both.
to
If,
FHDK,
substituted for
substituted for
Therefore
shorter path.
to be the path of a point
to E.
AFGE will
be a
the
And
still
than any enveloping
line.
39. Scholium.
The preceding demonstration applies when

is a curve, or any species of line whatever.
the enveloping line
PROPOSITION XXI.THEOREM.
40. If two oblique lines

line at
drawn from a point
to
line
meet the
unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, the
more remote
is
the greater.
Ist.
If the lines
Let
PO
lie
on the same
side of the perpendicular.
be the perpendicular and
FD
and
FE
the two
EO being greater than

DO; then is FE greater than FD.
For, produce FO to P', making OP'
oblique lines,
equal to FO, and join P' with
and
with E.
FDO and F'DO and

the triangles FEO and FÊO are equal,
by Proposition YI. ILence FD = F'D,
and FE = F'E.
The
triangles
FDF'
is
less
FE, the half of
FDF\
FEF\ by Proposition XX. therefore

FEF\ is greater than FD, the half of
than
34
2d. If the lines lie
on opposite
sides of the perpendicular.
PC be the perpendicular and FD and PE the

lines, EG being greater than CD.
Let
Lay
CD' equal to CD, and

and D'. Then the triangles
off
join
oblique
PDC and PD'C are
by Propand PD' =: PD.
osition YI.,
But PD'
is less
proof given above.
equal,
than PE, by the
Hence
its
equal
PD is less than PE,
PROPOSITION XXII.THEOREM.
Two
41.
straight lines perpendicular to the
same
straight line
are parallel.
Let
AB
and
CD
pendicular to the
then are they
CD
and
meet
if
sible,
be two lines per-
same
line
For, if
parallel.
are not parallel, they
produced
for
in that
EF;
but this
case
is
we
AB
must
imposshould
have two perpendiculars from their

point of meeting to the same straight line
contrary to Proposition
EF, which
is
XYI.
PROPOSITION XXIII.THEOREM.
42.
drawn
Let
BC

parallel to
a given
and only
one,
can be
line.
be the given point and
the given
line,
line.
AD perpendicular ^
to BC, and through A draw AE
perpendicular to AD. AE and DC, being
From A draw
perpendicular to
BOOK
by Proposition XXII.
the same line AI), are parallel,
other line can be drawn through
Axiom
II.,
therefore,
35
I.
parallel to
BC^
No
for,
by
would have the same direction as AE^ and
it
by Postulate
would coincide with AE,
II., it
EXERCISES.
Theorem.
1.
Lines having
Suggestion. Suppose
Theorem.
2.
them
same
the
meet
to
Lines parallel
to the
direction are parallel.

v.
Postulate II.
same
line are parallel to
each other.
When two
43. Definitions.
by a
at
third
their
named
The
EF, the
lines,
the two
Two
are cut
are
four angles,
The four
AB, CD,
eight angles formed
of intersection
points
as follows
the two
straight lines
1,
without
2, 3, 4,
are called exterior angles.
angles,
lines,
5,
6,
7,
8,
within
are called interior angles.
exterior angles on opposite sides of the secant line
and not adjacent
as
1,
or
2,
are called
alternate-exterior
angles.
Two
interior angles
as
and not adjacent
5,
on opposite
7
or
6,
sides of the secant line
are called
alternate-interior
angles.
Two
angles similarly situated with respect both to the
secant and to the line intersected

ing angles
as
1,
6 7
2,
3,
by
4, 8.
it
are caUed correspond-
36
PROPOSITION XXIV.THEOREM.
44.
When
two straight
by a third,
lines are cut
if the alter-
nate-interior angles are equal, the two straight lines are parallel.
Let the
line
AB
CAB
alternate-interior angles
and
CD
cut the lines
and UF, making the
ABF equal
and
then are
CD
FF parallel.
Through
point of
Gr,
middle
the
AB, draw
GS per-
pendicular to CD, and cut-
FF in I.
ting
Then the
triangles
AGH
and BGI, having the
AG
side
GAH
construction, the angle
hypothesis, and the angle
equal to the side
equal to the angle
AGS equal
to the angle
GB byGBI^y
IGB
by-
by Proposition YII. Therefore the

the angle GHA. But GHA is a right
Proposition Y., are equal,
angle
GIB
angle
by construction
and
FF
is
equal to
hence
GIB
is
a right angle, and
CD
are perpendicular to the same line HI, and are
therefore parallel,
If
FBA
and
BAD
just given
is
are the given equal alternate angles,
CAB
their supplements
and
ABF are
equal,
and the proof
valid.
If the given alternate-interior angles are right angles, the

lines are parallel,
45.
if
Corollary
I.
When
two straight
lines are cut
a pair of corresponding angles are equal, the

Suggestion.
Show
by a third,
lines are parallel.
that in that case a pair of alternate-
interior angles are equal.
46.
Corollary
third, if the
secant line
is
sum
II.
When
two straight lines are cut by a
of two interior angles on the
same
side of the
equal to two right angles, the two lines are parallel.
BOOK
Show
Suggestion.
37
I.
that a pair of alternate-interior angles
are equal.
PEOPOSITION XXV.THEOKEM.
47. If
two parallel
by a third straight
lines are cut
line,
the
alternate-interior angles are equal.
Let the
parallel lines CI>
CAB
then will the angles
EF be cut by the
ABF be equal.
and
and
line
AB
For, if they are not equal,
draw through
sl
sition
by Propo-
then,
GA
XXIV.,
and
parallel,
parallels to the
point A, which
is
49.
same
line
EF
Corollary
drawn through the same
contrary to Proposition XXIII., and there-
Hence the angles
fore impossible.
48.
EF
and we have
are
two
straight line,
AG,
GAB and
making the angles
ABF equal
line
I.
CAB and ABF are
equal.
If two parallel lines are cut by a third
any two corresponding angles are
equal.
Corollary II. If two parallel lines are cut by a third

sum of the two interior angles on the same side
straight line, the
of the secant line
is
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
perpendicular
line perpendicular to
one of two parallel lines
is
to the other.
/f^^
/^
Off
rn^.'^^^
ay
JÎFOUll^
38
XXVLTHEOREM.
PK0P08ITI0N
The sum of
50.
the three angles of
any
triangle is equal to
two right angles.
ABC he any triangle
Let
is
Produce BGj and through
AG
Since the line

lines
AB
angles
its
three angles
alternate-interior
BAG
AGJ3 and
AB
CJ parallel to BA
A
are
equal,
by
XXV.
Since the line

lines
G draw
meets the parallel
and EG, the
Proposition
BD
cuts the parallel
and EG, the corresponding angles
are equal,
by
BGA-\-
EGD
and
XXY., Corollary I.
sum of the angles of the triangle
ABG
Proposition
Therefore the
to
then the sum of
is
equal
AGE + EGD, which is two right angles, by Propo-
sition III., Corollary I.

51.
angle
C0R01.LARY. If a side of a triangle

is
equal to the
sum
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
If
the sides
of an angle are respectively
perpendicular to the sides

of a second angle, the angles are equal, or supple-
mentary.
is eoctended,
the exterior
of the two interior opposite angles.
;
;
BOOK
39
I.
POLYGONS.
52. Definitions.
by
straight lines
polygon
as
ABODE. The
lines are the sides
sum
their
is
bounding
the perimeter
The angles which the
of the polygon.
cent sides
a portion of a plane bounded
is
make with each
adja-
other are the angles
of the polygon; and the vertices of these

angles are called the vertices of the polygon.
Any
line joining
two
vertices not consecutive
called a
is
diagonal; as AG.
Polygons are classed according to the num-
53. Definitions.
ber of their sides
A triangle is a polygon of three sides.

A quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides.
A pentagon has five sides a hexagon, six a
;
an
octagon, eight
agon, twelve
An
an enneagon, nine
a decagon^ ten
equilateral
54. Definition.
polygon
one
is
all
a polygon
of whose angles are equal.
all
convex polygon
is
one no side of which,
ABODE
is less
in (52).
from the
It is also evident
more than two
Each of the angles of such
definition that the perimeter
when
the space enclosed
MNOPQ,
by a
straight line
points.
concave polygon
or more sides,
by the
than two right angles.
of a convex polygon cannot be intersected
a dodec-
of whose sides are equal
produced, can enter within the space enclosed
perimeter; as
in
etc.
an equiangular polygon, one
when
heptagon, seven
of which
is
one of which two
produced, will enter
by the perimeter;
OP
as
and QP, when
produced, will enter within the polygon.
The angle OPQ, formed by two adjacent
re-entrant sides,
40
is
called a re-entrant angle
ÔTCLQiimQ^ cdXlQ^
2i
and hence a concave polygon
is
re-entrant polygon.
All the polygons hereafter considered will be understood

to be convex.
PROPOSITION XXVII.THEOREM.
55,
as
The sum of
many
all the angles of
has
is
equal to twice
right angles, less four, as the figure has sides.
Join any point

tices,
any polygon
within the polygon to each of the ver-
thus dividing the polygon into as
many
triangles as
it
sides.
The sum of the angles of these

be twice as
tri-
by Proposition XXYI.,
angles will,
many
right angles as the
But the angles of
figure has sides.
the triangles form the angles of the
polygon plus the angles at 0, which

are equal to four right angles,
Proposition
III.,
by
Corollary II.
EXERCISE.
1.
Theorem.
If each
of the exterior angles
Suggestion.
gles,
exterior
and
sides.
all
interior,
many
a polygon
four right angles.
The sum of
ously twice as
the figure has
is
side of
the anis
obvi-
right angles as
is
extended, the
sum
::
BOOK
41
I.
QUADRILATERALS.
56. Definitions. Quadrilaterals are divided into classes, as
follows
The trapezium
Ist.
of
which has no two
(J.),
its sides parallel.
The
2d.
which has two
trapezoid (jB),
sides parallel.
The
parallel sides are called
/^
the hases^ and the perpendicular distance
between them the
by two
The
is
bounded
pairs of parallel sides.

side
bases
is
The perpendicular
bases.
The rhomboid
whose adjacent
(a),
's*
and whose angles are
The rhombus^ or
lozenge (&),
whose
sides
all equal.
equal,
4th.
lower
distance between the
not right angles.
3d.
its
Parallelograms are divided into species, as
sides are not equal
2d.
the altitude.
57. Definitions.
are
is
follows
1st.
r\
upon which a parallelogram
supposed to stand and the opposite side are called
and upper
altitude of the trapezoid.
The parallelogram ( (7), which
3d.
The
rectangle (c),
whose angles are
all
and therefore right angles.
The square
whose angles are
The square
is
(d),
whose
sides are all equal
and
all equal.
at once a
rhombus and a
rectangle.
42
PROPOSITION XXVIII.THEOREM.
parallelograms are equal when two adjacent sides
Two
58.
and
the included angle of the one are equal to two adjacent sides
and
the included angle of the other.
AD == A'jy,
= ^'J.'i/;
grams are
and the angle
then these parallelo-
j
^
j
^
^/
^'
equal.
For they
may
evidently be applied the one to the other, so
as to coincide throughout,
Corollary.
59.
BAD
Two
(v.
Proposition XXIII.)
rectangles
are equal when they have equal bases
and equal
altitudes.
PROPOSITION XXIX.THEOREM.
60. The opposite
sides of
a parallelogram are equal and the
opposite angles are equal.
Draw
Suggestion.
a diagonal AC.
ACB
J^
CAD are equal, by Proposition XXY.

CAB and AGD are equal, by Proposition
and
v.
XXY.
Hence the
sition
triangles
ABC
and
ADC
are equal,
by Propo-
YII.
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem. If one angle of a parallelogram
all the angles

2.
are right angles, and the figure
Theorem.
If
two
angles
have the sides of one respectively

parallel to the sides of the other,
they are equal, or supplementary.

3.
Theorem.
Two
parallel
lines are everywhere equidistant.
is
is
a right angle,
rectangle.
BOOK
43
I.
PROPOSITION XXX.THEOREM.
two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal and
61. If
parallel, the figure is
Suggestion.
BC.
Draw
triangles
by
AD be
Let
The
to
a diagonal
ABC
Proposition YI.
BAG
and
ACD
Proposition
a parallelogram.
equal and parallel
AC.
and
ABO
are equal,
i^
Therefore the angles
are equal, and
AB
and
CD
are parallel,
by
XXIY.
PROPOSITION XXXI.THEOREM.
62. If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equals the
figure
is
a parallelogram.
Suggestion.
Draw
a diagonal, and prove the two triangles
equal.
PROPOSITION XXXII.THEOREM.
63.
The diagonals of a parallelogram
Suggestion.
are equal,
The
triangles
bisect
AED and BEC
each other.
by Proposition YII.
EXERCISES.
1.
2.
to
Theorem. The diagonals of a rectangle are

Theorem. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular
equal.
each other.
3.
Theorem.
If the
other, the figure is

4.
Theorem.
the figure
5.
is
diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each
a parallelogram.
If
the diagonals of
a parallelogram are
equal,
rectangle.
Theorem. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpen-
dicular to each other, the figure
is
a rhombus.
44
ARRANGEMENT
64.
OF
WRITTEN EXERCISES.
In writing out a demonstration, brevity of statement
and clearness of arrangement should be carefully
studied,
and symbols and abbreviations may bo used with
The following
list is
profit.
recommended
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS.

. .
therefore.
Bef.
definition.
equal
Fost
postulate.
equivalent
Ax.
axiom.
>
greater than.
Prop.
proposition.
<;
less than.
Cor.
corollary.
parallel to.
Hyp.
hypothesis.
to.
to.
II
J_
perpendicular
/_
angle.
angles.
rt.
/_ right angle.
Cons.
construction.
Adj.
adjacent.
Inc.
included.
Alt.-int.
alternate-interior.
l\
triangle.
Sup.
supplementary.
l^
triangles.
Comp.
complementary.
rt.
I\ right triangle.
/
/
to.
/
*
parallelogram.
/ parallelograms.
circle.
circles.
Q.E.B, quod erat demonstrandum (= which was

,
to be proved).
BOOK
65.
45
I.
In arranging a written demonstration,
begin each statement on a separate

for the statement at the
briefly,
end of the
line,
it
is
line, if it
can be written
or in parenthesis immediately below the
cannot be written
briefly.
well to
giving the reason
line, if it
The following examples of demon-
strations prepared as written
exercises,
or for a written
examination, will serve as illustrations.
PROPOSITION XII.THEOREM.
(1)
If two angles of a triangle are unequal^ the side opposite the

greater angle
In
is
A ABC, let
it
be given that
we are to prove
Draw CDj cutting
and
But
^^^
AB
off
from
>
J.
Z_ACBy
/^B,
(7.
/ÂCB
si
part
/ BCD = /_B.
Then in /\ BCD we have
/ BCD = l^B.
BD = CD,
BD + DA = CD ^ DA.
AC<:CD-^DA.
AC<iBD ^DA,
AC<:ÂB,
Cons.
Prop.
XL
Ax.
I.
Q. E. D.
46
PROPOSITION XXIV.THEOREM.
(2)
When
two straight lines are cut by a third,
interior angles are equal, the
Let
two
if the alternate*
straight lines are parallel.
AB cut CD and EF in the points A

/^BAG= /ÂBF,
and B, making
CD to EF.
we are to prove
Through G, the middle point of AB, draw
\\
Then
in the
HI ]_ to
CD.
A ^^^ and BGI

Aa^BG,
/_GAH= /_ GBI,
/_AGH= /_^BGI.
we have
Cons.
Hyp.
Prop. Y.
/\AGII=: ^BGI,
/_ GIB = /_ GHA
and
(homologous angles of
But
Prop. YII.
'
= A).
G^îsar^. /.
/_GIBiBSirt.
/_,
and
Him ]_to EF.
But
J?7is_|_to CD.
CDand
Cons.
Cons.
Prop. XXII.
jîâre||.
Q.
^ are ABE and BAD,

/ ABE = /_ BAD,
/ ABE + / ABF =2rt. /^,
/ BAD Z,S^0=2rt. ^.
E.D.
If the given equal
we have
-{-
/ÂBF=
and the proof given above
/_BAC,
applies.
Hyp.
Prop. III.
Prop. III.
BOOK
If the given equal
are
and are
||,
rt.
the two given lines
PEOPOSITION XXVI. COEOLLARY.
(3)
If one side of a triangle

to the
/^ are
alt.-int.
to the third line
47
I.
sum
is
extended^ the exterior angle
is
equal
of the two interior opposite angles.
In the /^ ABC
are to prove
let
the side
AC he
^ BCD ^ /_A
We have the sum of the adj. ^
we
/_B.
-{-BGA
/^BCD==
(4)
extended,
= 2rt. ^.
/_A + /^B+ /^BCA = 2rt. ^.
BCD
But
-\-
EXERCISE
3,
Prop. III.
PAGE
XXYL
Prop.
/_A-\- /^B.
Q. E. B.
43. THEOREM.
If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other the figure

j
is
a parallelogram.
..--'.B**.
In the quadrilateral
ABCD^
let
bisect each other.

i
We
are to prove
ABCD a
"] ,
the diagonals
AD
and
BG
48
In the
we have
^ AEB and CED

GE = EB,
Hyp.
Hyp.
ED = AE,
= /_ AEB.
/
A ^^^ = A C'Â
OD = A^
CED
and
Prop. Y.
I'rop.
(homologous sides of equal
YI.
^^
/_EDC= Z_EAB
and
(homologous / of equal
But
JE^DCand jEAJ5are
/^).
alt.-int.
CD is to AB,
CD = AB,
^.
Prop.
XXIY.
II
and
since
^^CD is a
O-
Proved above.
^^^PQ. E. D.
^^^'
EXERCISES ON BOOK
I.
1. The straight line AJEJ which bisects the angle

exterior to the vertical angle of an isosceles tri-
angle
2.
1/
ABCis parallel to the
base
BC,
an isosdrawn, a
If from a variable point in the base of
celes triangle parallels to the sides are
parallelogram
is
formed whose perimeter
is
constant.
3. The sum of the four lines drawn to the vertices of a quadrif^ lateral from any point except the intersection of the diagonals, is
greater than the sum of the diagonals.
4. The lines drawn from the extremities of the base of an isosceles triangle to the middle points of the opposite sides are equal.
6. The perpendiculars from the extremities of the base of an
^
isosceles triangle upon the opposite sides are equal.
6. The bisectors of the base angles of an isosceles triangle are
equal.
7.
A perpendicular let fall from one
celes triangle
*/
upon the opposite
side
end of the base of an isosmakes with the base an
angle equal to one-half the vertical angle.

8. If the vertical angle of an isosceles triangle is one-half as
great as an angle at the base, a line bisecting a base angle will
divide the given triangle into two isosceles triangles.
9. If two isosceles triangles have the sides of one equal to the
sides of the other, and the base of one double the altitude of the
other, the two triangles are of the same size.
c
49
ELEMENTS OP GEOMETRY.
60
in the base of an
perpendiculars, PM^ PN^
and
to the sides are drawn, the sum of
is constant, and equal to the perpendicular from
If
10.
from a variable point
isosceles triangle
ABC^
PM
PN
C upon AB.
The triangles
by Proposition VII.
Suggestion,
equal,
PNC
PEC
and
are
11. The line joining the feet of perpendiculars let fall from the
extremities of the base of an isosceles triangle upon the opposite
sides is parallel to the base.
If
12.
BE bisects
ABC^ and CE
the angle
the angle
of a triangle
bisects the exterior angle
ACD^
E is equal to one-half the angle A,
13. The medial line to any side of a triangle is less

than the half sum of the other two sides.
Definition. A line joining a vertex of a triangle
with the middle point of the opposite side is called
a medial line.
and -B, on the

If from two points,
side of a straight line JfiV, straight
in
lines, APj BPy are drawn to a point
14.
same
making with it equal angles APM

and BPN^ the sum of the lines AP and BP
is less than the sum of any other two lines,
AQ and BQ^ drawn from A and B to any
that line,
other point
/
^
^
is
Q in MN.
If the medial line from the vertex of a triangle to the base

equal to one-half the base, the vertical angle is a right angle.
16.
16.
two
The
parts,
altitude of a triangle divides the vertical angle into

whose difference is equal to the difference of the base
angles of the triangle.
BOOK
51
I.
17. The perpendicular erected at the middle point

of one side of a triangle meets the longer of the
other two sides.
18. Lines drawn from a point within

a triangle to the extremities of the base
include an angle greater than the vertical angle of the triangle,
(v. Proposi-
XXVI.,
tion
Corollary.)
19. The sum of the angles at the vertices of

a five-pointed star (pentagram) is equal to
two right
20.
The
angles.
three perpendiculars erected at the
middle points of the sides of a triangle meet

in the same point.
Suggestion. The point of intersection of
and
is equidistant from the three
vertices, and therefore must lie on
(Proposition XVIII.).
EH
FK
DQ
21. The three bisectors of the three angles of a triangle meet in the same point.
Suggestion. The point of intersection of
BE and CF is equidistant from the

and therefore must
sides,
lie
on
three
AD
(Proposition XIX.).
22.
The
23.
BE
If
two external angles of a triangle and the

remaining internal angle meet in a point.
bisectors of
bisector of the
from the diagonal
BD
cut off equal to BC,

pendicular to BDy then
is
of a square
and
EF is
DE = EF= FG,
ABCD,
drawn
per-
52
24. In a trapezoid, the straight line joining

the middle points of the non-parallel sides is
parallel to the bases, and is equal to one-half
their
and
Draw
HO
sum.
Suggestion.
extend ^Z).
D Q
/
y"^
parallel to
AB^ and
-B
DOF= Offi^CProposition VII.),
EFHB is a parallelogram, by Proposition XXX.
25. If the sides of a trapezoid which are

not parallel are equal, the base angles are
equal and the diagonals are equal.
"^
A E
through the four vertices of a quadrilateral lines are

drawn parallel to the diagonals, they will form a parallelogram
26. If
twice as large as the quadrilateral.
27. The three perpendiculars from

the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides meet in the same point.
Suggestion. Draw through the
three vertices lines parallel to the
opposite sides of the triangle. By
the aid of the three parallelograms
ABCB', ABA'C, and ACBG', prove
that the sides of A'B^C are bisected
by -4, -B, and C, See now Exercise 20.
28. If a straight line drawn parallel to the base

of a triangle bisects one of the sides, it also bisects
the other side and the portion of it intercepted
between the two sides is equal to one-half the base.
See now
Suggestion. Draw
parallel to
C.
Proposition VII. and Proposition XXIX.
;
DF
29.
The
a triangle
straight line joining the middle points of

is
parallel to the third side.
{v.
Exercise
two
sides of
28.)
vT
30.
The three
straight lines joining the middle points of the
sides of a triangle divide the triangle into four equal triangles.
^
,
"^
31. In any right triangle, the straight line

drawn from the vertex of the right angle to the
middle of the hypotenuse

the hypotenuse,
(v.
is
Exercise
equal to one-half
28.)
BOOK
/^
53
I.
32. The straight lines joining the middle

points of the adjacent sides of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram whose perimeter is
equal to the sum of the diagonals of the quadrilateral (Exercise 29).
33. If
and -Pare the middle points of the
opposite sides, AD, BC, of a parallelogram
ABCD, the straight lines BE, DF, trisect the
diagonal
/^
AC (Exercise 28).
34. The four bisectors of the angles

of a quadrilateral form a second quadrilateral, the opposite angles of which
are supplementary.
If the first quadrilateral is a parallelogram, the second is a rectangle.
If the first is a rectangle, the second
is a square.
36.
The point of
intersection of the diagonals of a parallelogram
bisects every straight line
drawn through
it
and terminated by
the sides of the parallelogram.

36. If from each vertex of a parallelogram
the same given distance is laid ofi" on a side
of the parallelogram, care being taken that
no two distances are laid off on the same
side, the points thus obtained will be the
vertices of a new parallelogram.
37. If from two opposite vertices of a parallelogram equal distances are laid off on
the sides adjacent to those vertices, the
points thus obtained will be the vertices
of a parallelogram.
38.
The three medial

same point.
K:v
Suggestion. Let
AD
be the point of inter-
and BE, and

and O the
middle points of OB and OA. Hence prove
OD = ÂD and OE = ^BE. In like manner the point of intersection of AD and CE
^
can be shown to cut off one-third of AD.
5*
A'
: :--)
lines of a triangle
m.eet in the
section of
A'
54
The intersection of the straight

which join the middle points of
opposite sides of any quadrilateral is
89.
lines
the middle point of the straight line

which joins the middle points of the
diagonals (Exercise 29).
he
he
ai
SYLLABUS TO BOOK
POSTULATES, AXIOMS,
AND THEOKEMS.
POSTULATE
I.
Through any two given points one straight
line,
and only one, can
be drawn.
POSTULATE
having any given
straight line,
straight line
and only one, can be drawn
direction.
AXIOM
II.
is
I.
drawn between two
points.
AXIOM
Parallel lines have the
same
IL
direction.
PROPOSITION
At
I.
a given point in a straight line one perpendicular to the line can
be drawn, and but one.

Corollary. Through the vertex of any given angle one straight line
can be drawn bisecting the angle, and but one.
PROPOSITION IL
All right angles are equal.
PROPOSITION
The two adjacent
are together equal to
Corollary
angles which one

two right angles.
The sum of
I.
all
Corollary
IL The sum
is
of
straight line
all
line, is
two right
If the
sum
common
vertex,
and
angles.
the angles that can be formed about a
two adjacent angles

same straight line.
of
makes with another
four right angles.
PROPOSITION
sides are in the
the angles having a
formed on one side of a straight

point in a plane
III.
is
IV.
two right angles,
their exterior
PKOPOSITION
V.
If two straight lines intersect each other, the opposite (or
*
.
angles are equal.
PKOPOSITION
Two
triangles are equal
when two
VI.
and the included ang^v w; ihtt

and the included angk of the
sides
one are respectively equal to two sides

other.
PROPOSITION VII
Two
when
triangles are equal
one are respectively equal
a side and the two adjacent angles
to a side
and the two adjacent angh
the
)f
"
tlin
other.
PROPOSITION
~-^.
In an
VIII.
isosceles triangle the angles opposite the equal sides are equal.
Corollary.
The
straight line bisecting the vertical angle of an isosceles
and
triangle bisects the base,
is
perpendicular to the base.
PROPOSITION
Two
triangles are equal
when
IX.
the three sides of the one are respectively
equal to the three sides of the other.
PROPOSITION
Two
X.
when they have
side of the one respectively equal to the
the hypotenus
hypotenuse and a
sid(
other.
PROPOSITION
XI.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite to tt

equal,
and the triangle
is
isosceles.
PROPOSITION
XII.
two angles of a triangle are unequal, the
If
angle
is
side opposite the
PROPOSITION
XIII.
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angle opposite the

side
is
greater than the angle opposite the less side.
PROPOSITION XIV.
If
two
triangles
sides of the other,
have two sides of the one respectively equal

and the included angles unequal, the triangle
has the greater included angle has the greater third side.
71
'
wo
HI
"^
PROPOSITION XV.
If two triangles have two sides of the one respectively equal to two
sides of the other,
and the third
sides unequal, the triangle
which has the
greater third side has the greater included angle.
PROPOSITION XVI.
From
a given point, without a straight line, one perpendicular can be

3ut one.
PROPOSITION XVII.
The perpendicular
is
drawn from
a point
to a straight line.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
is erected at the middle of a straight line, then
on the perpendicular is equally distant from the extremities
and every point not on the perpendicular is unequally
of the line
distant from the extremities of the line.
If a perpendicular
ever}^ point
PROPOSITION XIX.
an angle is equally distant from the
and every point not in the bisector, but within the
angle, is unequally distant from the sides of the angle; that is, the
bisector of an angle is the locus of the points within the angle and
Every
point in the bisector of
sides of the angle
equally distant from
its sides.
PROPOSITION XX.
A convex broken line is less than any other

and has the same extremities.
line
which envelops
it
PROPOSITION XXI.
If two oblique lines drawn from a point to a line meet the line at
unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more remote
is
the greater.
PROPOSITION XXII.
Two
same
straight line are parallel.
PROPOSITION XXIII.
to a
given
line.
line,
parallel
BOOK
11.
THE CIRCLE.
1.
A circle
Definitions,
a curve,
is
a portion of a plane bounded t)y
the points of which are equally distant from a
all
point within
it
called the centre.
The curve which bounds the
circle is
called its circumference.
Any
tre
drawn from the
straight line
circumference
the
to
is
cen-
called
radius.
Any
straight line
drawn through the
centre and terminated each
way by
the circumference
is
ABCEA
is
called a diameter.
In the
figure,
is
the centre, and the curve
the circumference of the circle; the circle
is
the space in-
cluded within the circumference; OA, OBy OC, are radii;

-4.0(7 is
By
all its
a diameter.
the definition of a
circle, all its radii
If one extremity, 0, of a line
OA
is fixed,
revolves in a plane, the other extremity,
circumference, whose radii are

2. Definitions.
cumference
A chord
is
as
its
chord
An arc
DEF.
any
all
The arc
J.,
while the line

will describe a
equal to OA.
of a circle
is
DF.
DF.
cumference; as
by
are equal; also
diameters are equal, each being double the radius.
DFF
any portion of
its cir-
two points of the

is
cir-
said to be subtended
55
ill
"^
PROPOSITION XV.
If two triangles have two sides of the one respectively equal to two
sides of the other,
and the third
sides unequal, the triangle
which has the
greater third side has the greater included angle.
PROPOSITION XVI.
From
drawn
a given point, without a straight line, one perpendicular can be
to the line,
and but one.
PROPOSITION XVII.
The perpendicular
is
drawn from
a point
to a straight line.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
If a perpendicular
ever}'-
is
erected at the middle of a straight line, then
is equally distant from the extremities

and every point not on the perpendicular is unequally
point on the perpendicular
of the line
distant
from the extremities of the
line.
PROPOSITION XIX.
an angle is equally distant from the
and every point not in the bisector, but within the
angle, is unequally distant from the sides of the angle; that is, the
bisector of an angle is the locus of the points within the angle and
Every point
in the bisector of
sides of the angle
its sides.
PROPOSITION XX.
A convex broken line is less than any other

and has the same extremities.
line
which envelops
it
PROPOSITION XXI.
drawn from a point to a line meet the line at
unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more remote
If two oblique lines
is
the greater.
PROPOSITION XXII.
Two
same
straight line are parallel.
PROPOSITION XXIII.
Through
to a
given
a given point one line,
line.
parallel
BOOK
11.
THE CIRCLE.
1.
A circle
Definitions.
a curve,
is
a portion of a plane bounded
Dy
the points of which are equally distant from a
all
point within
it
called the centre.
The curve which bounds the
circle is
called its circumference.
Any
tre
drawn from the
straight line
circumference
the
to
is
cen-
called
radius.
Any
straight line
drawn through the
centre and terminated each
way by
the circumference
is
ABCEA
is
called a diameter.
In the
figure,
is
the centre, and the curve
the circumference of the circle; the circle
is
the space in-
cluded within the circumference; OA^ OB, OC, are radii;

J.
0(7
By
all its
is
a diameter.
the definition of a
circle, all its radii
are equal; also
diameters are equal, each being double the radius.
If one extremity, 0, of a line
OA
is fixed,
while the line
revolves in a plane, the other extremity. A, will describe a
circumference, whose radii are

2. Definitions.
cumference
A chord
cumference
by
its
is
;
chord
as
An arc
DEF.
any straight
as DF.
DF.
all
equal to OA.
of a circle
is
line joining
The arc
DEF
any portion of
its cir-
two points of the

is
cir-
said to be subtended
55
66
Every chord subtends two

the whole circumference.
DBF
and the arc
arc and
less
its
arcs,
which together make up
DF
Thus,
subtends both the arc
DGBAF. When an
chord are spoken
the arc
of,
DFF,
than a semi-circumference, as
always understood, unless otherwise
is
stated.
segment
is
a portion of the
included between an arc and
by
thus,
between the arc
sector is
drawn
radii
3.
From
the space included between an arc and the two

to its extremities
as
A OB.
the definition of a circle
than the radius
is
;
Hence
it
follows that every
from the centre which
at a distance
and every point without the
at a distance from the centre

radius.
chord;
meant the space included
is
BF and its chord.
point within the circle

is less
its
DFF
the segment
circle
which
the locus of all the points in
are at a given distance from a given point
a plane which
is the
circumference
of a circle described with the given point as a centre

the given distance as
4.
Postulate.
circle is
greater than the
is
and with
a radius.
circumference
may
be described with
any
point as centre and any distance as radius.
PEOPOSITION I.THEOREM.
5.
to the
Two
circles
are equal when the radius of the one
radius of the other.
Let the second

its
centre
falls
circle
is
equal
be superposed upon the
upon the centre of the
circumferences coincide throughout.
first
first,
so that
then will the two
BOOK
either circumference falls outside of
any point of
For, if
57
II.
the other circle, the line joining it
must
common
centre
cross the circumference of that circle.
The whole
of
with the
line will
be a radius of one
circle,
the portion
within the other circle will be a radius of that other
it
circle,
and we
shall
have two unequal
radii,
which
is
con-
trary to our hypothesis.
PROPOSITION
6.
Every diameter
Let
bisects the circle
AMBN be a circle whose

AOB
then any diameter
circle
and
its
AB
upon the
as
figure
centre
its
circumference.
is
bisects the
ANB
turned
be
an axis and superposed
figure
will coincide
and
circumference.
For, if the
about
II.THEOREM.
AMB^
the curve
with the curve
ANB
AMB,
since
all
the points of both are equally distant from the centre.
(v.
Proof of Proposition
I.)
The two
figures then coincide
throughout, and are therefore equal in

fore
AB
divides both the circle
and
all respects.
its
There-
circumference into
equal parts.
7.
Definitions.
segment
AMB,
A segment equal to one-half

is
ference.
An
called a semicircle.
a circumference, as the arc
AMB,
is
the
circle, as
the
arc equal to half
called a semi-circum-
58
III.THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
In equal
8.
circles^ or in the
same
circle^
equal angles at the
centre intercept equal arcs on the circumference.
Let
0,
0\ be
the centres of equal
equal angles at these centres
and AOB, A'O'B',
then
AB^
A'B', are
may
be super-
the intercepted arcs
circles,
equal.
For the angle 0'
posed upon, and made to coincide

with,
ities
arc
The extrem-
equal 0.
its
of the arc A'B' will then
ABj and the
arcs
since the radii are equal,

9.
on the extremities of the
Proof of Proposition
(y.
Corollary. Conversely,
circles,
fall
must coincide throughout and be
in
the
same
circle,
or
equal,
I.)
in
equal
equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre.
10. Definition.
cumference
is
fourth part of a
called a quadrant.
cir-
It is
evident from the preceding theorem that
a right angle at the centre intercepts a
quadrant on the circumference.

Thus,
two perpendicular
AOC, BCD,
the
divide
into four quadrants,
diameters,
circumference
AB, BC, CD, DA.
PROPOSITION IV.THEOREM.
11.
In equal
circles,
or in the
same
circle,
equal arcs are sub-
tended by equal chords.
Let
0, 0', be the centres of equal circles,
equal arcs
and AB, A!B\
then the chords AB, A!B', are equal.
BOOK
59
II.
For, drawing the radii to the extremities of the arcs, the
angles
sition
and 0' are equal (PropoIII., Corollary), and conse-
AOB, A'0'B\
(Proposition YI., Book
quently the triangles

are equal
Therefore
I.).
/^\~/^
AB = A'B',
If the arcs are in the same circle the demonstration
is
similar.
in equal circles, or in the
Corollary. Conversely,
12.
same
equal chords subtend equal arcs,
circle,
EXERCISES.
Theorem.
1.
any
A diameter
is
greater than
other chord.
Theorem.
2.
The
line that
shortest
drawn from a point within a

cumference
can be
circle to the cir-
a portion of the diameter drawn
is
through the point.
In equal
13.
unequal arcs
each
less
is
AC
the greater of twfr
AC he greater than the arc AB
greater than the chord
AB
A
between A
upon A;
and
C,
since
AB.
upon the
arc AC, placing centre upon
and
circle,
subtended by the greater chord, the arcs being
Superpose the arc
tre
same
than a semi-circumference.
Let the arc

iQ
circles, or in the
must
AB
cenfall
is less
then the chord
60
than AC.
Draw now
AOG
AOB
and
the radii OA, 0J5, 0(7.
the angle
AOG
In the triangles
is
obviously greater than the angle
AOB;
by Proposition
therefore,
XIV., Book
the chord
I.,
14.
equal
Conversely,
or in the
circles,
is
AB.
greater than the chord
Corollary.
Aa
same
in
circle,
the greater of two unequal
chords subtends the greater arc.

Suggestion,
Proposition XY.,
v.
Book
I.
The diameter perpendicular
15.
and
the arcs subtended by
The
triangles
to
a chord
bisects the
chord
it.
ACQ, BCO,
are equal,
by Proposition
Book I. Therefore AC=CB.

The triangles AOD, BOB, are equal, by
Proposition VI., Book I. Therefore AD
BD, and hence, by Proposition IV., Corollary, the arc AD is equal to the arc BD.
X.,
/ /
1
1
/
^*''J
In the same
AD'
way we
can prove the arc

^
equal to the arc BD'.
Corollary
16.
I.
The
perpendicular
erected at the middle point of
of the
17.
circle,
(v.
Corollary
a chord passes through the
Proposition XVIII., Book

II.
When
two circumferences
straight line joining their centres bisects
their
common chord
at right
angles.
Suggestion. Erect a perpendicular
at the middle point of the

chord,
(v.
Corollary
I.)
common
centre
I.)
intersect,
the
BOOK
61
II.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
chords
is
The
locus of the middle points of
set of parallel
the diameter perpendicular to the chords.
In the same
18.
equally distant
less is at the
or in equal circles, equal chords are
circle,
from
the centre
and
from
greater distance
of two unequal chords, the
the centre.
Let AB, CD, be equal chords; OE, OF, the perpen-
1st.
diculars
which measure
from the centre
their distances
OE = OF.
then
For, since the perpendiculars bisect
the chords,
sition X.,
AOE
^^ = (7i^;
Book
and
I.)
COF
hence (Propo-
Let CG, AB, be unequal chords
^5;
y^
and
let
CG
be
less
arc
AB >
arc
OlfyOE.
then
For, since chord
CG ;
M>%^
OE, OH, their distances from the centre

than
...--"'''/V
^V-v^
OE z=
OF.
2d.
^L^-'^^'^x
^LrCT^T^.
the right triangles
are equal, and
^^
so that if
AB >
from
chord CG,
C we draw
we have
CD = AB,
the chord
its
subtended arc CD, being equal to the arc AB, will be greater
than the arc CG.

intersect the chord
pendicular
OF
demonstration,
(Proposition
or
to
OS
will
Drawing the
per-
Therefore the perpendicular
CD
some point
in
I.
CD, we have, by the
OF =
OE.
XYIL, Book
I.)
But
;
first
OH > 01,
still
part of the
> OF
OS > OF,
and 01
more, then,
is
OSÔE.
If the chords be taken in two equal circles, the demonstra-
tion
is
the same.
62
19.
Corollary. Conversely^
circles^
in the
same
circle^
or in equal
chords equally distant from the centre are equal ; and
of two chords unequally distant

greater whose distance
from
from
the
centre, that is the
the centre is the less.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
drawn
the
in
The
circle
least
chord that can be
through a given point
chord perpendicular
diameter
the
to
is
through the point

Suggestion,
v.
Proposition XYII.,
Book I.
TANGENTS AND SECANTS.

20.
Definitions.
tangent
which has but one point
in
is
an
indefinite
straight line
common
with the circumference; as ACB.
The common
point, C, is called the
point of contact, or the point of tan-
The circumference
gency.
is
said to be tangent to the line
also
AB
at the point C,
A secant
is
a straight line which
meets the circumference in two points
Two
are both tangent to the

at the
as JEF.
circumferences are tangent to each other
same
same straight
21. Definition.
A rectilinear figure
to be circumscribed about a circle

its sides
line
point.
is
said
when
all
are tangents to the circumference.
In the same
case, the circle is said to
inscribed in the figure.
be
when they
BOOK
63
II.
PROPOSITION VIII.THEOREM.
22.
straight line cannot intersect
a circumference in more
than two points.

For, if the line could intersect the circumference in three
points, the radii
drawn
at unequal distances
upon the
centre of the circle
XXL, Book
Proposition
to these points
would meet the
from the perpendicular
let fall
line
from the
and would be unequal, by
line,
I.
A straight
23.
radius
drawn
line tangent to
to the
circle is
perpendicular to the
point of contact.
For any other point of the tangent,

as D,
must
lie
outside of the circle,
therefore the line
OD^ joining
it
2)^/
and
the centre, must be greater than the

radius 0(7,
drawn
^y\\
a^^
with
\1
to the point of con-
tact.
OCiSj then, the shortest

be drawn from
line that
to the tangent
can
AB, and
is
therefore perpen-
AB, by Proposition XYII., Book I.

Corollary I. A perpendicular to a tangent
dicular to
24.
line
drawn
through the point of contact must pass through the centre

of the
circle.
25.
Corollary
other, their centres
II.
If two circumferences are tangent
and
to
their point of contact lie in the
each
same
straight line.
Suggestion.
Through
their point of contact
perpendicular to the tangent at that point,
(v.
draw a
line
Corollary
I.)
64
When
26.
tances
from
two tangents
to the
same
circle intersect, the dis-
their j)oint of intersection to their points of contact
are equal.
OAP and
Eor the right triangles
OBP
(Proposition IX.) are equal,
by Proposition
X.,
Book
I.
EXERCISES.
Theorem.
1.
In any circumscribed
two opposite sides
Theorem.
2.
is
equal to the
quadrilateral, the
sum of the
sum of
other two opposite sides,
If two circumferences are
tangent,
and from any
point, P, of the tangent at their point of contact, tangents are
drawn
to the
two
circles, the
points of contact of these tangents
are equally distant from P.
Two parallels
27.
intercept equal arcs on
a circumference.
We may have three cases

1st.
When
the parallels AB, CI), are
both secants, then the intercepted arcs
AG
and
BB
are equal.
For, let
OM be
the radius drawn perpendicular to the

parallels.
is
By
Proposition YI., the point
at once the middle of the arc
AMB
and of the arc CMD, and hence we have
AM = BM and CM = DM,
whence, by subtraction,
AM CM= BM DM,
that
is,
AG = BD.
BOOK
When
2d.
other
one of the parallels
EF
a tangent, as
is
65
II.
is
a secant, as AB, and the
at Jf, then the intercepted arcs
AM and BM are
equal.
point of contact
perpendicular to the tangent (Proposition
For the radius
and consequently perpendicular
IX.),
by
therefore,
3d.
and
is
When
GH at
gents,
we
also to its parallel
AB ;
both the parallels are tangents, as JSF at Mj

iV,
then the intercepted arcs
any secant
have,
by the second
MAN"
AB parallel
to the tan-
E
<^
G/^
whence, by addition,
A
AM+A]Sr=BM+BW,
MAN=MBJSr;
\d
\
is,
and each of the intercepted arcs
MBN
and
case,
AM = BM and AN = BM,
that
to the
AM = BM.
Proposition YI.,
For, drawing
are equal.
OM drawn
in this case is a semi-circum-
ference.
MEASURE OF ANGLES.
As the measurement of magnitude
objects of geometry,
it
principles in regard
is
one of the principal
will be proper to premise here
to
some
measurement of quantity
the
in
general.
28. Definition.
how many
To measure
times
sl
quantity of any kind
is
to find
contains another quantity of the
it
same
kind, called the unit.
Thus, to measure a line
how many
times
it
is
to find the
contains another
number expressing
line, called
the unit of
length, or the linear unit.
The number which expresses how many times a quantity

contains the unit
quantity.
is
called the
numerical measure of that
66
29. Definition.
to
ratio
of two quantities
oth-er
the quotient
is
thus, the ratio of
~.
is
To
The
from dividing one by the
arising
find the ratio of one quantity to another
find
how many
fore
it
is
times the
then, to
is,
contains the second; there-
first
the same thing as to measure the
first
by the
It is implied in the defini-
second taken as the unit (28).

tion of ratio that the quantities
compared are of the same
kind.
Hence,
also,
to measure a quantity
The
ratio of
two
is
contained
to find its ratio to the unit.
quantities
numerical measures.
is
Thus,
m times in A
A
is
if
the same as the ratio of their
denotes the unit, and if
30. Definition.
and n times in B^ then
mP
B~~nP~
is
we may say that
instead of the definition (28),
Two quantities are commensurable when there
some third quantity of the same kind which
a whole number of times in each.
is
contained
This third quantity
is
common measure of the proposed quantities.

Thus, the two lines A and B are commensurable if there
called the
is
some
line,
(7,
which
is
contained a
whole number of times in each,

for example, 7 times in
J.,
as,
^'
and 4 times
<
in B.
The
'
'
'
'
'
0'
ratio of
two commensurable
quantities can, therefore, be exactly expressed
by a number,
whole or fractional (as in the preceding example by

is
'
called a commensurable ratio.
-),
and
BOOK
67
II.
Two quantities are incommensurable when

have no common measure. The ratio of two such
31. Definition.
they
quantities
If A and
is still
called
is
an incommensurable
ratio.
B are two incommensurable
quantities, their ratio
expressed by -
To find the greatest common measure of two

The well-known arithmetical process may be ex-
32. Problem.
quantities.
tended to quantities of
Thus, suppose
kinds.
all
lines whose common measure

common measure can-
two straight
are
Their greatest
not be greater than the

Therefore
let
many times
CD be
applied to
^'
CD.
less line
AB as
'
EB
therefore to measure
Hence the
must
AB
it
AB
of
and CD,
and FD.
EB
of
CD
and
therefore let
EB cannot be
EB be applied
is
Therefore
and EB^ and consequently also

the greatest common measure of
let
FD
it is
be applied to
FD
EB
as
many
contained exactly twice in
without remainder; the process
we have found
ure.
measure the part
CD
times as possible: suppose
EB
also
Then, by the same reasoning, the greatest
common measure
EB
number of
a multiple of OD, and
times as possible to CD, suppose twice, with a
remainder FD.
that of
must
common measure
greater than the less line
many
is
measure of
common measure of AB and CD

common measure of CD and EB,
greatest
also be the greatest
This greatest
as
J"^
Any common
than CD.
less
AB and CD must also be a common

EB ; for it will be contained a whole
times in CD, and in AE^ which
EB.
'
CrT-pD
measure of
and
required.
is
as possible, suppose three
times, with a remainder
CD
AB and CD
is
then completed, and
as the required greatest
common meas-
68
The measure of each

then be as follows
lin-e,
referred to
FD as
the unit, will
we have
EB = 2FD,
= 2EB +FD = 4FD + FD = 6FD,

AB = SCD + EB= WFD + 2FD = 17FD.
CD
The proposed
lines are therefore numerically expressed, in
terms of the unit FD, by the numbers 17 and 5

..
ratio
IS
and their
17
-
5
33.
ties
When
the preceding process
applied to
is
and no remainder can be found which
is
two quantiexactly con-
tained in a preceding remainder, however far the process bo
contmued, the two quantities have no

is,
common measure
that
they are incommensurable, and their ratio cannot be exactly
expressed by any number, whole or fractional.

34.
As
the student often has difficulty in realizing the
an incommensurable
possibility of
two
lines are
small that
it
given
will
it
ratio,
and imagines that
if
must be possible to take a divisor so
go exactly into each of them,
it
seems
worth while to consider at some length an important example,
namely, the ratio of the diagonal of a square to one of
the sides.
Let the method of (32) be applied

to finding the common measure of the
and a
diagonal
side
of the
square
ABCD.
AO
i.e.,
18
than
clearly less than twice
AB
AB\ equal
to
-^
BC.
AB.
reduced to finding a
equal, CB.
Lay
off
Our problem
AB
on
J. (7
is
now
common measure
of
B'C and AB,
or
its
BOOK
69
II.
Erect at B' a perpendicular B'A' to AC.
A'B
Book
A'B\ B'C, and
we
CB\ B'G goes into BC twice, with a
remainder B"A'^ by which we must proceed to divide B'C.
But A' B'C is half a square, precisely similar to ABC^ and in
are
lay off
all
CB"
equal
(y.
Exercise 23,
If,
then,
equal to
performing the division of B'C, or
we
I.).
its equal,
A'B'^
by A'B"^
are merely repeating, on a smaller scale, the process just
BC
performed in dividing
another repetition, on a
and we
nitely,
shall
loy
still
B'C
This will lead us to
smaller scale, and so on indefi-
never reach an exact division.
diagonal and the side of a square have then no

divisor,
35.
The
common
and are absolutely incommensurable.
Although an incommensurable
ratio cannot be exactly
expressed by a number, a number can be found by the
lowing method that will approximately express
approximation
may
we
be made as close as
it,
fol-
and the
choose.
Suppose that - denotes the ratio of two incommensurable

quantities,
and B.
Let
be divided into n equal parts,
n being some number taken at pleasure

divided
by one of these
tain this divisor
parts.
m times,
is
we
please
For, if
by taking a
is
and then
is
let
be
found to con-
an approximation to the
value of - and an approximation that

as
with a remainder, which, of course,
than the divisor; then -
is less
Suppose
may
be made as close
sufficiently great value of n.
the magnitude of one of the parts into which
B is divided, we have
B = nXj while A^ mx and
< (m
Hence
^>ând<(^^+^)^:
nx
nx
-|-
l)x.
70
that
is,
Hes between ^ and ^ +

B^
n
n
and by increasing n we
may make
-,
1
n
which
the difference
is
between two numbers, one

small as
we
choose,
less
and one greater than -, as
and may thus make the
less
number n
as close an approximation to the value of
As
A
-
we
as
please.
a numerical example, take the ratio of the diagonal of
a square to one of the sides (34).
If the side
is
divided into
three equal parts, the diagonal will contain one of these parts
four times, with a remainder less than the divisor.
is
then
an approximation, though a very rough

the ratio in question, which must
one, to the value of
lie
between - and
o
If the side
is
-.
divided into five equal parts, the diagonal
will contain seven of them,
7
and -
is
a closer approximation.
141
1414
and
are
36. Definition.
ratios.
itios.
still
1000
100
closer approximations.
^^
proportion
is
an equation between two
A
-
is
equal to the ratio
Thus, if the ratio

']
A!
the
equation
^
4= B'
B
is
a proportion.
ratio of A' to 5',"
It
may
be read,
or, "J. is to
"
Eatio of
B as A' is to
B'r
to jB equals
BOOK
71
II.
A proportion is often written as follows

A B
where the notation
thus written,
means, and B'
the
first
is
terms,
When
B.
and A' the
called a fourth proportional to A,
B and A' ;
is
called the extremes^
and A\ of the
ratios are called the ante-
B and B\
cedents ; the second terms,
When
equivalent to
-i-
and B' are
the consequents.
the means are equal, as in the proportion
A:B = B:C,
B
the middle term
and
Cj
37.
and C
is
is
called a
called a
In cases where
incommensurable
3f/^^r^
it is
mean proportional between
proportional to
and
j5.
necessary to prove the equality of
ratios, it is usually best to
employ what
is
called the method of limits.

.
38. Definitions.
variable quantity, or simply a variable, is
a quantity whose value
is
supposed to change.
constant quantity, or simply a constant,
whose value
The value of a
which case
is
a quantity
is fixed.
variable
may
be changed at pleasure, in
an independent variable or it may be

changed by changing at pleasure the value of some other
called
it is
variable or variables on
is
which
it
depends, and in this case
it
called a dependent variable.

39. Definition. If,
variable on
which
it
by changing
depends,
in
some
we can make
specified
way
the
a dependent vari-
we please to some given constant, but

can never make the values of the variable and the constant
able approach as near as
exactly coincide
or, in
other words, if
we can make
the
dif-
ference between the variable and the constant as small as

please, but cannot
we
make it absolutely zero, the constant is called
the limit of the variable under the circumstances specified.

72
For example, consider the fraction
40.
where n
-,
is
sup-
n
posed to be an independent variable,
may be changed
-
is
arbitrarily
then a dependent
may
be
made
zero, but
We
Le.^
one whose value
and to any extent,
By
variable.
the fraction
increasing n at pleasure, _
to approach as near as
we
please to the value
can never be made exactly equal to zero.
say, therefore, that zero is the limit of -, as n is indefi-
n
nitely increased.
Again, the numerical approximation to the value of an
incommensurable ratio
(v.
35)
is
a dependent variable^ depend-
ing upon the arbitrarily chosen number,
n,
of equal parts
which the denominator of the
is
divided,
into
has been shown to
by an amount
differ
than
less
ratio
and
it
from the actual value of the ratio
-.
By
increasing n at pleasure
we
can make this difference as small as we please, but can never
make
it
found a
absolutely zero, for in that case
common measure
The
n
is
should have
of the incommensurable numerator
and denominator of the given
limit
we
ratio.
actual value of an incommensurable ratio
is,
then, the
approached by the approximation described in
(35), as
indefinitely increased.
41.
The
usefulness of the method of limits flows entirely
from the following fundamental theorem, the truth of which

is
almost axiomatic.
Theorem.
If two variables dependent upon the same variable
are so related that they are always equals no matter what value
is
given to the variable on which they depend^
pendent variable
approaches a
is
changed in some
limit, the
For, in considering
specified
and
if as the inde-
way, each
of them
two limits must be absolutely equal.
two variables that are and that always

BOOK
73
II.
remain equal to each other, we are dealing with a single varying value,
common value, and it

made to approach
their
i.e.,
is
single variable cannot be
please to
if it is
two
clear that a
as near as
diiferent constant values at the
same
we
time, as
once brought between the two values in question,
afterward, in approaching nearer to one,
it
must inevitably
recede from the other.
The student should study
this demonstration in connection
with that of Proposition XII., which follows.
42. In the
same
centre are in the
Let
circle,
or in equal circles, two angles at the
circle,
same
ratio as their intercepted arcs.
AOB and AGO be
two angles
at the centre of the
or at the centres of
equal circles;
AB
and AC,
their intercepted arcs
then
AOB ÂB
AOC AC'
1st.
is
same
Suppose the arcs to have a
contained
mx and AC =
times in
nx,
AB
common
and n times
in
measure,
x,
which
A C Then AB =t
and
AB
AC
rnx
nx
AB and AC, and draw radii

The angle AOB is thus divided
to the points of division.
into m parts, and the angle AOC into n parts, all of which
Apply the measure x
are equal,
to the arcs
by Proposition
III.,
smaller angles y ; then JLO^
AOB
AOC
Therefore
or
(v.
36)
Corollary.
Call
rny
ny
n'
A^
= ^,
AOC AC'
AOB AOC =z AB
:
any one of these
= my and AOC == ny, and
AC.
74
2d. If the arcs are incommensurable, suppose the arc
to be divided into
any
number,
arbitrarily chosen
w,
AG
of equal
parts, and let one of the parts
be applied as
many
possible to the arc
be the
last
times as
AB
let
B'
point of division,
and draw the radius OB'.
By construction, the
and
AG
arcs
AB'
are commensurable.
Therefore,
AOB'
AOG
^ A^
AG'
now, we change n the number of parts into which
If,
is
divided,
AOB'
AOG
""^
AB' and AOB' will

AOB'
AB' .||
By
AG
^^^^ '^"^^'-
AOG
^^^
AB'
AG
n.
we can make each

divided as small as we
AC
is
and consequently the remainder B'B, which
is
please,
necessarily
made zero, for

incommensurable, by hypothesis.
It cannot, however, be
AG
are
have
AB for
its limitj
and
A OB'
will
have
A OB
Hence
-j^^
IS
the limit of
-j^,
and
is the limit of 41?',
41
AG
AG
is
we
the arcs
AB
AB'
will
It is clear, then, that if n is indefinitely increased,
as n
of the
than one of these parts, can be made as small as
please.
and
..
"'' '^'^ ^""^-
increasing n at pleasure
equal parts into which
less
AG
change, and consequently
depending upon the same variable,
bles
by the proof above,
for its limit
BOOK
As
the two variables
A OB'
and
are always equal, no matter
approaches a limit as n
is
AB'
both depending upon
Aiy
-4.C/0
n,
75
II.
what the value of
w,
and each
indefinitely increased, the
limits in question are absolutely equal (41).
two
Hence
AOB ÂB
AOG AG'
PROPOSITION XIII.THEOREM.
43.
The numerical measure of an angle at the centre of a

same as the numerical measure of its intercepted arc^
circle is the
if the
adopted unit of angle
the angle at the centre which
is
intercepts the adopted unit of arc.
AOB
and AB
Let
0,
be an angle at the centre

intercepted arc.
its
-10(7 be the angle which
the unit of angle, and

arc
AC
adopted as
let its
intercepted
he the arc which
the unit of
By
arc.
Let
is
is
adopted as
Proposition XII.,
we have
AOB ÂB
AOO AC'
But the
AOB
first
of these ratios
referred to the unit
measure of the arc

with the adopted
AOB is the
same
44. Scholium
tion, is usually
t>y
I.
is
the measure (28) of the angle
AOC;
and the second
ratio is the
the unit AC.
Therefore,
J.J5 referred to
units, the
numerical measure of the angle
as that of the arc
AB.
This theorem, being of frequent applica-
more
briefly,
though
less accurately,
saying that an angle at the centre
is
expressed
measured by
its inter-
76
In this conventional statement of the theorem,
cepted arc.
the condition that the adopted units of angle and arc cor-
respond to each other
measured by"
is
understood
is
used for
"
and the expression
" is
has the same numerical measure
as."
45.
Scholium
II.
The right angle
simple unit of angle
is,
"by its nature, the
most
nevertheless custom has sanctioned a
different unit.
The
unit of angle generally adopted
is
an angle equal to
part of a right angle, called a degree, and denoted
symbol
The corresponding
quadrant
(10),
and
is
A right angle and

by
90.
Two
expressed
unit of arc
is
by the
part of a
^^^
also called a degree.
a quadrant are therefore both expressed
right angles and a semi-circumference are both
by
180.
Four right angles and a whole circum-
ference are both expressed
The degree
by
360.
(either of angle or arc)
minutes and seconds, denoted
subdivided into
is
by the symbols and " a minute

'
being -^ part of a degree, and a second being -^ part of a

minute.
Fractional parts of a degree less than one second
by decimal
are expressed
An
angle, or
cally expressed
an
parts of a second.
of any magnitude
arc,
by the
unit
degree and
is,
then, numerisubdivisions.
its
Thus, for example, an angle equal to ^ of a right angle, as

well as
its
intercepted arc, will be expressed
by
12 51'
25''.714
46. Definition.
(that
is,
When
is,
the
the
sum of two
180), each
16).
When
sum of two
arcs
is
a quadrant
90), each is called the complement of the other.
is
arcs
is
a semi-circumference (that
called the supplement of the other.
See
(I.,
BOOK
47. Definitions.
An
77
II.
inscribed angle is
one whose vertex
is
on the circumference and whose sides are

chords
as
BA C.
In general, any rectilinear
ABCj
when
figure,
as
is
said to be inscribed in a circle
its
angular points are on the circum*
ference; and the circle
then said to be
is
circumscribed about the figure.
An
is
angle
said to be inscribed in a segment
is
in the arc of the segment, and
its sides
its
vertex
pass through the
Thus, the angle
extremities of the subtending chord.

is
when
BAG
BAG.
inscribed in the segment
48.
An
inscribed angle
measured by one-half
is
its
intercepted
arc.
There
may
be three cases
Let one of the
1st.
sides
AB of
the inscribed angle
BAG
be a diameter; then the measure of the

angle
BAG
is
one-half the arc BG.
Then,
AOG
being an isosceles triangle, the angles
OAG
For,
and
draw the radius OG.
OGA
are equal
The angle BOG, an

triangle
AOG,
interior angles
ollary),
gle
is
(I.,
Proposition YIII.).
exterior angle of the
equal to the
OAG
OGA
and
sum
(I.,
of the
Proposition XXYI., Cor-
and therefore double either of them.
BOG,
at the centre,
therefore the angle
is
OAG
is
But the
measured by the arc
BG
an-
(44)
measured by one-half the arc
BG.
7*
78
Let the centre of the
2d.
angle
BAG
circle fall
within the inscribed
then the measure of the angle
BAC
is
one-half
of the arc BC.

For,
draw the diameter AD.
ure of the angle

one-half the arc
GAD
the angle
The meas-
BAB by the first case,

BD and the measure of
is,
sum of the
sum
therefore the measure of the
BAD
angles
of the arcs
BAG
3d.
is
GAD is
BD and GD
and
one-half the
;
that
is,
the measure of the angle
Let the centre of the
angle
BAG
BAG
is
For,
GD
one-half the arc
is
circle fall
without the inscribed
then the measure of the angle
ure of the angle

one-half the arc
GAD
the angle
The meas-
BAD by the first case,

BD and the measure of
is,
is
one-half the arc
GD ;
therefore the measure of the difference of
BAD
the angles
and
difference of the arcs
the angle
BAG
is
49. Corollary.
semicircle is
GAD
BD
is
and
c D
one-half the
GD
that
is,
the measure of
An
angle inscribed in a
a right angle.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
The
opposite angles of
are supplements of each other.
an
inscribed quadrilateral
BOOK
79
II.
An
50.
angle formed hy a tangent
and a chord
is
measured
by one-half the intercepted arc.
BAC
Let the angle
AB
the tangent
then
it is
angle
and the chord AC;
measured by one-half the
intercepted arc
For,
be formed by
AMC.
BAD, being a right
osition IX.), is
the semi-circumference
ured by one-half the
which
is
The
angle (Prop-
AMJD ; and the angle CAD is measarc CD; therefore the angle BAC,
the difference of the angles
measured by one-half the difference of

is,
BAD
and CAD,
AMD and
CD ;
is
that
by one-half the arc AMC.

Also, the angle
cepted arc
ANC.
B'AC
For,
is
it is

the
sum of
is
of the semi-circumference
AND and
the arc
ANC.
EXERCISE.
Prove Proposition XY. by the aid of

this figure,
ular to
OE
being a radius perpendic-
A C.
Suggestion.
Complements of the same
angle are equal.
inter-
B'AD
measured by one-half the sum
and the angle CAD, and

one-half the arc
the right angle
CD ;
that
is,
by
80
PROPOSITION XVI. THEOREM.
An
51.
angle formed by two chords^ intersecting within the
measured by one-half the sum of the arcs
circumference^
is
cepted between
its sides
and between
AEC be
Let the angle
the sides of its vertical angle.
formed by the chords AB, CD,
tersecting within the circumference

will
AG
of the arcs
tween the
sum
and BD^ intercepted
sides of
its vertical
angle
AEG
and the
in-
then
be measured by one-half the
it
inter-
be-
sides of
BED,
AEG is equal
EDA and EAD, and these angles
are measured by one-half of AG and one-half of BD, respectively therefore the angle AEG is measured by one-half
the sum of the arcs AG and BD.
For, join
AD.
sum
to the
The angle
of the angles
EXERCISE.
Prove Proposition XYI. by the aid of
DF being
figure,
draT\jn parallel to
AB.
this
(v.
Proposition XI.)
52.
An
angle formed by two secants, intersecting without the
circumference,
is
difference of the inter-
cepted arcs.
BA G be formed by the seAB and AG; then will it be measured

one-half the difference of the arcs BG
Let the angle

cants
by
and DE.
For, join
to the
sum
GD.
BDG is equal
DAG and AGD
The angle
of the angles
therefore the angle
is
equal to the
differ-
BOOK
ence of the angles
BDC
and ACD.
BG
measured by, one-half of

tively; hence. the angle
BG
ence of
81
II.
is
But these angles are
and one-half of JDE respec-
differ-
aad DB,
EXERCISE.
Prove Proposition XYII. by the aid of Proposition XI.,
drawing a suitable
figure.
PROPOSITION XVIII.-THEOEEM.
An
53.
angle formed by a tangent
and a
secant
is
measured
by half the difference of the intercepted arcs.
For the angle
ABD, by
I.,
Corollary.
54.
tangents
is
is
equal to
Proposition
An
BDG
XXYI.,
minus
Corollary.
angle formed by two
measured by half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.
EXERCISE.
1.
Prove Proposition XYIII. and
its
Corollary
by the
aid
of Proposition XI.
2.
Theorem.
circles,
If through
the point of contact of two tangent
two secants are drawn, the
chords joining the points where the

secants cut the circles are parallel.
FED = CEa,
DBE = GAE.
Suggestion.
.
Consider, also, the case
where
the given circles are internally

tangent.
82
PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
Heretofore our figures have been assumed to be constructed
under certain conditions, although methods of constructing
them have not been
Indeed, the precise construction
given.
of the figures was not necessary, inasmuch as they were only

required as aids in following the demonstration of principles.
We now proceed,
first,
to apply these principles in the solu-
tion of the simple problems necessary for the construction
of the plane figures already treated
and then to apply
of,
more complex
these simple problems in the solution of
ones.
All the constructions of elementary geometry are effected

solely
by the
straight line
and the circumference, these being
the only lines treated of in the elements
by the
practically drawrij or described,
and these
lines are
aid of the ruler
compasses, with the use of which the student
is
and
supposed to
be familiar.
PROPOSITION XIX.PROBLEM.
To
65.
bisect
a given straight
line.
AB be the given straight Kne.

"With the points A and B as centres,
Let
greater than the half of

intersecting in the
AB,
two points
and E.
Through these points draw the straight

DJS, which bisects
J)
and
B being
AB
at
XYIII.).
its
at the point G.
line
For,
-iB
B, the straight line
AB
and with a radius
describe arcs
middle
DE
is
point
and
perpendicular to
(I.,
Proposition
"jk"
BOOK
83
II.
PROPOSITION XX.PROBLEM.
At a given point
56.
dicular to that
a given straight
in
line, to erect
a perpen-
line.
AB be the given line and G the given
Let
.^
..^
point.
Take two
points,
and B,
and at equal distances from

and
E as centres, and a radius
DCov
C.
With
J"d
Another
(I.,
Fb
greater than
Then
GEj describe two arcs intersecting in F.
the required perpendicular

57.
in the line
CF
is
Proposition XYIII.).
Take any point
solution.
O, without the given line, as a centre.
and with a radius equal to the distance

from
^y
to C, describe a circumference
G and
intersecting J.jB in
point D.
Draw
the diameter
Then
and join EG.
EGD^
for the angle
**
in a second
EG will
-''
DOE^
be the required perpendicular
inscribed in a semicircle,
is
a right angle
(Proposition XIY., Corollary).
This construction
pecially
when
of the given
is
often preferable to the preceding, es-
the given point
line,
and
it is
through that extremity.

chosen as not to
lie
is at,
or near, one extremity
not convenient to produce the line
The point O must evidently be
in the required perpendicular.
,t7l?I?B
so

84
PROPOSITION XXI.PROBLEM.
From a
58.
fall
given point without
a perpendicular
straight line, to
to that line.
be the given line and
the
given point.
With C as a
and with a radius
centre,
an arc
sufficiently great, describe
AB
tersecting
and
lei
AB
Let
a given
in
as centres,
"-^^
r^rr-
in-
With
and E.
and a radius greater
than the half of DE^ describe two arcs intersecting in F.
The
CF
line
is
the required perpendicular
(I.,
Proposition
XYIII.).
59. Another solution.
and with the radius
centre,
an arc
With
GDE
AB
in
and a radius equal

describe an arc in-
CE is the
li)
CDE
The
in E.
required perpendicular.
the point I)
drawn
is
line
For,
to this point
is
perpendicular to the chord
PROPOSITION XXII.-PROBLEM.
60. To bisect a given arc or a given angle.
Ist.
Let
in (55).
AB be
its
/%
the middle of the arc CJDE^ and the radius
(Proposition YI.).
Bisect
AB as a
D.
DC,
tersecting the arc
in the line
0(7, describe
intersecting
i) as a centre,
to the distance
OD
With any point
a given arc.
chord
AB
by a
perpendicular, as
This perpendicular also bisects the
arc (Proposition YI.).
CE
BOOK
2d.
Let
BAC
as a centre,
scribe
8)
II.
With
be a given angle.
and with any
an arc intersecting the
radius, de-
angle in
centres,
and with equal
With
and E,
sides of the
and
radii,
as
describe
The straight line

DE^ and consequently
arcs intersecting in F.
AF
bisects the arc
also
the angle
BAG,
61. Scholium.
By
the same construction, each of the halves
of an arc, or an angle,
sive bisections,
16, 32, etc.,
an
may be
arc, or
bisected
and
may
an angle,
thus,
by
succes-
be divided into
4, 8,
equal parts.
PROPOSITION XXIII. PROBLEM.

62.
At a given point
in
a given straight
line, to
an
construct
angle equal to a given angle.
Let
J.
be the given point in the straight
AB, and the given angle.

With
as a centre, and with any
line
describe an arc MJS^ terminated
of the angle.
With
the same radius,

nite arc
BC.
With
by the
as a centre,
OM,
radius,
sides
and with
describe an indefi-
^ as
a centre, and with
a radius equal to the chord of MJ^, describe
an arc intersecting the
AI).
Then the angle
BAD
the chords of the arcs
indefinite arc
is
BC in
D.
equal to the angle 0.
MN and
BD
Join
For
are equal; therefore
these arcs are equal, and consequently also the angles
and A.
86
PROPOSITION XXIV.PROBLEM.
Through a given
63.
draw a
point, to
parallel to a given
straight line.
Let
be the given point, and JBC
the given
line.
,\
From any
point
straight line
BAD
BO
in
draw the
At
through A.
a/.
jp
the
^
'
by the preceding problem,
point A,
construct the angle
Then
ABC.
angle
XXIY., Corollary
DAE equal to the

AB is parallel to BC
Proposition
(I.,
L).
64, Scholium. This problem
solved
is,
in practice,
more accurately
by the aid of a triangle, conwood or metal. This
structed of
triangle has one right angle,
acute angles are usually

to 30
Let
BG
and
its
60.
be the given point, and
the given
angle,
and
made equal
line.
Place the
BJFD, with one of
tri-
its sides
in coincidence with the given line
BO.
Then
the side
place the straight edge of a ruler,
EF
fixed, slide the triangle
along
the edge
ED of
the triangle
then
against
ruler firmly
ED
EAD along
edge until the side
its
passes through the given point A.
will be parallel to
MN,
Now, keeping the
of the triangle.
Trace the
it is
line
evident that this line
BG.
EXERCISE.
Prohlem.
third, (v.
ollary I.)
I.,
Two
angles of a triangle being given, to find the
Proposition
XXYI., and
I.,
Proposition
III.,
Cor-
BOOK
^7
II.
PROPOSITION XXV.PROBLEM.
Two
65.
sides of
triangle
and
their included angle being
given, to construct the triangle.
y
Let
and
be the given
sides,
and
&
Xj^
their included angle.
Draw an
indefinite
construct the angle
AE
take
AB
= c;
AC =
join
b,
EAF=Â. On
data,
AF take
ABC is
and on
Then
BC.
the triangle required
With the
AE, and
line
two
for it
formed with the data.
and the included angle, only one
sides
triangle can be constructed
is
that
is,
all triangles
constructed
with these data are equal, and thus only repetitions of the
same triangle
(I.,
Proposition YL).
66. Scholium. It is evident that one triangle is

sible,
and
whatever
may be
always pos-
the magnitude of the proposed sides
their included angle.
PROPOSITION
67.
One
side
XXVLPROBLEM.
and two angles of a
triangle being given, to
construct the triangle.
Two angles of the triangle being
given,
the third angle can be found; and

shall therefore
we
to the given side.
Let, then, c be the given side,
the angles adjacent to
and
it.
AB = c at J. make an angle BAD = A, and

B an angle ABE = B. The lines AD and BE intersecting
we have ABC as the required triangle.
Draw
in
^^^^
always have given the
two angles adjacent
at
^^
a line
(7,
With
these data but one triangle can be constructed
Proposition YIL).
(I.,
88
68. Scholium. If the
two right
to or greater than
that
sible ;
is,
two given angles are together equal

angles, the
problem
is
impos-
no triangle can be constructed with the data
for the lines AD and BG will not intersect on

AB on which the angles have been constructed.
that side of
PROPOSITION XXVII.PROBLEM.
The
69.
a triangle being given,
three sides of
to construct the
triangle,
a
Let
a, bj
and
be the three given
Draw BC = a; with
(7
sides.
6.
as a centre and
a radius equal to b describe an arc
with
a centre and a radius equal to c de-
.B as
scribe a second arc intersecting the first
in A.
Then
With
ABC is the required triangle.
these data but one triangle can be constructed
(I.,
Proposition IX.).
The problem
70. Scholium.
given sides
two
(I.,
is
impossible
when one of
the
equal to or greater than the sum of the other
is
Axiom
I.).
PROPOSITION XXVIII.PROBLEM.
7L Two
sides of
them being given,
and
triangle
the angle opposite to one of
to construct the triangle.
i
1st.
acute,
When
the given angle
and the given
site to it in
AB = c;
its
with
is less
DAE = A.
sides, as
J5
r/
than
c.
Construct an angle
In one of
is
side a, oppo-
the triangle,
the other sjiven side
VwiXo
7
^,'
'^z,
AD, take
as a centre
and a radius equal to
a,
describe
BOOK
an arc which (since a <^
and
C",
on the same
ABC
either
formed with the data

There
data,
will,
when
c) will intersect
Join
side of A.
ABC"
or
2d.
AE
ABG^
m2i
much
so
is
less
from
than the side
c as to
B upon AE.
be
For then
a,
and the required triangle
(7,
right angled at C.
the given angle
either acute, right, or obtuse,
is
and
greater
it is
than the other given side
c.
The same construction being

made as in the first case, the arc
described with
Then
is
solutions.
a centre, and with the radius
-S as
single point,
the side a opposite to
will intersect
Then
and BG",
and the problem has two
the side a
When
BC
C"
however, be but one solution, even with these
the arc described from
will be
AE in two points,
the required triangle, since each
is
just equal to the perpendicular
will touch
89
II.
j5
and with a radius equal to
as a centre,
AE in only one point,
ABC will be the
^^^
"^(""a'
C,
on the same
triangle required,
and
a,
side of A.
will be the only-
possible triangle with the data.
The second point of
intersection, C", will fall in
duced, and the triangle
ABC thus
formed
EA
pro-
will not contain
the given angle.

72. Scholium.
angle
is
The problem
is
impossible
when
the given
acute and the proposed side opposite to
B upon AE;
B will not intersect AE.
than the perpendicular from

described from
The problem
is
also impossible
when
it is less
for then the arc
the given angle
is
right, or obtuse, if the given side opposite to the angle is less
than the other given side
B would
for either the arc described
not intersect AEj or
produced through A.
it
would
intersect
it
only
from
when

90
EXERCISE.
Problem. The adjacent
sides of
a parallelogram and
their
included angle being given, to construct the parallelogram.
PROPOSITION XXIX.PROBLEM.
73.
To find
a given circumference, or of a given
the centre of
arc.
Take any three
points, A, B,
and
(7,
in
the given circumference or arc, and join
The perpen-
them by chords AB, BC.
diculars erected at the middle points of
these chords will intersect in the required

centre (Proposition YI., Corollary
74.
centre
Scholium
is
I.
Only one
equidistant from
I.).
solution
and
(7,
is
possible
it
must
dicular erected at the middle point of
XYIII.), and since
it is
equidistant from
BC
A
lie
for, since
(I.,
Proposition
and B,
it
in the perpendicular erected at the middle point of
these perpendiculars can have but one point in

75.
the
in the perpen-
must
AB ;
lie
and
common.
Scholium IL The same construction serves to describe
a circumference which shall pass through three given points,

Aj B, C; or to circumscribe a circle about a given triangle,
ABC;
that
is,
to describe a circumference in
which the given
triangle shall be inscribed (47).

76. Scholium III.
points not in the

ference,
line
i.e,
It follows
same straight
from Scholium
1.
that three
line will determine
a circum-
through three points not in the same straight
one circumference, and only one, can be drawn.
Hence two circumferences cannot

two points;
for if they
intersect in
had three points
would coincide throughout.
in
more than
common they
BOOK
91
II.
PROPOSITION XXX.PROBLEM.
At a given point
77,
in
a given circumference^
to
draw a
tan-
gent to the circumference.
Let
be the given point in the given
circumference.
at
BG
draw
Draw
BAC
the radius OA^ and
OA
perpendicular to
will be the required tangent (Propo-
sition IX.).
If the centre of the circumference
may
is
first
be found by the
preceding problem, or
we may proceed
not given,
more
it
directly as follows
take two points,
and E^ equidistant from
A;
draw the
DE^ and through A draw BAC

parallel to BE.
Since A is the middle
point of the arc BE^ the radius drawn
chord
to
will
be perpendicular to
sequently also to
BG ;
BE (Proposition YI.), and con-
therefore jBC
is
a tangent at A,
PROPOSITION XXXI.PROBLEM.
78.
Through a given point without a given
tangent to the
Let
and
circle^ to
draw a
circle.
be the centre of the given
circle
P the given point.
Upon OP,
as a diameter, describe a cir-
cumference intersecting the circumference

of the given circle in two points,
Draw PA and PA\
tangent to the given

the radii
OA
and
A'.
both of which will be

circle.
For, drawing
and OA', the angles
OAP
and OA'P are right
92
angles (Proposition XIY., Corollary)
therefore
PA
and PA^
are tangents (Proposition IX.).
In practice, this problem
by placing the
solved
is
ruler through the given point

to the given circumference,
the tangent
by the
and tangent
and then tracing
straight edge.
of tangency
cise point
accurately-
straight edge of a
is
The
pre-
then determined
by drawing a perpendicular
to the tangent
from the centre.

This problem always admits of two solutions.
79. Scholium,
EXERCISE.
Problem.
common
given
To
to
two
circles.
Suggestion.
terior
draw a
tangent
For an
common
tangent, in
the larger circle

concentric
radius
is
ex-
circle
draw a
whose
the difference of the
radii of the given circles.
an
interior
common
about one of the
For
tangent,
circles
draw
a concentric circle whose radius
is
the
the given
sum
of the radii of
circles.
BOOK
93
II.
PROPOSITION XXXII.PROBLEM.
80.
To
inscribe
circle in
a given
triangle.
ABC be the given triangle. Bisect

by straight lines meetangles, as B and
Let
any two of
its
(7,
From
ing in 0.
the point
let fall per-
pendiculars OX), OE^ OF, upon the three

sides of the triangle
these perpendiculars
will be equal to each other
tion XIX.).
circle,
a radius
(I.,
Proposi-
Hence the circumference of
described with the centre 0, and
= OD, will
pass through the three points D, E, F,
will be tangent to the three sides of the triangle at these
points (Proposition IX.), and will therefore be inscribed in
the triangle.
EXERCISE.
Problem.
Upon
a given straight
line, to
which shall contain a given angle.

Suggestion.
line
AB
Through one end of the given
draw a
the given angle.
line
BC, making with
The two
lines will
it
be
one a chord and the other a tangent.
Hence the centre of the

found.
circle
can be
describe
a segment
EXERCISES ON BOOK
II.
THEOREMS.
1.
If two circumferences are tangent in-
and the radius of the larger is the

diameter of the smaller, then any chord of
the larger drawn from the point of contact
is bisected by the circumference of the
smaller {v. Proposition XIV., Corollary, and
ternally,
Proposition VI.).
2. If two equal chords intersect within a circle, the segments
of one are respectively equal to the segments of the other. What
is the corresponding theorem for the case where the chords meet
when produced?
3.
circumference described on the hypotenuse of a right triangle as a diameter passes through the vertex of the right angle.
(v. Proposition XIV., Corollary.)
4. The circles described on two sides of a triangle as diameters
intersect on the third side.
Suggestion, Drop a perpendicular from the opposite vertex upon
the third side.
5. The perpendiculars from the angles upon the opposite sides
of a triangle are the bisectors of the angles of the triangle formed
by joining the feet of the perpendiculars.
Suggestion. On the three sides of the given triangle as diameters describe circumferences, {v. Exercise 3, Proposition XIV.,
and I., Proposition XXVI.).
6. If a circle is circumscribed about an equilateral triangle, the
perpendicular from its centre upon a side of the triangle is equal
to one-half of the radius.
94
BOOK
7.
The
portions of
any
95
II.
straight line
which
are intercepted between the circumferences

of two concentric circles are equal.
8.
Two
circles are
tangent internally
AB of the larger circle

touches the smaller at C; prove that PC
at P,
and a chord
bisects the angle
BAP,
sition
APB.
= BCP, BPQ =
PropoBCPBAP = APC
Suggestion.
CPQ
(I.,
XXVI.,
Corollary).
ABC
is formed by the intersection of three

9. If a triangle
tangents to a circumference, two of
which, A3f and AN, are fixed, while
the third, BC, touches the circumference at a variable point P, prove that
is
the perimeter of the triangle
-\- AN, or
constant, and equal to
(Proposition X.).
2
Also, prove that the angle
0(7 is
AM
AN
^^C
constant.
10. If through one of the points of intersection of two circumferences a diameter of each circle is drawn, the straight line
which joins the extremities of these diameters passes through the
other point of intersection, and is parallel to the line joining the
centres.
Suggestion.
centres,
Book
(v.
Draw the common chord and the line joining the

Proposition VI., Corollary II., and Exercise 29,
I.)
11. The difference between the hypotenuse of a right triangle and the
sum of the other two sides is equal to
the diameter 'of the inscribed circle.
96
12.
A circle
can be entirely sur-
rounded by six circles having the

same radius with it.
13. The bisectors of the vertical angles of all triangles having

the same base and equal vertical angles have a point in common.
Suggestion, The triangles may all be inscribed in the same
circle.
14.
sides,
If the hypotenuse of a right triangle is double one of the

the acute angles of the triangle are 30 and 60 respectively.
15. If,
from a point whose distance from the centre of a given
equal to a diameter, tangents are drawn to the

they will make with each other an angle of 60.
circle is
circle,
LOCI.
16.
Find the locus of the centre of a circumference which passes

(v. I., Proposition XVIII.)
through two given points,
17. Find the locus of the centre of a circumference which

tangent to two given straight lines, {v. I., Proposition XIX.)
is
18. Find the locus of the centre of a circumference which is

tangent to a given straight line at a given point of that line, or
to a given circumference at a given point of that circumference.
19. Find the locus of the centre of a circumference passing

through a given point and having a given radius.
20. Find the locus of the centre of a circumference tangent to

a given straight line and having a given radius.
21.
Find the locus of the centre of a circumference of given
radius, tangent externally or internally to a given circumference.
BOOK
97
II.
straight line MN, of given length,

placed with its extremities on two
given perpendicular lines ^^, CD; find
(Exercise
the locus of its middle point
22.
is
Book
31,
I.).
23.
straight line of given length is inscribed in a given circle;
find the locus of its middle point, {v. Proposition VII.)
24.
straight line is drawn through a
given point A^ intersecting a given circumference in
and C; find the locus of the
middle point, P, of the intercepted chord
BC.
Note the special case in which the point
A is on the given circumference.
25.
From any
point
in a given circumference, a straight line

; find
MN
of fixed length is drawn parallel to a given line

the locus of the extremity P, {v. I., Proposition XXX.)
-4P
From one extremity -4 of a fixed

ABy any chord AC is drawn,
and at (7 a tangent CD. From P, a per26.
diameter
BD to
the tangent is drawn,

Find the locus of P.
v. I.,
Suggestion. (Draw radius OC.
Exercise 28.)
pendicular
meeting
AC in
P,
BC
27. The base

of a triangle is given, and
the medial line BE, from jB, is of a given
length. Find the locus of the vertex A.
Suggestion. Draw
parallel to EB. Since
BO=BC, O is a fixed point; and since
2BEy OA is a constant distance.
AO
AO
98
PROBLEMS.
The most useful general precept that can be given, to aid the
student in his search for the solution of a problem, is the following Suppose the problem solved, and construct a figure accordingly study the properties of this figure, drawing auxiliary lines
when necessary, and endeavor to discover the dependence of the
problem upon previously solved problems. This is an analysis
of the problem. The reverse process, or synthesis^ then furnishes
a construction of the problem. In the analysis, the student's ingenuity will be exercised especially in drawing useful auxiliary
lines in the synthesis, he will often find room for invention in
combining in the most simple form the several steps suggested by
the analysis.
The analysis frequently leads to the solution of a problem by
the intersection of loci. The solution may turn upon the determination of the position of a particular point. By one condition
of the problem it may appear that this required point is necessarily one of the points of a certain line this line is a locus of
the point satisfying that condition.
second condition of the
problem may furnish a second locus of the point and the point
is then fully determined, being the intersection of the two loci.
Some of the following problems are accompanied by an analysis
to illustrate the process.
28. To determine a point whose distances from two given inter:
secting straight lines, AB^

A^B\ are given.
Analysis. The locus of
all
....
the points which are at
a given distance from
AB
two parallels to
ABy CE, and DF, each at
the given distance from
AB, The locus of all the
consists of
A^B^ consists of two parallels,

CÊ^ and D^F^^ each at the given distance from A^B\ The required point must be in both loci, and therefore in their intersection. There are in this case four intersections of the loci, and
points at a given distance from
the problem has four solutions.

Construction. At any point of AB, as A, erect a perpendicular
CD, and make
the given distance from
; through
O and 2) draw parallels to AB. In the same manner, draw parallels to A^B^ at the given distance A^C
A'D\ The intersec-
AC = AD =
AB
BOOK
99
II.
tion of the four parallels determines the four points P^, Pj? P^^ ^4
each of which satisfies the conditions.
E
29.
Given two perpendiculars,
AB and CD,
the right angles at O, and the vertex of the

opposite angle of the square shall lie on a
given straight line EF, (Two solutions.)
intersecting in O, to construct a square, one

of whose angles shall coincide with one of
\*
^^
/'o
'\ \
y*.
30. In a given straight line, to find a point equally distant from

two given points without the line.
31. To construct a square, given its diagonal.
32. Through a given point P within a given angle, to draw a
straight line, terminated by the sides of the anglfe, which shall
be bisected at P.
33.
{v.
Exercise
intersection, to
28,
Book
I.)
which caimot be produced to

draw a third which would pass through
Given two straight
lines
their
their
and bisect their contained angle.

Suggestion. Find two points equidistant from the two lines.
(v. I., Proposition XIX.)
34. Given the middle point of a chord in a given circle, to draw
intersection
the chord.
36.
To draw a tangent
to a given circle
which
shall be parallel
to a given straight line.

36. To draw a tangent to a given circle, such that its segment
intercepted between the point of contact and a given straight
line shall have a given length.
Suggestion. The tangent, the radius drawn to the point of contact, and a line drawn from the centre to the end of the tangent
form a right triangle, two of whose sides are known.
simple
construction gives the hypotenuse.
In general there are four solutions. Show when there will be
but two also, when no solution is possible.
37. Through a given point within or without a given circle, to
draw a straight line, intersecting the circumference, so that the
intercepted chord shall have a given length. (Two solutions.)
{v.
Exercise 23 and Section

Construct an angle of
38.
one of
45,
and one
of 135.
78.)
60,
one of
120,
one of 30, one of 150,
100
39. Construct a triangle, given the base, the angle opposite to

the base, and the altitude.
Analysis. Suppose
to be the res^^
quired triangle. The side
being fixed ^ 7^^.
^\\ ^
in position and magnitude, the vertex A is
//
^X;
k.^^
'^-vV
to be determined. One locus of A is an
^
^
arc of a segment, described upon AB, containing the given angle. Another locus
drawn parallel to ^(7, at a distance
of J. is a straight line
from it equal to the given altitude. Hence the position of A will
be found by the intersection of these two loci, both of which are
BAC
BC
MN
readily constructed.
Limitation. If the given altitude were greater than the perpendicular distance from the middle of
to the arc BAC, the arc
would not intersect the line MN, and there would be no solution
^C
possible.
The
lem is
limits of the data within which the solution of

possible should always be determined.
any prob-
Construct a triangle, given the base, the medial line to the

to the base.
41. With a given radius, describe a circumference, 1st, tangent
to two given straight lines 2d, tangent to a given straight line
and to a given circumference 3d, tangent to two given circumferences 4th, passing through a given point and tangent to a
given straight line 5th, passing through a given point and tangent to a given circumference 6th, having its centre on a given
straight line, or a given circumference, and tangent to a given
straight line, or to a given circumference. (Exercises 19, 20, 21.)
42. Describe a circumference, 1st, tangent to two given straight
lines, and touching one of them at a given point (Exercises 17,
18) 2d, tangent to a given circumference at a given point and
tangent to a given straight line 3d, tangent to a given straight
line at a given point and tangent to a given circumference (Exercise 18)
4th, passing through a given point and tangent to a
given straight line at a given point 5th, passing through a given
point and tangent to a given circumference at a given point.
43. Draw a straight line equally distant from three given points.
When will there be but three solutions, and when an indefinite
40.
base,
and the angle opposite
number
of solutions ?
Inscribe a straight line of given length between
circumferences, and parallel to a given straight line.
44.
cise 25.)
two given
{v.
Exer-
BOOK
III.
PROPORTIONAL LINES. SIMILAR FIGURES.

THEORY OF PROPORTION.
One quantity
Definition.
1.
another when
said to be proportional to
and
JB,
of the
equal to the ratio of the two corresponding values
first, is
A' and
is
the ratio of any two values,
5',
proportion
of the second
(II.,
so that the four values
form the
36)
A:B=A':B%
or
B''
This definition presupposes two quantities, each of which
can have various values, so related to each other that each
An
value of one corresponds to a value of the other.
exam-
ple occurs in the case of an angle at the centre of a circle
and
its
The angle may
intercepted arc.
also the arc
and with
vary,
it
but to each value of the angle there corresponds
a certain value of the arc.
It
tion XII.) that the ratio of
has been proved
(II.,
Proposi-
any two values of the angle
is
equal to the ratio of the two corresponding values of the

arc
and, in accordance with the definition just given, this
proposition would be briefly expressed as follows

at the centre of a circle
2. Definition.
tional to
the
proportional to
One quantity
another
first, is
is
when
is
its
"
The angle
intercepted arc."
said to be reciprocally propor-
the ratio of two values,
and B^ of
equal to the reciprocal of the ratio of the two

*
101
102
corresponding values, A' and
B\ of
the second, so that the
four values form the proportion
A\B=B':A\
or
A^B^ ^.
B
For example,
given, so that
if
_^
A'
'
the product
^
B''
of two numbers,
we have
may
each have an indefinite number of values,
but as X increases y diminishes.

values of
of
?/,
rr,
y, is
xy=p,
then X and y
x and
now,
If,
and
are two
while A' and B' are the two corresponding values
we must have
A XA' = p,
BX
B'
= p,
whence, by dividing one of these equations by the other,
B^ B'~
'
and therefore
A
B
_ J_ ^ ^'
A^
A"
B'
that
is,
two numbers whose product
is
constant are reciprocally
proportional.
3.
Let the quantities
in each of the couplets of the pro-
portion
j = ,ovA:B = A':B',
be measured by a unit of their
own
kind,
[1]
and thus expressed
by numbers
ures of
(II.,
and B,
28)
a'
BOOK
III.
a and
let
and
h'
and the proportion
A!.
6'
[1]
denote the numerical meas-
those of A' and B'
Aâ
B
103
may
then
(II.,
29)
=9l
B'
b"
oe replaced
by the numerical
pro-
portion
4.
Conversely, if the numerical measures
quantities, A^
J5,
A\
a, 6, a', h\
B', are in proportion, these quantities
themselves are in proportion, provided that

quantities of the
of four
same kind, and
J.'
and
are
and B' are quantities of
the same kind (though not necessarily of the same kind as
and B)
that
is,
if
we have
a\h
we may, under
a'
:h\
these conditions, infer the proportion
A:B = A'
5.
:B'.
Let us now consider the numerical proportion
a\h
Writing
it
in the
a'
:h\
form
and multiplying both members of
this equality
by
hh\
we
obtain
ah'
whence the theorem
a'b,
the product of the extremes of
icaT) proportion is equal to the
4iitt.
product of the means.
a (numer-
104
Corollary. If the
Cj
means are
we have
mean proportional
b^
ac,
equal, as in the proportion
whence
= j/ac;
36) between two numbers
(II.,
that
is,
is
equal to the
is
equal to the
square root of their product.

6.
Conversely,
product of two
if the
product of two numbers
two
others, either
the other two the means, of
ab'
then, dividing
by
^
b
Corollary.
we
bb',
may
obtain
= ^'ora:b
= a':b\
b
will
following proportions
make
may
Thus, any one of the
be inferred from the given equal-
a'b
=a'
:a'=b
:a=b'
a
b
:b\
:6',
:a'.
b :b'
=a
:a',
=b
'.a, etc.
'.
a'
Also, any one of these proportions
may be
inferred from
other.
Definitions.
When we
have given the proportion
a-.b
and
in
the product of the extremes
a :b
7.
and
we have given
a^bj
equal to the product of the means.
the extremes,
For, if
The terms of a proportion may be written
any order which
ity ab'
made
be
a proportion.
a' :b',
infer the proportion
a:
the second proportion
When we
is
a'
=b :,
said to be deduced by alternation.
infer the proportion

b
this proportion is said to be
b'
'.
a',
deduced by
inversion.
any
BOOK
8.
It
105
III.
important to observe that
is
when we speak of the
products of the extremes and means of a proportion,

implied that at least two of the terms are numbers.
it is
If,
for
example, the terms of the proportion
A:B=A': B'
are
all
lines^
products
^ X
^'j
^X
A\
since in a product the multiplier
must be a number.
at least
But
no meaning can be directly attached to the
if
we have
a proportion such as
A B=m
\
in
which
n^
and n are numbers, while
quantities of the
nA
and
same kind, then we may
are
any two
infer the equality
= mB.
Nevertheless,
we
the sake of brevity, often speak
shall, for
of the product of two
lineSj
meaning thereby
numbers which represent those
lines
the product of the
when they are measured hy a
common unit
9.
and
If
m any
and
are
any two quantities of the same kind,
number whole or
fractional,
mA
we
have, identically,
mB~ B'
that
is,
equimultiples of two quantities are in the
same
ratio as
the quantities themselves.
Similarly, if
we have
the proportion
A:B = A':B%
and
if
portions
and n are any two numbers, we can infer the pro-
mA mB =
mA nB =
:
nB\
mA' nB\
nA'
106
10.
portion -
A'
= B'
we
have,
by
be the
common
4,
and
the pro-
alternation,
A'
Let
we have given
Composition and Division. If
B''
value of these two ratios
then
= r,and|=r,
rA',
Adding the second equation
and
B ==
to the
rB\
first,
we have
+ B^KA'+B'),
A^B_
A_B_ ^
A'
B''
A' + B'
A
or
The proportions ^^|-,
= A, and ^,i|, = | are said to
be formed from the given proportion
A:B^=A':B\hj composition.
If
we
= rB' from A =
AB = B'),
subtract the equation
rA!^
we have
r(Âl
whence, as above,
A
A'
B Â
B'
and
A
A'
proportion
Definition.
B"
said to be
formed from the given
A B = A' B^hj division.

:
11.
B ^B
B'
two proportions which are
A"
continued proportion
is
a series of equal
ratios, as
A:B=zA' :B'=:A" B" =

:
A'"
B"'
etc.
BOOK
12.
Let
107
III.
common
denote the
value of the ratio in the
continued proportion of the preceding article
B
then
B"
B'
that
is,
let
B"'
we have
A"
A'=B'r,
A=::Br,
A"'
B'^r,
B'^'r, etc.,
and, adding these equations,
+ A''+ A'" + etc. = (B-{-B' + B" + B'" + etc.)
A-{.A'
r,
whence
^ + ^^+^"+^"^+etc. ^^ÂÂ^^^^^,
BJ^B'^B^'^ B"' + etc.
B B'
that
is,
the
proportion
antecedent
sum
of any number of the antecedents of a continued
is to
the
is to its
sum
of the corresponding consequents as
consequent.
In this theorem the quantities

quantities of the
If,
any
J.,
5,
(7,
etc.,
must
all
be
same kind.
we have an
instead of a continued proportion,
ordinary
proportion, the theorem just proved obviously holds good.

13.
If
we have any number

a
'.
a'-.h'
a"
then, writing
them
in the
6"
of proportions, as
=^
dj
'.
=
= c"
c'
d\
d'\ etc.
form
a!
h~
d'
h'~d"
a"
c^
c"
W~dr'
'
and multiplying these equations together, we have
or
that
hh'h''
...~ dd'd'\.:
aaW ...'.hh'h"
is,
if the
aa' a"
...
d'
= cdd'...:dd'd"...]
corresponding terms of two or more proportions
are multiplied together, the products are in proportion.
108
If the corresponding terms of the several proportions are

equal, that
is,
tiplication of
that
is,
if
ii
a z=
a'
= =
a", b
b'
V'^ etc.,
then the mul-
two or more proportions gives
four numbers are in
jprojportion^ like
powers of these
numbers are in proportion.
PEOPOETIONAL
LI:NÊS.
14.
parallel to the base of
a triangle divides the other two
sides proportionally.
Let
DE be a parallel to the base, BC, of the triangle ABC;
then
AB:AD=AC :AE.
1st.
Suppose the
lines J.J5,
common measure which
AB
times in
and n times
AD,
is
in
^
to
have
contained
AD.
Then
[S
^û'
Apply
i^
AB_m
AD
ô
^
this
measure to AB, and through
the points of division draw lines parallel to the base

the triangle
lines
with
I.
Therefore
all equal,
Hence the
equal, and, as
o^
then through the points of intersection of these
A G draw lines parallel
thus formed are
Book
BC
to
AB.
The small
triangles
by Propositions XXIX. and
m parts into which ACiQ divided
AE contains n of these parts,

AC ^m
AE n'
AB ^ AC
AD AE
YII.,
are all
BOOK
2d. If
AB and AD are
any
into
of these parts.
division,
visor.
incommensurable,
arbitrarily chosen
equal parts, and
let
AB
number n of
^
be divided by one
Let B' be the
AD
AB' and
W=
A C
AD
AE
-,
last point
of
and
this holds true
please to
no matter i//-
-\c"
taking
we can make B' come as near

but we cannot make B' and B coincide,
a sufficiently great value for
no divisor of
By
to n.
are commensurable,
what value may be given
we
AD be divided
5 '5 beinff of course less than the di-
since
let
Through B' draw B' C parallel to DE,
Since
''is
109
III.
/i,
AD can divide AB without remainder.

AB'
AB' and AC, and consequently

^
AD
variables dependent
upon the same
and
variable,
AC
,
AE'
are then
n; and, as
we
have seen above, they are equal, no matter what value

given to
n.
If n
is
AB'
has the limit
AD
and
AC
AE
Therefore,
AB
AD'
has the limit
AC
AE
by the fundamental theorem
Limits (41, Book
II.),
in the Doctrine of
these limits are equal, and therefore
AB ^ AC
AD~ AE'
Compare
this reasoning
with that in
\
II.,
EXERCISE.
Show
and
42.
AD DB = AE EC
AB ÂD ^ DB
that in Proposition
also that
is
indefinitely increased,
AC
I.
AE
10
EC'
Q>. 10),
110
PKOPOSITION II.THEOREM.
Conversely,
15.
if
angle proportionally,
Let
DE divide
a straight
it is
the sides AB, AC, of the
angle ABC, proportionally; then

allel to
For,
BC
if DE
is
two sides of a
line divides
tri-
DE
not parallel to BC,
tri-
par-
is
some
let
other line DE', drawn through D, be parallel

to
Then, by Proposition
BC.
I.,
AB:AD=AC:AE'.
But,
by
we have
hypothesis,
AB:AD = AC:AE.
Hence
whence
DE'
it
AC^
AG
AE'
AJEf
AE' = AE, which is impossible unless

with DE. Therefore DE is parallel to BC.
follows that
coincides
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
1.
The
line bisecting the vertical angle of
triangle
divides the base into segments proportional to the adjacent sides
of the triangle.
Suggestion.
Through
draw
a line parallel to the bisector
and extend the
The
it.
celes.
CB
triangle
.'.AE
CA
EAB
= AB.
to
meet
is isos-
CE and
are divided proportionally (Proposition
DB = CA
2.
side
I.).
Hence
CD
AB.
Prove the converse of Exercise
I.
(v.
Proposition II.)
BOOK
16. Definitions.
Ill
III.
SIMILAR POLYGONS.
Two polygons are similar when
they are
mutually equiangular and have their homologous sides proportional.
In similar polygons, any points, angles, or
lines, similarly
situated in each, are called homologous.
The
polygon to
ratio of a side of one
in the other
PROPOSITION
Two
17.
its
homologous
side
called the ratio of similitude of the polygons.
is
III.THEOREM.
triangles are similar
when they are mutually
equi-
angular.
Let ABC, A'B'C, be mutually
equiangular triangles, in which
A=A', B = B\
C= C;
yî
then
these triangles are similar.

For,
the
superpose
A'B'C upon
let B' fall at h
is
and
parallel to
its equal,
b!
the angle A, and
Since the angle Abe
e.
BC (I.,
and we have (Proposition
^f
coincide with
C at
/
/
ABC,
the triangle
making the angle A'

B, he
triangle
-4'
is
equal to
Proposition XXIY., Corollary
I.),
I.)
AB:Ah=AC '.Ac,
or
If,
now,
we
incide with B,
AB\A'B'=ÂC'.A'C'.
A'B'C upon ABC, making B'
superpose
we may prove, in the same manner,

AB'.A'B'=BC'.B'C';
co-
that
and, combining these proportions,
AB
A'B'
AC_
A'C
BC_
B'C
PJ-,
'-
Therefore the homologous sides are proportional, and the

angles are similar (16).
^
tri-
/
112
18.
Scholium
I.
The homologous
sides lie opposite to equal
angles.
19.
Scholium
The
II.
similar triangles
is
tinued proportion
ratio of similitude (16) of the
any one of the equal
two
ratios in the con-
[1].
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
The
altitudes of two similar triangles are to each
other in the ratio of similitude of the triangles.
20.
Two
when an angle of
the one is
equal to an angle of the other, and the sides including these

angles are proportional.
^'
yf
.X /
/j
/
In the triangles ABC, A'B'C,

let
A',
and
AB
AC
A'B'
A'C'
then these triangles are
For, place the angle A'
equal angle
let
B'
hypothesis,
^
upon
and
at
c.
Then, by the
ABÂC
Therefore he
is
angle Ahc
similar to
is
its
fall at h,
Ah
equal to
G'
similar.
X
Bf
Ac
BC (Proposition II.),
ABC (Proposition III.).
parallel to
A'B'C;
therefore
A'B'C
is
and the
tri-
But Ahc
also similar to
ABC.
is
BOOK
113
III.
Two
21.
when
homologous sides are
their
propoj'tional.
In the triangles ABC, A'B'C,
let
AB_ÂG_^BG_,
A'C
A'B
ry.
B'G"
then these triangles are similar.

For, take
Abe
Ah == A!B', and Ac
and join .6 and
^'(7',
similar to
is
by
/^ /
c.
y^'
ABC, by Prop-
AB
BO
Ab
be
/I
/
AB
BC
A'B'
be
or
'
b
-,
But,
^'
^
/I
'
Therefore
osition lY.
'
hypothesis,
AB
BC
B'C'
A'B'
Hence
The
triangle
IX.,
and
is
A!B'G'
is
then equal to Abe, by
consequently similar to
I.,
Proposition
ABC.
22. If two polygons are composed of the
angles similar each to each
and
same number of
tri-
similarly placed, the polygons
are similar.
Let the polygon

etc.,
ABCD,
be composed of the
/"^^^^^^^
tri-
angles J.5 (7, A CD, etc.; and

let
the polygon
etc.,
/t^^^
\^
^/:;.'..
'"^^^
V-^-^""''^
A'B'C'D\
"
A'k::y..
\n
V---^'^'
be composed of the
triangles
2^
A'B'C\ A'C'D\
etc.,
10*
similar to
ABC, ACD,
etc.,
-^
114
respectively,
and similarly placed; then the polygons are
similar.
The polygons are
1st.
mutually equiangular. For,

the homologous angles of
the
similar
equal
are
triangles
and any two
corre-
sponding angles of the poly-
gons are either homologous angles of two similar triangles,

or sums of homologous angles of two or more similar triangles.
Thus,
= B\;
A'C'D'=B'C'D' ;
the similar triangles,
AB
BG
ACD
= B'C'A' +
sides are proportional.
For, from
we have
AC
B'C
A'B'
-f
etc.
homologous
2d. Their
= BCA
BCD
CD
A'C
Therefore the polygons
CD'
fulfil
^ AD ^ DE ^
^
A'D'
D'E'
^'
the two conditions of similarity
\y
(16).
PEOPOSITION VII.THEOREM.
23. Conversely, two similar polygons
may
the same number of triangles similar each
to
be decomposed into
each and similarly
placed.
ABCD,
Let
etc.,
A'B'C'D',
etc.,
be two similar polygons.
From two homologous vertices,
and
A', let
diag-
onals be
drawn
polygon;
then the poly-
in
each
gons will be decomposed

as required.
For,
1st.
We
have,
Angle
by the
B = B\
definition of similar polygons,
and
AB
BC
A'B'
B'C
BOOK
115
III.
therefore the triangles J.5(7and
A^B'C
are similar (Proposi-
tion lY.).
2d. Since
ABC and A!B'G' are
similar, the angles
BGA
and
B'C'A! are equal; subtracting these equals from the equals
BCD
and B'C'I)\ respectively, there remain the equals ACJ)
and A' CD',
Also,
from the similarity of the triangles
ABC
and A'B'C, and from that of the polygons, we have
AC
BC
CD
A'C
B'C
CD''
therefore the triangles
ACD
and A' CD' are similar (Propo-
sition lY.).
Thus, successively, each triangle of one polygon
may
be
shown to be similar to the triangle similarly situated in the

other.
PKOPOSITION VIII.THEOREM.
The
24.
ratio as
'perimeters of two similar polygons are in the
any two homologous
For we have
^^
^^
B'C
^^
CD'
etc.;
(12)
AB
A'B'
sides.
(see preceding figures)
A'B'
whence
same
BC + CD
+ B'C+ CD' +
-{-
-{-
etc.
etc.
AB
A'B'
BC
B'C
etc.
.1^^
116
25. If
a perpendicular
is
drawn from
the vertex of the right
angle to the hypotenuse of a right triangle
The two
1st.
and
to
each other
whole triangle
to the
The perpendicular
2d.
formed are similar
triangles thus
is
a mean proportional between the
seg-
ments of the hypotenuse ;
Each
3d.
side about the right angle is
a mean proportional
between the hypotenuse and the adjacent segment.
G be
Let
the right angle of the triangle
ABC, and CD
the perpendicular to the
hypotenuse; then,
The
1st.
triangles
ACD
similar to each other
and
ABC
CBD
and to ABC.
have the angle
ADCj ACBj
and
are
For the triangles
equal; therefore they are mutually equiangular,
and consequently similar (Proposition

reason
ACD
common, and the right angles
CBD
is
similar to
III.).
For a
ABCj and consequently
like
also to
ACD.
2d.
The perpendicular
the segments
AD
CBD, give
3d.
The
potenuse
triangles,
CD
and DB.
is
mean
AD:CD = CD
side J. (7 is a
AB and the
ACD, ABC,
proportional between
For the similar triangles ACD,
mean
BD.
proportional between the hy-
adjacent segment
AD.
For the
give
AB:AC = AC:AD.
In the same
way
the triangles
CBD and ABC
AB:BC = BC
:BD.
give
similar
BOOK
117
III.
26. Scholium. If the lengths of the lines in the figure
above are expressed in terms of the same
may
just obtained
be written
Vlf
TO'
'mJ'
(5,
Corollary)
=ABX I>B,
= AB X AD,
= AB X BD.
Corollary. If from any point
27.
a perpendicular
circle
dicular
is
fall
let
in the circumference of
upon a diameter, the perpen-
a mean proportional between
is
unit, the results
the segments of the diam-
eter.
Draw
Suggestion.
(v.
the chords
'
'<
The square of the length of
28.
triangle
the
is
sum of
ABC
expressed in terms of the same unit.
= TO' + BU'.
by Proposition
TU' =
IX.,
we have
AB X AD, and 277' = AB X BD,
sum of which
AJ]'
a right
be right angled at C; then
Xg'
For,
the hypotenuse of
the squares of the lengths of the other two
sides, the three lengths being
Let
CB,
Proposition XIY., Corollary.)
11.,
the
A C and
is
{AD ^ BD) = AB X AB = A^.

By this theorem, if the numerical measures
+ 'mj'=.AB X
29. Scholium
I.
of two sides of a right triangle are given, that of the third

is
For example,
found.
1/ [3^
+ 4^ =
if
^(7=
3,
BO = 4;
then
AB =
5.
If the hypotenuse, AB, and one side, AC, are given,
have BC^
AC =
3,
= TB'' X0\'
then
we
find
thus, if there are given
BO =
^^[5^
3'] =
4.
we
AB =
b,
118
30. Scholium II. If J.
we
have,
the diagonal of a square
is
ABCD,
by the preceding theorem,
whence
and, extracting the square root,
AC =
-j
\/^=
Since the square root of 2
is
1.41421
upon an
the foot
The
incommensurable with
projection of a point
indefinite straight line
P of
XY
the perpendicular let
from the point upon the
The projection
is
is
it
(v. II., 34.)
31. Definition.
inf.
an incommensurable number,
follows that the diagonal of a square

its side.
+ ad
the distance
is
fall
line.
of a finite straight line
FQ between
AB upon the line XY
the projections of the extremities
oi AB.
If one extremity
the
line-
XY^
projection of
XY;
AB is in
B to P (the
projection of AB on
of the line
the distance from
A)
is
for the point
the
B is
in this case its
own
projectioik
PM,
1.
to
Theorem.
EXERCISES.
In any
an acute angle
is
triangle, the
equal to the
square of the side opposite
sum of
the squares of the other
two sides diminished by twice the product of one of these sides

^dnd the projection of the other upon that
side.
y^
BOOK
Suggestion.
or Fig
Let
119
III.
be the acute angle in question in Fig. 1
(7
2.
+ (5(7 PCy, Fig. or

+ (PC
== 2T^ + TO' + :BT' - 2BC X Pc;
= Xa' + IB^C 2BC X PC,
==
XF'
Fig.
1.
YiQ.
2.
1,
-^'^ XF'
2.
Theorem.
J/i
an
obtuse angled triangle,
the square of the side opposite to the obtuse
angle
is
equal
to the
sum
of the squares of the
other two sides, increased by twice the product
of one of these sides and the projection of the

other
upon that
side.
PROPOSITION XI. THEOREM.

32. If two chords intersect within a circle, their segments are
reciprocally proportional.
For the triangles APB' and A'PB are mutually equiangular
and
therefore
(II.,
AP
(Proposition
similar
Hence
:
A'P
Proposition XIY.),
= PB'
III.).
PB.
33. Scholium. If the lengths of the lines in
question are expressed in terms of the same unit, the result
above can be written
APXPB= A'P X PB',

and the proposition
may
within a circle any chord

its
segments
is
the
is
be stated
if
through a fixed point
drawn, the product of the lengths of
same whatever
its
direction.
120
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
Either segment of
that can he
drawn through a fixed point
mean proportional between
the segments of
drawn through
other chord
II., 19,
the least chord
that point,
is
any
(v.
Exercise.)
34. If two secants intersect without
and
circle, the
whole secants
their external segments are reciprocally proportional.
For the triangles PAB^ and PA'B are mutually equiangular
and therefore
similar.
PB
35.
PB'
Corollary.
intersect, the
(II.,
tangent
Proposition XIY.),
Consequently
= PA'
PA.
If a tangent and a secant

is
between the whole secant
a mean proportional
and
its
external seg-
ment.
Suggestion.
and
PTB are
Show that
the triangles
PA T
similar.
36. Scholium. If the lengths of the lines
are expressed in terms of the
same
the result of (34) can be written
PB X PA
unit,
= PB' X PA\ and Proposition XII. can be stated

a fixed point without a
circle
the lengths of the whole secant
same value
a secant
and
its
is
if
through
drawn, the product of
external segment has the
in whatever direction the secant is drawn.
BOOK
121
III.
EXERCISE.
Theorem. If from
intersecting
circles^ the lengths
any point on
the
common chord
of two
produced^ tangents are drawn to the two
circles^
of these tangents are equal.
PEOBLEMS OF CONSTEUCTIOK
PROPOSITION XIII.PROBLEM.
To
37.
any given number of
divide a given straight line into
equal parts.
Let
an
AB
be the given
Through
line.
AX^ upon which
indefinite line
draw
lay off the
given number of equal distances, each distance

being of any convenient length
last
point of division on
AX
through
draw MB^ and
through the other points of division of
draw
MB^ which
to
parallels
into the required
M the
will
number of equal
divide
parts.
AX
AB
This
follows from the first part of the proof of Proposition
I.
PROPOSITION XIV.PROBLEM.
38.
To
divide a given straight line into parts proportional to
two given straight
Let
it
lines.
into parts proportional to
From A draw
M and N,
the indefinite line
upon which lay
= N.
AB
be required to divide
off
AG = M
AX^
and
CD
BB^ and through G draw

GE parallel to DB. Then we shall
have AE :JEB=AC:GD, by PropoJoin
sition I.
122
EXERCISE.
Problem.
To divide a given straight
into parts proportional
line
given straight
to
...'5
lines.
PROPOSITION XV.PROBLEM.
39.
To find a fourth proportional
Let
it
to three
be required to find a fourth pro-
M,
portional to
JV,
Draw
and P.
the
given straight
lines.
in-
AY, making an angle

with each other. Upon AJC lay off AB
M, AD N; and upon ^ Ylay off ^(7
P; join BG, and draw BE parallel to
definite lines AJT,
=
=
BC
then
AEi^
the required fourth pro-
portional.
For we have (Proposition
AB AD=AG:
:
I.)
AE, or
M W= P
:
AE.
EXERCISE.
To find a third proportional
Prohlem.-
to tvx) given straight
lines.
PROPOSITION XVI. PROBLEM.

40.
To find a mean proportional between two given
straight
lines.
Let
it
be required to find a mean pro-
portional between
indefinite line lay ofl
upon
AG
and at
AG.
and N.
Upon an
AB=M,BG =
JSF;
describe a semi-circumference,
Then
BD, to
mean proportional
erect a perpendicular,
BD
is
the required
tion IX., Corollary).
(Proposi-
BOOK
41. Definition.
When
123
III.
a given straight line
is
divided into
mean
pro-
portional between the given line and the other segment,
it is
two segments such that one of the segments

said to be divided in extreme
AB
AB\AC=:AG
Thus,
is
at C,ii
and mean
divided in extreme and

:
is
ratio.
mean
ratio
CB.
PROPOSITION XVII.PROBLEM.
42.
To
Let
AB
divide a given straight line in extreme
be the given straight
BO
pendicular
line.
equal to one-half of
At
AB.
and mean
ratio.
erect the per-
With the
centre
and radius OB^ describe a circumference,

and through
the circumference
Then
mean
AB
first in
AB
Upon
time in D'.
draw
and
divided at
is
AO
and a second
lay ofl
in
cutting
AG == AD.
extreme and
ratio.
For we have (Proposition XIL, Corollary)
:AB=AB:AD or AC,
AD'
whence, by division
AD'
or, since
^J
DD' =20B
= AB, and therefore AD' AB = AD^
inversion (7),
AB:AC = AC:CB;
that
is,
AB is
[1]
AB:AB = AB AC:Aa,
AO:AB = CB:AC,
by
^^^
(10),
DD' = AD=AC,
and,
divided at
C in
extreme and mean ratia
124
PROPOSITION XVIII.PROBLEM.
43.
On a
given straight
line^ to
construct a polygon similar to
a given polygon.
Let
to
it
be required to construct upon A'B' a polygon similar
ABCDEF,
Divide AB CDEF mio tri-
angles
by diagonals drawn
Make the angles

B'A'C and A'B'C equal
from A.
to
BAG
tively;
and
ABC
respec-
then the triangle
A'B'C will be similar to ABC (Proposition III.).

same manner construct the triangle A'D'C similar
A'WD' similar to
AIB'C'D'E'F'
is
AED, and A'E'F'
similar to
In the
to
AEF.
ADC,
Then
the required polygon (Proposition YL).
EXERCISES ON BOOK
III.
THEOREMS.
(1
lines are intersected by any number of parthe corresponding segments of the two lines are proportional, {v. Proposition I.)
2. The diagonals of a trapezoid divide each other into segments
1.
If
two straight
allel lines,
which
are proportional.
In a triangle any two sides are reciprocally proportional to

the perpendiculars let fall upon them from the opposite vertices.
4. The perpendiculars from two vertices of a triangle upon the
opposite sides divide each other into segments which are recipro*
3.
cally proportional.
6.
If the three sides of a triangle are respectively perpendicular
to the three sides of a second triangle, the triangles are similar.

6.
If
ABC and A^BO are two triangles Laving

BC and their vertices in a line
common base
AA^ parallel to
a
the base, and if any parallel to

the base cuts the sides
and ^ C in Z> and jE7,
and the sides A^B and A^C in D^ and E^^ then
DE=^J)'E' (Proposition III.).
""7. If two sides of a triangle are divided proportionally, the straight lines drawn from corresponding points of section to the opposite angles intersect
on the line joining the vertex of the third angle
and the middle of the third side.
Suggestion. Draw the line
through the in-
AB
ADE
tersection of
B^C and BC^. B'E'D and CED
EC
similar
similar
BC ^ AB
B'C AB''
Hence EC
B'E'
DC
B'E'
B'D
DC
BC
B'C
B'D
AB'E' and
BE
B'E'
and
are
B'DC^ and
BDC are
AB^C^ and
ABC
ABE
are similar
are similar
AB
BE
AB'
B'E'
BE = EC,
11*
125
j--^
^
126
8. The difference of the squares of two sides of any triangle is

equal to the difference of the squares of the projections of these
sides on the third side (Proposition X.).
from any point in the plane df a polj[gon\peitoendiculars

-âlfe^rawn to all the sides, the two siiml of\the^qu\res of the
alternate segments of the sides are equkl. ^
9. J[f
^"^^
\J
10. If through a point

in the circumference of a circle two chords are drawn,
the chords and the segments cut from them
by a line parallel to the tangent at are reciprocally proportional.
Suggestion, Prove
-^
PAB and Pba similar.
-41
11.
If three circles int^fSect, their three

chords pass through the same
common
point,
12.
{v.
If
Proposition XI.)
two tangents are drawn
to a circle
at the extremities of a diameter, the por-
tion of any third tangent intercepted between them is divided at its point of contact into
segments w^hose product
is
equal
to the square of the radius.
Suggestion. Prove
AOB a right triangle.
13. The perpendicular from any point of a circumference upon a chord is a mean proportional
between the perpendiculars from the same point
upon the tangents drawn at the extremities of
the chord.
Suggestion.
PBD
PB^PD PCE
PA PE
PA
PC
PD
PE'
and
and
Hence
PA
PAE are similar

PAD are similar
= PA
PO'
iW
BOOK
127
III.
14. If two circles touch each other, secants drawn through their
point of contact and terminating in the two circumferences are
divided proportionally at the point of contact, {v. II., 54, Exer-
cise 2.)
two
If
15.
circles are
'
^f
tangent exter-
:z
the portion of their common

tangent included between the points
of contact is a mean proportional between the diameters of the circles.
Suggestion. Show that OBO^ is a right
nally,
triangle.
16. If a fixed circumference is cut by any circumference
passes through two fixed points, the common chord passes through a fixed point.
Suggestion.
PC.
PT^
by Proposition XII. and Corollary. Join
which
PD =
PA PB =
.
with
and show that PC^ will cut both

at the same distance from P, and
(7^,
circles
will be their
common
"^
chord.
''-::.-.-.-...-=''
LOCI.
A'
a fixed point O, a straight line OA is

drawn to any point in a given straight line JJfJV,
n (ie, so
and divided at
in a given ratio
that OP:PA='m:n); find the locus of P. (v.
Proposition II.)
From
17.
From a
18.
OA
fixed point O, a straight line
drawn to any i:)oint in a given circumference, and divided at P in a given

is
ratio
find the locus of P.
Suggestion.
PC
is
a fixed length.
19. Find the locus of a point whose distances from two given
straight lines are in a given ratio. (The locus consists of two
straight lines.)
^^r
lî^r-*^
yy-
20. Find the locus of the points which divide the various chords
of a given circle into segments whose product is equal to a given
constant, k'^ (33, Exercise).
21. Find the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from
two given straight lines is equal to a given constant, k. {v, I.,
Exercise
10.)
22. Find the locus of a point the difference of whose distances

from two given straight lines is equal to a given constant, k.
Suggestion, Reduce it to I., Proposition XIX., by drawing a
third line parallel to the more distant of the given lines at a

distance from it equal to k,
f.
PROBLEMS.
^^
To divide a given straight line into three segments. A, B,

such that A and B shall be in the ratio of two given
and iV, and B and C shall be in the ratio of two
straight lines
other given straight lines P and Q.
23.
and
C,
24. Through a given point, to draw a straight line so that the

portion of it intercepted between two given straight lines shall
be divided at the point in a given ratio.
Suggestion. Through the point draw a line parallel to one of
the given lines, {v. II., Exercise 32.)
25. Through a given point, to draw a straight line so that the
distances from two other given points to this line shall be in a
given ratio.
Suggestion. Divide the line joining the two other given pointe
26.
To determine a point whose
distances from three given in-
deiinite straight lines shall be proportional to three given straight
(Exercise 19.)
lines.
4LJ'
27.
In a given triangle ABC, to inscribe a
square DEFQ.
'h^sq
(Exercises 6
and
II., 29.)
FG
-Hr
i:r.~
BOOK m.
129
^
i
28. Griven two circumferences intersecmng in -4, to draw through A a

lânt, JSACj such that AB shall be
TO AO in Si given ratio.
Suggestion. Divide 00^ in the given
ratio,
29.
(v.
Exercise
1.)
To aescribe a circumference passing through two given

A and B and tangent to a
points
given circumference O.
ATB
Analysis. Suppose
is the reguired circumference tangent to the
given circumference at T, and
any circumference passing through A
and cutting the given circumand
\y
ACDB
C and D. The common

and CD^ and the common
chords
tangent at T^ all pass through a com(Exercise 16)
from
mon point
which a simple construction may be inferred. There are two
solutions given by the two tangents that can be drawn from P.
ference in
AB
<|
^
30. To describe a circumference passing through two given

points and tangent to a given straight line. (Two solutions.)
{v. Proposition XII., Corollary.)
31. To describe a circumference passing through a given point
and tangent to two given straight lines, {v. Exercise 13.)
-'lY,'//.
<^>^xjeJ?i
>îr
BOO
COMPARISON AND MEASUREMENT OP THE
SURFACES OP RECTILINEAR PIGURES.
Definition.
1.
it is
The area of a surface
is its
some other surface as the unit
ure, referred to
numerical meas;
in other words,
the ratio of the surface to the unit of surface
The
unit of surface
is
(II., 29).
The most
called the superficial unit.
convenient superficial unit
is
the square whose side
is
the
linear unit.
Equivalent figures are those whose areas are
2. Definition.
equal.
Parallelograms having equal bases and equal altitudes are
3.
equivalent.
Let
ABCD
and AJECF be two
parallelograms having equal bases
and equal
altitudes.
Superpose the second upon the

first,
making the equal bases
are equal, the upper bases will
The
coincide.
lie
in the
Since the altitudes
same straight
line.
ABE and CDF are equal (I., Proposition YL).

CDF is taken from the whole figure, ABFC,
parallelogram ABCD is left; if the equal triangle
triangles
If the triangle
the
first
ABE is taken from the same figure, the second parallelogram

AECF is left. The magnitudes of the two parallelograms
are therefore equal, and the parallelograms are equivalent.
4.
Corollary. Any parallelogram
is
equivalent to
having the same base and the same altitude.

130
a rectangle
BOOK
PROPOSITION
Two
5.
131
IV.
II. THEOREM.
rectangles having equal altitudes are to each other as
their bases.
ABCD
Let
AEFD
and
be two
rectangles having equal altitudes

I.
then are they to each other as
AB
AE.
common measure which is

and n times in AK Then we have
Suppose the bases have a
1.
contained
m times
in
AB
AB
AE
Apply
this
measure to the two bases, and through the points
of division draw perpendiculars to the bases.
The two
tangles are thus divided into smaller rectangles,

are equal,
which
by
ABCD
I.,
Proposition
contains
XXYIIL,
all
Corollary,
AEFD contains n.
ABOD m
AEFD n
and
rec-
of which
and of
Then
and consequently
ABCD ^ AB
AEFD~ AE'
If the bases are incommensurable, divide
2.
arbitrarily chosen
last point
in
any
number n of
equal parts, and apply one of

these parts to
AE
AB. Let B' be the
of division,
B'B being
of course less than the divisor.

Since
AB'
AE
AB' and
and
AE
this holds,
are commensurable,
we have
no matter what the value of
AEFD
n.
If,
now,
132
n
is
increased at pleasure,
B'BGG'j as small as we
we can make J5'J5, and
please, but
cannot make them absolutely zero.
Hence, as n
indefinitely
is
Bf
in-
AB for its limit,

AB'C'D has ABGD for its Hmit,
AB' has
creased,
has
AEFD
consequently
AEFD
.
for its limit.
and
AB'
AE
,
Therefore,
by
II.,
AE
for its limit.
Theorem^ Doctrine of Limits,
AB
^.
ABCD
AEFD
6.
has
Corollary. Two
(^v.
IL, 42, and III., 14.)
rectangles having equal bases are to each
other as their altitudes.
Note. In these propositions,
by
" rectangle" is to
be under-
stood " surface of the rectangle."
v^Vfiv^jfi^^-^
III.THEOKEM.
PBOPOSITION
7.
Any
two rectangles are
to
bases by their altitudes.
Let
and
tangles, k
h and
h'
i2'
be two rec-
and k their
their altitudes
bases,
;
then
kXh
J<fXh''
For, let
gle,
>S^
be a third rectan-
having the same base k
each other as the products of their
BOOK
as the rectangle
R' ; then
we
-B,
have,
133
IV.
and the same
altitude h! as the rectangle
by Proposition
Corollary,
II.,
and Propo-
sition II.,
S
and multiplying these
R'
h"
we
ratios,
R'
8.
is
find
Ji'X
h''
must be remembered that by the product
Scholium. It
of two lines
k"
to be understood the product of the
numbers
which represent them when they are measured by the
linear
unit (III., 8).
PEOPOSITION IV.THEOREM.
9.
and
The area of a
rectangle
is
equal to the product of
its
base
altitude.
Let
R be any rectangle, k its base,
and h
its
altitude numerically ex-
pressed in terms of the linear unit
and
is
let
Q be
the linear unit
then,
R _k X
IX
Q
But
since
is
by Proposition
=k
III.,
h.
R = the
the unit of surface, -
ure, or area, of the rectangle, R, (1)
Area of
R=
12
numerical meas-
therefore
h.
134
10. Scholium I.
by the
divisible
When
the base and altitude are exactly
linear unit, this proposition
is
rendered
evi-
dent by dividing the rectangle into squares

Thus,
each equal to the superficial unit.
the base contains 7 linear units and the
tude
5,
if
alti-
the rectangle can obviously be divided
into 35 squares each equal to the superficial
unit
that
is,
area
its
as above
sition,
and includes
= 5x7.
The propo-
demonstrated,
also the cases in
however, more general,
is,
which either the base or the
or both, are incommensurable with the unit of
altitude,
length.
11.
Scholium
of two equal
II.
The area of a
sides, is
square, being the product
the second power of a side.
Hence
it is
that in arithmetic and algebra the expression " square of a
number" has been adopted
to signify
"second power of a
number."
We may also
here observe that
many
writers employ the
expression "rectangle of two lines" in the sense of "product
of two
lines is
of the
lines,"
because the rectangle constructed upon two
measured by the product of the numerical measures

lines.
The area of a parallelogram
base and altitude.
12.
For,
by Proposition
I.,
is
the parallelogram
is
its
equivalent to a
rectangle having the same base and the same altitude.
BOOK
IV.
'^
<
135
'
The area of a
13.
base
and
ABC be
Let
measure of
its
a triangle, k the numerical
base
AB^ and 8
tude
triangle is equal to half the product of its
altitude.
its
BC^h
that of
area
then
its alti-
--^
f''
^^^^"^^^
B^~h
o""d
S=ikXh.
A draw AE parallel to
For, through
BJ
lelogram
AEBC
parallelogram
S=lk X
/
The
parallel to CA.
y^
Corollary
15,
therefore, for the triangle,
I.
we have
triangle is equivalent to one-half of
i^parallelogram having the
draw
one-half the paral-
h.
Corollary
14.
CB, and through
ABC is
Proposition IX.); but the area of the
(I.,
=k
triangle
same base and
the
same
altitude.
Triangles having equal bases
II.
any
and equal
\laltitudes are equivalent.
16. CoROLLA'feY III.
Triangles having equal altitudes are to
each other as their bases ; and triangles having equal bases are
to
each other as their altitudes.
The area of a trapezoid
17.
tude by half the
Let
ABCD be
altitude
bases
sum
of
its
let
a trapezoid
S denote
parallel bases.
AD = a, BC =
and
is
its
b,
MN=
its
area
S=i(â
h, its
parallel
then
+ b)X
h.
its alti^
136
For,
draw the diagonal AC.
triangles
and
their bases are respectively a
area of the
first is ^
second
the
The
altitude of each of the
ABC and ABC is equal to h,
is ^ 6
sum of
the
that of the
y^ h^
^ ; and the trapezoid being
the two triangles,
Scholium.
we have
S=iaXh-]-ibXh =
18.
and
i(a
b)Xh.
The area of any polygon may be found by
finding the areas of the several triangles into which
it
may
be decomposed by drawing diagonals from any vertex.
The following method, however,
Draw the
cially in surveying.
is
usually preferred, espe-
longest
AD of the proposed polygon

ABCDEF; and upon AD let fall the
diagonal
BM^ CW, UP, FQ.
perpendiculars
The polygon
is
thus decomposed into
right triangles and right trapezoids,
and by measuring the lengths of the

perpendiculars and also of the distances
AM, MN^ ND, AQ,
QP, PD, the bases and altitudes of these triangles and trapezoids are
Hence
known.
their areas can be
preceding theorems, and the
sum of
computed by the
these areas will be the
area of the polygon.
'
19. Similar triangles are to each other as the squares of their
homologous
sides.
Let ABC, A'B'C, be similar

angles; then
ABC
ZB^
tri-
BOOK
Let
AD and A'D' be
ABC
A'B'C
But the
triangles
sition III.)
137
IV.
the altitudes
ABB
then
_ 4^
ÂD X BC
Â'D'
X B'C
A'D'
BC
'^
B'C
and A'D'B' are similar
(III.,
Propo
therefore
AB
AB
A'D'
A'B"
and from the similarity of
ABC
and A'B'G\
BC
AB
B'C
A'B"
hence
AB
A'B'
BC
B'G'
TB''
A^''
and we have
ABC
X5'
EXERCISE.
\
Theorem.
Tiô
an angle of
triangles having
an angle of
Suggestion.
triangles
Let
ABE and ABC
be the two
Draw BE^ and compare the two

with AEB. (v. Proposition YI.,
Corollary III.)
12
L^
sides including the equal angles.
triangles.
the one equal to
the other are to each other as the products of the
138
20. Similar polygons are to each other as the squares of their
homologous
Let
sides.
ABCDEF,
A' B'
CD'E'F'
be two similar polygons,
and denote their surfaces
by /Sand
then
>S";
For, let the polygons be
c'
decomposed into homologous similar triangles
(III.,
Proposition YII.).
The
ACD and A' CD',
A'B'C,
etc.,
ratio of
ABC and
the surfaces of any pair of homologous triangles, as
will be the square of the ratio
of two homologous sides of the polygons (Proposition YIII.)

therefore
we
shall
have
ABO
ACD
ADE
AEF
Tff
A'B'C
A' CD'
A'D'E'
A'E'F'
Z^'
Therefore,
by
addition of antecedents and consequents (III.,
12).
ABC + ACD + ADE + AEF

A'B'C
A' CD'
A'D'E'
A'E'F'
^S^ Z^
S'
ATB"^'
21.
angle
The square described upon the hypotenuse of a

is
equivalent to the
other two sides.
sum
right tri-
of the squares described on the
BOOK
Let the triangle
IV.
139
ABC
be right angled at C; then

the
square AIT, described upon the
hypotenuse, is equal in area to
AF
and
described on the other
two
sum of
the
D,
the squares
sides.
C draw CP
For, from
dicular to
meet
Since
AB
KH
in Z.
and
ACB
CF
and
CB
same straight
lY.)
;
Join CK,
ACF
angles,
perpen-
and produce
it
to
BG.
are right
are in the
line (I., Proposition
and for a similar reason
AG and CD
are in the same
straight line.
In the triangles OAK, GAB,
we have
being sides of the same square;
AC
equal to
same reason; and the angles CAK,

GAB,
equal to the
sum of
the angle
AK equal
AG,
AB,
to
for the
equal, being each
GAB
and a right angle; therefore these triangles are equal

(L, Proposition VI.).
The triangle
and the rectangle
base
also
CAK
AL have the same
and since the vertex C is upon
LP produced, they
have the same altitude; therefore
the triangle
AK;
equivalent to one-half the rectangle

Corollary I.).
CAK is
AL
(Proposition
VI
'
GAB and the square AF have the same base

and smce the vertex B is upon
FG produced, they also
have the same altitude therefore
the triangle
The
triangle
AG;
GAB is equiva-
lent to one-half the square
AF (Proposition VI., Corollary I
But the triangles CAK, GAB, have

been shown
therefore the rectangle
In the same
way
AL is equivalent to the
it is
equivalent to the square
to be equal
square
AF
proved that the rectangle
BL
BD.
is
140
Therefore the square

tangles
AL and
sum of
to the
BL,
is
AH^ which
is
the
sum of
the rec-
equivalent
the squares
AF and
BD.
theorem
22. Scholium. This
ascribed
Pythagoras
to
about 600
B.C.),
and
is
called the Pythagorean
is
(born
commonly
Theorem.
The preceding demonstration of

it
that which was given
is
Euclid,
300
in
his
by
Elements (about
B.C.).
It
is
result
we may deduce the same

XS^ ==:AC^ -\- ^FU^ already
important to observe that
from the numerical relation
For, since the measure
established in III., Proposition X.
of the area of a square
which represents
the second power of the
is
its side, it
ical relation that the area
equal to the
sum of
number
follows directly from this numer-
of which
AB^
the areas of which
is
AC
the measure
is
and BTf are the
measures.
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
If the
a right triangle
three sides of
be taken as
the homologous sides of three similar polygons. constructed upon
them, then the polygon constructed upon the hypotenuse

lent to the
sum
sides,
Proposition IX.)
2.
(v.
Theorem.
equiva-
of the polygons constructed upon the other two
The squares on the
sides of
a right triangle are
proportional to the segments into which the hypotenuse
by a perpendicular
(v.
is
let
fall
Figure, Proposition X.)
from
is
divided
the vertex of the right angle,
Wk
BOOK
PEOBLEMS OF
141
IV.
C0:N^STEUCTI0K.
PROPOSITION XI. PROBLEM.
'
23.
To
Let
ABCDEF
construct
a triangle equivalent
5,
J.,
draw
BP
triangles
AO
parallel to
meeting DC produced in
The
vertices,
and draw the diagonal AC'
(7,
Through
P;
APG, ABC, have
join
AP.
the
same base
AG
lie
on the same straight
and 5,
and since their
vertices,
they also have the same altitude

Therefore the pentagon
lent.
hexagon
line
BP
pentagon,
we
shall,
by
struction, find a quadrilateral of the
a similar operation
same
triangle of the
upon
parallel to
AG^
therefore they are equiva-
APDEF
is
equivalent to the
ABGDEF. Now, taking any three
tices of this
by
given polygon.
be the given polygon.
Take any three consecutive
as
to 4:
consecutive ver-
a precisely similar con-
same area
the quadrilateral
and, finally,
we
shall find a
area.
Thus, whatever the number of the sides of the given polygon, a series of successive steps, each step reducing the
ber of sides
by
num-
one, will give a series of polygons of equal
areas, terminating in a triangle.
PROPOSITION XII.PROBLEM.
To
24.
or to
Let
1st.
base,
construct a square equivalent to a given parallelogram
a given
triangle.
J. (7
and h
be a given parallelogram, k
^
its
by
will
its altitude.
Find a mean proportional x between h and

k,
^
î
III., 40.
The square constructed upon
be equivalent to the parallelogram, since x^
=h
y^ k.
+
\J
142
ABC
Let
2d.
be a given triangle, a
its
and h
base,
its
altitude.
A
Find a mean proportional x between a
and ih; the square constructed upon x

will be equivalent to the
=aX
= i ah.
By means
25. Scholium.
triangle, since
of this problem
and the preceding, a square can be found equivalent
to any-
given polygon.
PEOPOSITION XIII.-PROBLEM.
To
26.
construct a square equivalent to the
sum
of two or more
given squares, or to the difference of two given squares.
Let m,
1st.
w, ^, q,
be the sides of given
squares.
Draw
AB = m,
and
ular to each other at
(Proposition X.)
Draw
join
n^
ZU^
CD = p
^ m^
join
perpendic-
Pi-
Then
AC.
n\
-\-
perpendicular to
Then AJf
AD.
BC = n,
B;
(7,
and
= TU' + p' = m' +
+ _p^
DB = q perpendicular to AD, and

AK Then TE^ = Jlf q' =
Draw
join
n^
_|_
m,'
-\-
p^
structed
_|_
Therefore the square con-
^2
upon
AE
will be
squares constructed upon m,
In this manner
may
equivalent to the
7i,
the areas of any
2d. Construct a right angle
BA
n.
With the
centre
the
p, q.
number of given
squares be added.
off
sum of
ABC, and
lay
and a radius
= m, describe an arc cutting BCinC.
Then
u
BOOK
:ro'
= zu^ - zs'
structed
upon
BC
IV.
143
m'
therefore the square conwill be equivalent to the

difference of the
squares constructed upon
and
n.
EXERCISE.
Prohlem.Ûpon a given
straight line, to construct a

rectangle
equivalent to a given rectangle.
PBOPOSITION XIV.-PROBLEM.
27.
sum
To
construct
rectangle,
having given
area and the
its
of two adjacent sides.
Let
MN be equal to the given sum of
the adjacent sides of the

required recand let the given area be that of
.^
tangle
Upon MJSr as
semicircle.
At
AB.
MN,
erect
MP = AB
and draw
he circumference in
Q.
to MN; then
and
MR
B N
per-
PQ parallel to MN,
From Q
let fall
RN are the
i,,..^.^::C:r\9
^^;--
''
a diameter describe a
pendicular to
is
QR
intersecting
perpendicular
base and altitude of the
PROPOSITION XV.-PEOBLEM.
28.
To find two
given polygons,
straight lines in the ratio

of the areas of two
Let
squares be found equal in

area to
the given polygons
respectively (23 and
24).
Upon
the sides of the right

angle
ACB, take CA and CB
/T^v.
'^ [
^_j,
equal to the sides
of these squares, join AB,

and
let fall
CD
perpendicular to
'
144
AB.
'
Then, by
we have lU'
(III., 26),
= JDB X AS-
IV ^ AD
AD
VF^
and
DB
DB'
VB'
therefore
= AD X AB,
Hence
are in the ratio of the areas of the
given polygons.
EXERCISE.
Problem.
To find a square
which shall he
in the ratio of two given straight lines,
to
a given square
(y. 28.)
PROPOSITION XVliPROBLEM.X)^
29.
To
construct
a polygon similar
equivalent to a given polygon Q.
Find
and
iV,
the sides of
squares respectively equal in area

to
P and
(23 and 24).
Let a be any
side of P,
and
Mj
a' to
homologous
side to a, construct the
similar to
P;
P and
Q/n
I
and a; upon
as a
a given polygon
find
a fourth proportional
a',
to
i^T,
\
^
p'
-f
polygon P'
this will
be the required polygon.
For,
by
construction,
M_a
jsr
a"
therefore, taking the letters P, Q,
and P', to den0te the areas
of the polygons,
P^3Pâ^
Q
W'
a''
'
BOOK
But, the polygons
145
IV.
and P' being
similar,
we
have,
by
(Proposition IX,),
P'
a'^
and comparing these equations, we have P'

Therefore the polygon P'
is
Q.
similar to the polygon
P and
equivalent to the polygon Q, as required.
EXERCISE.
Problem.
To construct a polygon similar
and whose area

polygon,
J
G
shall he in
(v. 28,
^^^
a given
a given polygon^
rhtio to that of the given
Exercise, anÎII., 43.)
to
i.^
IS
EXERCISES ON BOOK
THEOREMS.
^r
(^r'^îiAM)
At
IV.
1. Two' triangles are equivalent if they have two sides of the

one respectively equal to two sides of the other, and the included
angle of the one equal to the supplement of the included angle
of the other.
-^^Vz. The two
opposite triangles formed by joining any point in

the interior of a parallelogram 4o its four vertices are together
equivalent to one-half the parallelogram.
3. The triangle formed by joining the middle point of one of
the non-parallel sides of a trapezoid to the extremities of the
opposite side is equivalent to one-half the trapezoid, {v, I., Exercise 24.)
4. The figure formed by joining consecutively the four middle

points of the sides of any quadrilateral is equivalent to one-half
the quadrilateral, (v. I., Exercise 32.)
6. If in a rectangle
we draw
the diagonal AC^ inscribe a circle in the

triangle ABC^ and from its centre draw
and Oi^ perpendicular to
and
respectively, the rectangle
will
be equivalent to one-half the rectangle
ABCD
V.
OE
DC
AD
OD
ABCD.
6. The area of a triangle is equal to

one-half the product of its perimeter by
the radius of the inscribed circle.
7.
The area
of a rhonabus
onals.
^.\,w^j''
is
one-half the product of the diag-
BOOK
-
'" 8.
The
147
IV.
straight line joining the middle points of the parallel

it into two equivalent figures.
sides of a trapezoid divides
^. Any line drawn through the point of intersection of the diagonals of a parallelogram divides it into two equal quadrilaterals.
10. In an isosceles right triangle either leg is a mean proportional between the hypotenuse and the perpendicular upon it
from the vertex of the right angle.
11. If two triangles have an angle in common, and have equal
areas, the sides about the equal angles are reciprocally propor-
(4:'j
tional.
\'^' The perimeter of a triangle is to a side as the perpendicular
fronythe opposite vertex is to the radius of the inscribed circle.
.Ivt
(v.yExercise
yi3. Two
6.)
quadrilaterals are equivalent
when
the diagonals of
one are respectively equal and parallel to the diagonals of the

ô^her.
The sum
of the perpendiculars from any point within an

convex polygon upon the sides is constant.
Join the point with the vertices of the polygon.
y^ Suggestion.
15. The lines joining two opposite vertices of a parallelogram
with the middle points of the sides form a parallelogram whose
14.
equilateral
^
^
one-third the aêa of the given parallelogram.

of the squares on the segments of two j)erpendicular chords in a circle is equivalent to the square on the diameter.
^^ârea
A ^.^
"^
*^
16.
is
The sum
17. Let ABC be any triangle, and

upon the sides AB, AC, construct
parallelograms AD, AF, of any magnitude or form. Let their exterior
sides DE, FG, meet in M; join MA,
and upon BC construct a parallelois equal
gram BK, whose side
and parallel to MA, Then the par-
BH
BK
allelogram
is equivalent to the
and
of the parallelograms
AF, {v. Proposition I.)
From this deduce the Pythagorean Theorem.
18. Prove, geometrically, that th^ square described upon the
y^^ V
sum of two straight lines is equivalent to the sum of the squares
described on the two lines plits twice their rectangle.
Note. By the "rectangle of two lines" is here meant the rectangle of which the two lines are the adjacent sides.
QV'
19. Prove, geometrically, that the square described upon the
difference of two straight lines is equivalent to the sum of the
sum
AD
squares described on the two lines minus twice their rectangle.
Prove, geometrically, that the rectangle of the sum and the

two straight lines is equivalent to the difference of
the squares of those lines.
20.
difference of
PROBLEMS.
21. To construct a triangle, given its angles and its area (eq
to that of a given square).
Suggestion. Construct any triangle having the given angles.
.4
The problem then reduces to (29).

22. Given any triangle, to construct an isosceles triangle of the
same area, whose vertical angle is an angle of the given triangle.
{v. 19,
Exercise.)
Given any triangle, to construct an equilateral triangle of

he same area. {v. Exercise 21.)
24. Bisect a given triangle by a parallel to one of its sides,
(v.
Proposition VIII. and 28.)
V 25. Bisect a triangle by a straight line drawn through a given
23.
point in one of its sides, (v. 19, Exercise.)

26. Inscribe a rectangle of a given area in a given circle.
u
Suggestion. Draw a diagonal of the rectangle. The problem
can then be reduced to inscribing in the given circle a right
;riangle of given area.
27. Given three points, A, B^ and (7, to find a fourth point P,
such that the areas of the triangles APB, APC, BPG, shall be
equal. (Four solutions.) (v. III., Exercise 19.)
\
;^*(..'
BOOK
'
T.
REGULAR POLYGONS. MEASUREMENT P THE

CIRCLE.
1.
Definition.
regular polygon
a polygon which
is
is
at
once equilateral and equiangular.
The
equilateral triangle
and the square are simple exam-
The following theorem
ples of regular polygons.
the possibility of regular polygons of any
establishes
number of
sides.
If the circumference of a
2.
circle be
divided into
any number
of equal parts, the chords joining the successive points of division
form a regular polygon
drawn
inscribed in the circle ;
at the points of division
and
the tangents
form a regular polygon circum^
scribed about the circle.
Let the circumference be divided into

the equal arcs AB, BC, GD^
1st,
etc.
then,
drawing the chords AB, BC, CD,
etc.,
ABGD,
polygon.
etc., is
For
a regular inscribed
its sides
chords of equal arcs
are equal, being
and
its
angles are
equal, being inscribed in equal segments.

2d.
etc., is
Drawing tangents
at A, B, C,
etc.,
a regular circumscribed polygon.
= BC = CD,
etc., we have AB
GAB, GBA, HBC, HOB, etc.,
AGB, BHC, CKD,

the angles
the polygon
13*
GHK^
For, in the triangles

etc.,
and
are equal, since each

149
150
is
formed by a tangent and chord and
is
measured by half
of one of the equal parts of the circumference
(II.,
Proposition XY.)
these triangles are
all isosceles
therefore
and equal
Hence we have the
to each other.
gles
= H= K,
=.BH = HG =
etc.,
CK,
by the addition of
and
etc.,
equals,
it
an-
AG = GB
from which,
follows that
GH = HK, etc.
3.
Corollary
If the vertices of a regular inscribed poly-
I.
gon are joined with the middle points of the arcs subtended by the
sides of the polygon, the joining lines will form
a regular inscribed
polygon of double the number of sides.

4.
Corollary
If at the middle points of the arcs joining
II.
adjacent points of contact of the sides of a regular circumscribed
polygon tangents are drawn, a regular circumscribed polygon of

double the number of sides will be formed.
5.
Scholium. It
polygon
is less
than that of the inscribed polygon of double
the number of sides

is
evident that the area of an inscribed
is
and the area of a circumscribed polygon
greater than that of the circumscribed polygon of double
the number of sides.

EXERCISE.
Theorem.
tangents
If a
drawn
regular polygon
is
inscribed in
inscribed polygon
allel to the sides
drawn
form a circumscribed
of the inscribed poly-
vertices lie
to the vertices
polygon.
the
""~--Â
e/7 \
regular polygon, whose sides are par-
and whose
circle,
at the middle points of
the arcs subtended by the sides of the
gon,
on the radii
of the inscribed
A'{
/\
V \f
V"^'-^
^^\/
BOOK
151
V.
PROPOSITION II.THEOREM.
6.
and a
may be
may also
circle
ABCD ...
Let
circumscribed about any regular polygon
circle
be inscribed in
it.
be a regular polygon.
Through A' and B\ the middle points
AB
of
and BG^ draw perpendiculars,
and connect
tion,
with
0, their point of intersec-
the vertices of the poly-
all
gon and with the middle points of
all
the sides.
triangles OA'B and OB'B are equal, by I., Proposition
OB'B and OB'G are equal, by I., Proposition YI. The
005' is one-half of the
angle OBB' is one-half of ABG ;
equal angle BGD. Hence the triangles OB'G and OGG' are
By continuing this process we
equal, by I., Proposition YI.
The
X.
may
prove
tant from
circle
may
the small triangles equal.
all
all
centre a circle
may
7. Definitions.
centre of a regular polygon is the
and
is
the radius, OJ., of the circumscribed

circle.
The
common
A
vv
ô
radius of a regular polygon
The apothem
as a
in-
scribed circles.
the inscribed
also
is
therefore with
be inscribed in the polygon.
The
centre, 0, of the circumscribed
drawn
as a centre a
be circumscribed about the polygon.
equidistant from all the sides, and
The
0, then, is equidis-
the vertices, and therefore with
is
the radius,
O-ff,
of
Ê
circle.
angle at the centre
is
to the extremities of
the angle,
any
side.
AOB, formed by
radii
152
The angle
8.
at the centre
by the number of
divided
is
equal to four right angles
sides of the
polygon.
ABO,
twice
or to
lows that the
gon
ABC is equal to
ABO + BAO, it folangle ABC of the poly-
Since the angle
9.
the supplement of the angle at
is
the centre.
PROPOSITION in.THEOREM.
10. Begular 'polygons of the
same number of sides are
similar,
on the number of the
sides (8
ABCI)JE,A'B'C'iyE\
Ijet
be regular polygons of the
same number of sides then

;
they are
For,
similar.
1st,
they ape mutu-
ally equiangular, since the
magnitude of an angle of
either polygon depends only
and
9),
is
the same in both.
The homologous
2d.
AB
which
A'B'
is
sides are proportional, since the ratio
the same as the ratio
BG
B'C, or
CD
CD',
etc.
Therefore the polygons
fulfil
the two conditions of simi-
larity.
11.
Corollary. The perimeters of regular polygons of the
same number of
sides are to each other as the radii of the cir;
and
their areas are to each other as the squares of these radii,
(y,
cumscribed
III.,
circles,
or as the radii of the inscribed circles
Proposition YIII., and lY., Proposition IX.)
BOOK
153
V.
12.
The area of a regular polygon
equal
to
half the product
drawn from the centre
to the vertices
is
of its perimeter and apothem.
For straight
lines
of the polygon divide
it
into equal triangles
The area of one of these
apothem.
half the product of
its
sum of
the bases
altitude
triangles
base and altitude
is
by the common
the
is
equal to
is
therefore the
of their areas, or the area of the polygon,

of the
whose bases are
common
the sides of the polygon and whose
sum
half the product
altitude;
that
is,
half the product of the perimeter and apothem.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
The area
of any polygon circumscribed about a
half the product of
circle is
perimeter by the radius of the
its
circle.
13.
An
and has
same
AKB
Let
chord
arc of a circle
the
and
be an arc of a
let
than any line which envelops
is less
it
extremities.
circle,
ALB, AMB,
lines enveloping it
etc.,
AB
its
be any
and terminating
at
and B.
Of
all
the lines
AKB, ALB, AMB,
etc.,
which can be drawn (each including between

chord
AB the
segment, or area,
one minimum or shortest
line,
AKB),
itself
and the
there must be at least
since all the lines are obviously
Now, no one of the lines ALB, AMB, etc., enveloping AKB, can be such a minimum for, drawing a tangent
not equal.
CKL to the
arc
AKB, the ImeAGJCLB is
less
than
ACLDB
154
therefore
is
ALB
is
line
Therefore the arc
in the
same way
it
can
AKB
the minimum.
14.
Corollary.
The circumference of a
than the perimeter of any poly-
circle is less
gon circumscribed about

15.
is
shown that no other enveloping
be the minimum.
is
minimum and
not the
it.
The demonstration
Scholium.
applicable
is
when
AKB
any convex curve whatever.
PKOPOSITION VI.THEOREM.
16. If the
number of
a regular polygon inscribed in a
sides of
circle be increased indefinitely, the
apothem of the polygon
approach the radius of the
its limit.
Let
AB
let
as
be a side of a regular polygon
scribed in the circle
and
circle
OD be
its
whose radius
is
will
in-
OA;
apothem.
Whatever the number of sides of the polyProposition XYII.

OB < OA, by
(I.,
Axiom
I.)
AD
OD
.. OA OD
<
+
consequently OA OD <^ AB.
gon
I.,
OA
The perimeter of the polygon

circumference of the
the polygon,
AB
circle.
is
If n
<,
AD, and
manifestly less than the
is
the
number of
sides of
than one-nth of the circumference.
is less
by taking a sufficiently great value of n, we can

make AB, and consequently OA
OD, as small as we please.
Since OA
OD can be made as small as we please by
Therefore,
increasing the
made
number of
absolutely zero,
OA
of sides of the polygon
is
sides of the polygon, but cannot be

is
the limit of OD, as the
number
indefinitely increased (II., 39).
BOOK
155
V.
The circumference of a
17.
number of
the
area of the
Let
AB
their sides is increased indefinitely
CD
and
the
areas of these polygons.
circle is the limit of the
and
which the perim-
and circumscribed polygons approach
eters of regular inscribed
when
circle is the limit
be sides of a regular
in-
scribed and a similar circumscribed polygon

(v.
Proposition
I.,
apothem OE,
Exercise)
let r
the radius OF^
eter of the inscribed polygon,
the perim-
the perim-
eter of the circumscribed polygon.
have (Proposition
III.,
whence, by division
denote the
Then we
Corollary)
(III., 10),
P p __ R
or
Now, we have seen in Proposition YI. that by increasing

the number of sides of the polygons the diiference R
r may
be decreased at pleasure
crease,
But
P X (-^
R
P being
r),
or
consequently, since
not
in-
P p, may be decreased at pleasure.
always greater, and p always
cumference of the
circle,
ference and either
or
P does
less,
than the
cir-
the difference between this circum-
is less
than the difference
P -~ p^
and consequently may be made as small as we please by

increasing the
number of
obviously cannot be
is
the
common
the polygons
IjiisaL.
is
sides of the polygons,
made
limit of
and sinco
it
absolutely zero, the circumference
and
p, as the
number of
sides of
156
Again,
let s
and
S denote
the areas of two similar inscribed
The
and circumscribed polygons.
COD
between the triangles
and
difference
A OB
is
\^
^\/
N^^
CABD, the measure of which is

^ (CD + AB) X ^^; therefore the difference
trapezoid
between the areas of the polygons
the
is
consequently,
S-s<PXiB-r).
Now, by
increasing the
number of
sides of the
polygons the
quantity P X {^ 0) ^^^ consequently also S
But
decreased at pleasure.
always
less,
5,
may be
being always greater, and 5
than the area of the
circle,
the difference between
S ov s is less than the differmay also be made as small as
the area of the circle and either
ence
we
please
and
since
5,
and consequently
by increasing the number of sides of the polygons,

it obviously cannot be made absolutely zero, the
area of the circle
number of
is
the
common
limit of
and
5,
as the
sides of the polygons is indefinitely increased.
18.
radii,
The circumferences of two
and
circles
are to each other as their
their areas are to each other as the squares
of
their
radii.
Let
of the
and B' be the
radii
C and 0'
S and S'
their
circles,
circumferences,
their
areas.
Inscribe in the
two
circles
similar regular polygons of
any
arbitrarily chosen number,
n,
of sides
let
and P' denote
BOOK
the perimeters,
and A' the
the polygons being similar,
157
V.
areas, of these
we have
polygons
(Proposition
then,
III., Corol-
lary)
A^
P^^
P'
A'
J2"
R^
B'^'
n.
'
As we change
P and -- X
n,
Up
P' change, but remain always
equal to each other.
As n
7?
^^
is
P' approaches the
Theorem of
P approaches the limit 0, and

7?
limit
^^
C".
Limits, these limits are equal,
Therefore,
by
II.,
and we have
c = |xo',
or
^ = ?L
C
In the same
B!'
way we may prove
K=^
S'
19.
Corollary
other as their
It''
The circumferences of
diameters, and their areas are
I.
circles are to
to
each
each other as the
squares of their diameters.

Suggestion.
D = 2P,
if
is
dius.
14
the diameter and
the ra-
158
20.
to its
Corollary
diameter
For, from
is
The
II.
constant
O = 2R
ratio of the circumference of
that
is, it is
we have
2B
This constant ratio
circle
whose diameter
Scholium.
The
circle
all circles.
at once
2B''
is
usually denoted
is
2R and
2R
21.
the same for
by
tt,
so that for
any
G we have
circumference
'
ratio r is
incommensurable (as can be
proved by the higher mathematics), and can therefore bo
The
expressed in numbers only approximately.
however,
is
used to symbolize
its
letter
tt,
exact value.
22. Definitions. Similar arcs are
those which subtend equal angles

at the
centres of the circles to
which they belong.

Similar sectors are sectors
bounding
whose
radii include equal angles.
'^^^
Z^^-^^Ce^
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
Similar
arcs are to each other as their radii,
and
similar sectors are to each other as the squares of their radii.

Suggestion.
The
arcs are like parts of their respective cir-
cumferences, and the sectors like parts of their
circles.
BOOK
159
V.
The area of a
23.
circumference by
its
equal to half the product of
circle is
radius.
Let the area of any regular polygon

cumscribed about the
A,
its
which
circle
and
its
equal to the radius of the

let
Then
If
polygon,
and
we change
PX
-K
by
circle,
circum-
A= ^F
(Proposition IY.)j ^^ matter
the polygon.
apothem,
C the
be the area and
ference of the circle.
cir-
be denoted by
perimeter by P, and
is
its
y^
what the number of sides of

the number of sides of the
change, but remain always equal to
each other.
As
the
number of
sides
proaches the limit S^ and ^

fore,
by
II.,
is
P X ^ the limit
Theorem of Limits, these
^C
R-
ap-
There-
limits are equal,
and
we have
>Sf=^(7xP.
24.
of
its
Corollary. The area of a
circle is
equal to the square
radius multiplied by the constant number
Suggestion.
(20),
[1]
If
we
substitute for
tz.
in [1] its value 27zR
we have
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
of
its
The
area of a sector
is
equal to half the product
arc by the radius.
Suggestion.
Compare the
sector with the whole circle.
160
PEOBLEMS OF COIS^STEUCTIOK AND COMPUTATIOK

PKOPOSITION X.PROBLEM.
25.
To
inscribe
a square in a given
circle.
Draw any two
diameters
A C,
BJ), per-
pendicular to each other, and join their

extremities
DA;
then
26.
by the chords ABj BC, CD,
ABCD is an inscribed
Corollary. To circumscribe a square about a
draw tangents
eters
circle,
two perpendicular diam-
at the extremities of
AC, BD.
27. Scholium.
'UA'
square.
ABO we have AB' =

AB =OA.y^, by which the
In the right triangle
+ 'UB'=2'UA\ whence
side of the inscribed square can be computed, the radius
being given.
PROPOSITION XI. PROBLEM.

28.
To
inscribe
a regular hexagon in a given
Suppose the problem solved, and
ABCDEF be a regular
circle.
let
inscribed hexa-
gon.
Draw
angle
the radii
OA
and OB.
A OB is measured by \ of
the
The
cir-
cumference, and therefore contains 60.
OAB and OBA

or 120
angle
are therefore together equal to 180
and, since they are equal, each
OAB
is
scribed regular
equilateral,
hexagon
is
is
60,
and th^gfor^the
equal to
thfe
60,
and the
tri-
side of the in-
radius of the circle.

BOOK
161
V.
Consequently, to inscribe a regular hexagon, apply the

radius to the circle six times as a chord.
Corollary. To
29.
an
inscribe
equilateral triangle^ join the
alternate vertices of the regular hexagon.
OB
30. Scholium. Since
chord
AG
A OB,
AH
Bit
is
right angles
bisects the arc
and
ABC,
it
bisects the
since in the isosceles triangle
perpendicular to the base,
and
that
it
bisects the base,
OII=WB = WA;
is,
the apothem of an inscribed regular triangle
is
equal
to one-half the radius.
In the right triangle
AHO, AH^
= WC OTT' = TJA^
{lOAy=^lUA\2^n^
AC =^ OA-^/S,
whence
by which the
side of the inscribed tri-
angle can be computed from the radius.
The apothem of the regular
inscribed
hexagon
is
equal to
OA
AS
1/5-
PROPOSITION XII. PROBLEM.

To
31.
inscribe
a regular decagon
in
Suppose the problem solved, and
ABC
.,.
Jv
a given
circle.
let
be a regular inscribed deca-
gon.
Join AFj BGr
since each of these
lines bisects the circumference,
they are
diameters and intersect in the centre 0.
BK intersecting OA in M.
The angle AMB
measured by half
the sum of the arcs KF and AB (II., Proposition
Draw
is
14*
XYI.),
t'X^
that
)by
is,
two divi^ns of the circumference
angleîkHJ^
BF^
that
is
by two
also,
is,
AMB
therefore
the inscribed
is
an
divisions;
isosceles triangle,
MB = AB.
and
Again, the inscribed angle
MBO
is
^that
is,
measured by half the arc KG,
by one
division
and the angle
MOB at
the centre has the safne measure
there-
0MB is an isosceles triangle,
fore
The
AK,
measured by half the arc
inscribed angle
that
is,
by one
MBA,
and
OM = MB = AB.
being measured by half the arc
division,
Therefore the isosceles triangles
is
AOB.
equal to the angle
AMB and A OB are mutually
equiangular and similar, and give the proportion
OA'.ABÂB: AM;
whence
OA
that
at
is,
the radius
Jf (III., 41)
side AB of
XAM = A^=(m\-
OA
is
divided in extreme and
mean
and the greater segment OJf is equal
ratio
to the
the inscribed regular decagon.
Consequently, to inscribe a regular decagon, divide the

radius in extreme and
mean
ratio (III., 42),
and apply the
greater segment ten times as a chord.
32.
Corollary. To
inscribe
a regular
pentagon join the alternate vertices of

J
the regular inscribed decagon.
BOOK
163
V.
33.
To
a regular pentedecagon
inscribe
Suppose
AB
a given
circle.
the side of a
is
regular inscribed pentedecagon,
AB
or that the arc
in
is
^n*--
^ of the
-y^
^'^^===*==>.-îî;:i^^^'''^
circumference.
JSTow,
the fraction
J^.
==
i.
-i^
therefore the arc
AB is the
between \ and -^ of the circumference. Hence,

we inscribe the chord AG equal to the side of the regular
difference
if
inscribed hexagon, and then
CB
equal to that of the regular
AB
inscribed decagon, the chord
will be the
side of the
regular inscribed pentedecagon required.

34. Scholium.
Any
regular inscribed polygon being given,
a regular inscribed polygon of double the
number of
can be formed by bisecting the arcs subtended by
and drawing the chords of the semi-arcs (Proposition

ollary
I.).
Also,
sides
its sides
I.,
any regular inscribed polygon being
Cor-
given^
number of sides
Therefore, by means of the
a regular circumscribed polygon of the same
can be formed (Proposition

inscribed square,
sively, regular
we can
polygons of
the hexagon, those of
I.).
and circumscribe, succes-
inscribe
8, 16, 32, etc.,
sides
12, 24, 48, etc., sides
decagon, those of 20, 40, 80,
etc.,
sides
by means of
by means of the
and, finally,
of the pentedecagon, those of 30, 60, 120,
by means
etc., sides.
Until the beginning of the present century,
it
was
sup-
posed that these were the only polygons that could be constructed
by elementary geometry that
straight line
and
circle only.
by the use of the
Gaxjss, however, in his Disqui-
sitiones Arithmeticce^ Lipsise, 1801,
by the use of the
is,
straight line
proved that
and
it is
possible,
circle only, to construct
regular polygons of 17 sides, of 257 sides, and in general of
>)''
nxXcj__
^M3
"
-u^^JM
164
any number oF'sT^Fg which can
be^ expressed
being an integer, provided that 2"
1 is
by
2"
!>
a prime number.
I^ROPOSITION XIV.PROBLEM.
35. Given the perimeters of a regular inscribed and a similar
circumscribed polygon, to compute the perimeters of the regular
and circumscribed polygons of double
inscribed
the
number of
sides.
Let
AB
he a side of the given
inscribed polygon, and
CD
a side
^^^^P"-^4
of the similar circumscribed polygon, tangent to the arc
AB
its
Sit
\ \
\\i
middle point B.
and
and
BG
Join AE, and at
draw the tangents

then
AF
AE is a side of the
regular inscribed polygon of double the
FG
is
number of
sides,
and
a side of the circumscribed polygon of double the
number of
sides.
Denote the perimeters of the given inscribed and circumscribed polygons
by p and P,
respectively
and the perimeters
of the required inscribed and circumscribed polygons of

double the number of sides
Since 0(7
is
by y and
the radius of the circle circumscribed about
the polygon whose perimeter

Corollary)
since
P,
is
we have
OA
OF
OE'
bisects the angle
COE, we have
ercise)
OC^CF,
OE
therefore
(Proposition III.,
?=oc^^qc
p
and
P', respectively.
FE'
P^CF
p
FE'
(III., 15,
Ex-
BOOK
165
V.
whence, by composition,
P+p^
Iôw,
is
2FE
Fa'
FG is a side of the polygon whose perimeter is P', and
contained as
hence
CF-\-FE ^ CE
2p
many
times in F' as
(III., 9)
and therefore
CE
FG
F"
P+P
P^
2p
F'
GE
is
contained in
P;
whence
F+p
Again, the right triangles
their acute angles
AES and EFW are similar, since
EAS and FEJ}^ are equal, and give
AHÊN
AE
Since
in
AH and AE are
p and p\
EF
contained the same number of times
respectively,
we have
AH ^p
AE
and
EN
since
times in
'
and
EF
are contained the
same number of
and P', respectively, we have
^^
EW^p^,
EF
therefore
^'
P"
we have
whence
p'=y^^lxrT\
Therefore, from the given perimeters
P' by the equation

p'
by the equation
[1],
r2"|.
^2^
p and
P we compute
and then with p and P' we compute
166
PROPOSITION XV.PROBLEM.
36.
To compute
the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter^ approximately.
Method op Perimeters.
diameter of the
In
method,
this
we
take the
given and compute the perimeters
circle as
of some inscribed and a similar circumscribed regular polygon.
We
then compute the perimeters of inscribed and
cumscribed regular polygons of double the number of
by Proposition XIY.
given,
we compute
number of
sides
cir-
sides,
Taking the last-found perimeters as
the perimeters of polygons of double the
by the same method
and
Each com-
so on.
putation gives us, of course, a pair of values between which
the value of the circumference must

process, these values will
lie.
As we continue the
come nearer and nearer
to the
we
actual value of the circumference (Proposition YII.), and
may thus obtain

we please.
as close
an approximation to that value as
Taking, then, the diameter of the circle as given

us begin
by
inscribing
let
1,
and circumscribing a square.
The"
= 4 X ? X i/^= 2y^ (27)

that of the circumscribed square = 4 therefore, putting
perimeter of the inscribed square

J
p
}
we
find,
= 2^2 =t 2.8284271,
by Proposition
'^
'
X., for the perimeters of the circum-
scribed and inscribed regular octagons.
P'
= ^P^^ = 3.3187085,
p'
= yp
xP' = 3.0614675.
BOOK
167
V.
we put
Then, taking these as given quantities,
P = 3.3137085,
and
find
= 3.0614675,
for the polygons of 16 sides
by the same formulae

P' == 3.1825979,
/ = 3.1214452.
Continuing this process, the results will be found as in the

following
TABLE.*
Number
of sides.
4
8
16
Perimeter of
inscribed polygon.
4.0000000
3.3137085
2.8284271
3.0614675
3.1214452
3.1365485
3.1403312
3.1412773
3.1415138
3.1415729
3.1415877
3.1415914
3.1415923
3.1415926
3.182.5979
3.1517249
3.1441184
3.1422236
3.1417504
3.1416321
3.1416025
3.1415951
3.1415933
3.1415928
32
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
From
Perimeter of
circumscribed polygon.
the last two numbers of this table
we learn
circumference of the circle whose diameter
than 3.1415928 and greater than 3.1415926

the diameter
1,
we have
TT
(7
==
tt
(20),
it
is
that the
unity
and
since,
is less
when
follows that
= 3.1415927
within a unit of the seventh decimal place.
* The computations have been carried out with ten decimal places in
order to insure the accuracy of the seventh place, as given in the table.
168
37. Scholium.
Archimedes (bom 287
assign an approximate value of
that above, he proved that

or, in decimals,
signed
its
value
is
b.c.)
was the
first to
a method similar to
between 3^ and 3^J,

as-
value correctly within a unit of the third decimal
Tz
by
is
Archimedes'
3^, or %^^ usually cited as
(although
value of
him),
By
between 3.1428 and 3.1408; he therefore
The number
place.
its
;:.
it is
but one of the two limits assigned
often used as a sufficient approximation in rough
computations.
Metius
(a.d.
1640) found the
much more
accurate value
1^, which correctly represents even the sixth decimal place.

It is easily remembered by observing that the denominator
and numerator written consecutively,
the
first
More
thus, 113 355, present

1
three odd numbers each written twice.

recently, the value has been found to a very great
number of
decimals,
by the
the Differential Calculus.
aid of series demonstrated
by
Clausen and Dase, of Germany
(about A.D. 1846), computing independently of each other,

carried out the value to
two hundred decimal
their results agree to the last figure.
places,
The mutual
and
verifica-
tion thus obtained stamps their results as thus far the best
established value to the two-hundredth place.
(See Schu-
macher's Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 589.)
Other com-
puters have carried the value to over five hundred places,
but
it
does not appear that their results have been verified.
The value
to fifteen decimal places is
TT
= 3.141592653589793.
For the greater number of

t:
= 3.1416
is sufficiently
practical applications, the value
accurate.
*~
(^
IP
EXERCISES ON BOOK
V.
THEOREMS.
^1.
^
2.
An equilateral polygon inscribed in a circle is regular.

An equilateral polygon circumscribed about a circle is
ular if the
^ 3.
An
number
4.
An
number
of its sides
is
reg-
odd.
equiangular polygon inscribed in a circle

of its sides is odd.
is
regular
equiangular polygon circumscribed about a circle
if
is
the
reg-
ular.
\i
6.
The area
of the regular inscribed triangle
is
one-half the area
of the regular inscribed hexagon.

6. The area of the regular inscribed hexagon
that of the regular circumscribed hexagon.
/
I
7.
is
three-fourths of
inscribed hexagon is a mean proporbetween the areas of the inscribed and circumscribed equi-
The area of the regular
tional
lateral triangles.
(L
8.
A plane
surface
tion of a pavement)
four, or six sides.
may be entirely covered
(as in
the construc-
by equal regular polygons of
either three,
may be entirely covered by a combination

and regular octagons having the same side, or by
dodecagons and equilateral triangles having the same side.
9.
plane surface
of squares
10.
If squares be described on the sides of a regular hexagon,

vertices be joined, a regular dodeca-
and their adjacent external

gon will be formed.
11.
The diagonals of a regular pentagon form a regular pentagon.
12.
The diagonals joining alternate vertices of a regular hexagon
enclose a regular
agon.
hexagon one-third as large as the original hex\
15
169
170
13. The area of the regular inscribed octagon is equal to the

product of the side of the inscribed square by the diameter.
quarter of the octagon is the sum of two triangles
Suggestion.
having as a common base the side of the inscribed square, and
having the radius as the sum of their altitudes.
The
area of a regular inscribed

is equal to three times the
square of the radius.
14.
dodecagon
15. Prove the correctness of the following

construction
If
and CD are two perpendicular
the middle
diameters in a circle, and
point of the radius 0(7, and if EFis taken
equal to EA^ then
is equal to the side
of the regular inscribed decagon, and
is equal to the side of the regular inscribed
AB
OF
pentagon,
{v.
AF
III., 42.)
16. From any point within a regular polygon of n sides, perpendiculars are drawn to the several sides prove that the sum
of thea^ perpendiculars is equal to n times the apothem.
Suggestion. Join the point with the vertices of the polygon, and
obtain an expression for the area in terms of the perpendiculars
then see Proposition IV.
;
17.
The
side of the regular inscribed triangle
is
equal to the
hypotenuse of a right triangle of which the sides of the inscribed

square and of the regular inscribed hexagon are the sides,
IV., Proposition X.)
18. If a is the side of a regular decagon inscribed in a
whose radius is i?,
u
Suggestion.
By
(31),
=|
B
- =
a
(1/5-1).
{v.
circle
BOOK
171-
V.
19. If a = the side of a regular polygon inscribed in a

whose radius is i?, and a' = the side of the
regular inscribed polygon of double the
number
circle
of sides, then
7
a^2
=r{2R VU^
a
Suggestion.
ABC
^=
= {2RY a'\
Hence
a"
0,
and
and
ADO
'''
are similar.
ÛfVbut 37)^
20. If a = the side of a regular pentagon inscribed in a

whose radius is i?, then
R.
21. If a
the side of a regular octagon inscribed in a
whose radius is B^ then
circle
circle
= BV2 y
22. If a = the side of a regular dodecagon inscribed

whose radius is i2, then
in a circle
=ri2l/2-l/5.
23. The side of the regular inscribed pentagon is equal to the
hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are the radius and the
side of the regular inscribed decagon.
The area
of a ring bounded by two concentric circumferequal to the area of a circle having for its diameter a
chord of the outer circumference tangent to the inner circumfer24.
ences
is
ence.
25. If on the legs of a right triangle,
as diameters, semicircles are described
external to the triangle, and from the
whole figure a semicircle on the hypotenuse is subtracted, the remainder is

equivalent to the given triangle.
I^*r%.r
172
on the two segments into which a diameter of a given

divided by any point, as diameters,
semi-circumferences are described lying on op26.
If
circle is
sum of
their lengths is equal to the length of a semi-
posite sides of the given diameter, the
circumference of the given circle, and a line

which they form divides the circle into two
parts whose areas are to each other as the segments of the given diameter.
If a diameter of a given circle

divided into n equal parts, and
through each point of division a
curved line of the sort described in
the last problem is drawn, these lines
will divide the circle into n equivar
27.
is
lent parts.
28. If a circle rolls around the

circumference of a circle of twice
its radius, the two circles being
always tangent internally, the
locus of a fixed point on the circumference of the rolling circle
is a diameter of the fixed circle.
^^vsIfUA-^ygasguareis subdivided into n^

equal squares, nbSngany^î^vm^number, and
in each of these smaller squares a circle is inscribed, the sum of their areas is equal to the
area of the circle inscribed in the original
square.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
PLANE GEOMETRY.
THEOREMS.
The sum of
the three straight lines drawn from

triangle to the three vertices is
less than the sum and greater than the half sum
of the three sides of the triangle.
1.
any point within a
2.
If one of the acute angles of a right triangle is double the

hypotenuse is double the shortest side.
other, the
3. If from any point within an equilateral

triangle perpendiculars to the three sides are
drawn, the sum of these lines is constant, and
equal to the perpendicular from any vertex

upon the opposite side.
4. Lines drawn from one vertex of a

parallelogram to the middle points of the
opposite sides trisect a diagonal.
6. The bisectors of the angles contained by the opposite sides (produced)

of an inscribed quadrilateral intersect
at right angles.
15*
174
AOB
6. If
is any given angle at the
can be
centre of a circle, and if
produced in C, and
drawn meeting
the circumference in Z>, so that CD shall
be equal to the radius of the circle, then
the angle C will be equal to one-third the
angle AOB.
Note, There is no method known of drawing J5(7, under these
conditions, and with the use of straight lines and circles only,
being any given angle so that the trisection of an angle^ in
general, is a problem that cannot be solved by elementary geom-
BC
AO
AOB
*try.
7.
If through P, one of the points

of two circumfer-
of intersection
ences,
any two
secants,
APB^ CPD^
are drawn, the straight lines, AC,

DB, joining the extremities of the
secants, make a constant angle PJ,
equal to the angle

the tangents at P.
3fPN formed by
may be brought from one

about a certain fixed point
that is, by causing each point of the figure to move in the circumference of a circle whose centre is the fixed point.
8.
If a figure
position to
is
moved
in a plane,
any other by revolving
it
it
DEFO
9. If a square
is inscribed in a right triangle ABC, so
that a side
(the vertices
coincides with the hypotenuse
is a
and O being in the sides
and AB), then the side
of the
mean proportional between the segments
and
hypotenuse.
DE
BC
DE
AC
BD
EC
10. If the middle points of the sides of a triangle are joined by

straight lines, the medial lines of the triangle thus formed are
the medial line^ of the original triangle, and the perpendiculars
upon the opposite sides are the perpendiculars

at the middle poihts of the sides of the original triangle.
from, the vertices
11. If O is the centre of the circle circumscribed about a triangle

ABC, and P is the intersection of the perpendiculars from the
angles upon the opposite sides, the perpendicular from O upon
the side JSC is equal to one-half the distance AP.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
12.
In any
175
triangle, the centre of the circumscribed circle, the
and the intersection of the perpendiculars from the angles upon the opposite sides, are in the
same straight line and the distance of the first point from the
second is one-half the distance of the second from the third.
intersection of the medial lines,
the points A and B, and through

terminated by the circumferences at
C and i), the straight lines BC and
are to each other as the
diameters of the circles.
13.
If
two
circles intersect in
A any secant CAD is drawn
BD
If through the middle point of each diagonal of any quada parallel is drawn to the other diagonal, and from the
intersection of these parallels straight lines are drawn to the
14.
rilateral
middle points of the four
sides, these straight lines divide the

quadrilateral into four equivalent parts.
15.
If three straight lines Aa, Bb, Ce^

vertices of a triangle
ABC
drawn from the
through a comwithin the triangle, then
to the opposite sides, pass
mon point O
Oa Ob ,0g ^.
Aa"^ Bb~^ Cc
,
16.
angle
any point O within a triany three straight lines, Oa,

drawn to the three sides, and
If from
ABC
Ob, Oc, are
through the vertices of the triangle three

straight lines, Aa^, Bb\ Co', are drawn
parallel respectively to Oa, Ob, Oc, then
Oa
Aa^
^^\\
T Bb' "^
Q^
Cc'
The area of a circle is a mean proportional between the

any two similar polygons, one of which is circumscribed
about the circle and the other isoperimetrical with the circle.
17.
areas of
{Galileo^ 8 Theorem.)
18. Two diagonals of a regular
common vertex, divide each other
pentagon, not drawn from a

in extreme
and mean
ratio.
176
LOCL
The angle
19.
gle in a given
ACB is any inscribed ancircle ^C is
segment of a
produced to P, making
to
GB
of a right triangle is given in magnitude

find the locus of the centre of the inscribed circle.
The hypotenuse
20.
and
CP equal
position
The base
21.
BC
ABC
of a triangle
magnitude, and the vertical angle
is
given in position and

a given magnitude
J. is of
find the locus of the centre of the inscribed circle.
From a given point O, any straight line OA

drawn to a given straight line MN^ and OP is
drawn making a given angle with OA^ and such
22.
is
that
OP is to OA
in a given ratio
find the locus
of P.
OP
With the same construction, if

is so taken
that the product OP. OA is equal to a given constant find the locus of P.
;
From
a given point O, any straight

drawn to a given circumference, and OP is drawn making a given
angle with OA, and such that OP is to
23.
line
OA
OA
is
in a given ratio

the same construction, if OP is
so taken that the product OP. OA is
equal to a given constant find the locus of P.
;
With
24. One vertex of a triangle whose angles are given is fixed,

while the second vertex moves on the circumference of a given
circle what is the locus of the third vertex ?
25. Through A, one of the points of intersection of two given
circles, any secant is drawn cutting the two circumferences in the
points B and C; find the locus of the middle point of BG.
;
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.
177
PROBLEMS.
Describe a circle through two given points which lie outside
line, the centre of the circle to be in that line.
Show
26.
a given
when no
solution is possible.
27. In a given circle, inscribe a chord of a given length which

produced shall be tangent to another given circle.
Through P, one of the points of intersection of two circumdraw a straight line, terminated by the circumferences,
which shall be bisected in P.
28.
ferences,
Through one of the points of intersection of two circumdraw a straight line, terminated by the circumferences,
which shall have a given length.
29.
ferences
30. In a given triangle ABC, to inscribe

a parallelogram DEFO, such that the adjaand
shall be in a given
cent sides
DE
31.
two
DO
and contain a given
ratio
angle.
Construct a triangle, given

and one angle.
the ratio of the other
its base,
sides,
32. To determine a point in a given arc of a circle, such that

the chords drawn from it to the extremities of the arc shall have
a given ratio.
33.
To
find a point within a given triangle, such that the three

drawn from it to the vertices of the triangle shall
three equal angles with each other.
straight lines
make
34.
the
Inscribe a trapezoid in a given circle,

length of its inclined sides.
knowing
its
area
and
common
35.
To construct a triangle, given one angle, the

and the area (equal to that of a given
to that angle,
36.
parts,
Divide a given
a given
number
square).
of equivalent
by concentric circumferences.
Also, divide
given
circle into
side opposite
lines,
it
into a given
number
of parts proportional to
by concentric circumferences.
178
37.
A circle being given, to find a given number of circles whose
radii shall be proportional to given lines,
and the sum
of
whose
areas shall be equal to the area of the given circle.

38. In a given equilateral triangle, inscribe three equal circles
tangent to each other and to the sides of the triangle.
Determine the radius of these circles in terms of the side of the
triangle.
39. In a given circle, inscribe three equal circles tangent to each
other and to the given circle.
Determine the radius of these circles in terms of the radius of
the given circle.
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES.
Note.The following approximate values are close enough for
Radius
ordinary purposes tt
2^2^ ^2
ff.
||, |/8
|f, /S
of earth
3960 miles.
:
\^'
40. The vertical angle of an isosceles triangle is 36, and the

length of the base is 2 feet find the base angles, the length of
the bisector of a base angle, and the length of a side of the given
V5) feet.
Ans. TZ, 2 feet, (1
triangle.
;
and
.^
'
Lo
8 feet
42.
the including sides are 8 feet

find the area and the third side.
Ans. 61/3 square feet, 7 feet.
The
of a triangle
is 60,
three sides of a triangle are 9 inches, 10 inches, and 17

find the area of the inscribed
is 36 square inches
inches, its area
^^
"^
One angle
41.
Ans.
circle.
43.
(/
The adjacent
the area
is
sides of a parallelogram are 12 feet
120 square feet
and
47r.
14 feet,
find the long diagonal.
Ans. 24
feet.
The area
of a right triangle is 6 square feet, the length of

the hypotenuse is 5 feet find the other sides.
Ans. 3 feet, 4 feet.
44.
45.
btain a formula connecting the length of a chord
distance from the centre
c?,
and the radius
^,
its
r.
Ans. 4
= r^ cP,
Obtain a formula for the length ^ of a common tangent to

given tlie radii r, r'', and the distance between the
^2 for external tangent.
centres d.
Ans. {r
r^y 4-^
46.
two
circles,
[r -f
r^f
+ ^ = c^ for internal tangent.
Through what angle does the hour-hand of a clock move in

1 minute?
Through what angle does the minutehand move in 1 minute ?
What angle do the hands of a clock make with each other at
47.
hour? in
ten minutes past three
? at
quarter of six ?
Ans.
35, 97 30^.
179
180
48. Two secants cut each other without a circle, the intercepted
arcs are 12 and 48 what is the angle between the secants ?
Two chords intersect within the circle, a pair of opposite intercepted arcs are 12 and 48 what is the angle between the chords ?
;
Twô tangents make with each other an angle of 60 required the lengths of the arcs into which their points of contact
divide the circle, given radius equals 7 inches.
Ans. 14| inches, 29^ inches.
49.
60.
swimmer whose eye is at the surface of the water can
just see the top of a stake a mile distant the stake proves to be
8 inches out of water required the radius of the earth.
;
Am.
3960 miles.
passenger standing on the deck of a steamer about to

start observes that his eye is on a level with the top of the wharf,
which he knows to be 12 feet high when they have steamed 8^
miles the wharf disappears below the horizon required the radius
of the earth.
Ans. 3974 miles.
61.
62.
How many miles
the light of a light-house 150 feet high
is
visible at sea ?
A7is. 15.
On
approaching Portland from the sea, Mount Washington

Portland is 85 miles from
is first visible 12 miles from shore
Mount Washington required the height of the mountain.
Ans. 6270 feet.
63.
64.
The
Venice
is
latitude of Leipsic
Use 4000 miles

66.
The
it
shines on
on
its
its
and
how many miles
are they apart?

Ans. 413 miles.
as the earth's radius.
latitude of the
rising sun shines
before
51 21^ that of Venice 45 26^
is
due south of Leipsic
Peak of Teneriffe is about 30 N. the

summit on the 21st of March 9 minutes
base
required the height of the mountain.

Ans. About 12,000 feet.
quarter-mile running-track 10 feet wide, with straight

and semicircular ends, is to be laid out in a rectangular field 220 feet wide. How long must the field be in order
that a runner, keeping in the middle of the track, may have onequarter of a mile to cover? how much can he gain by keeping
close to the inner edge of the track ? what is the area of the field ?
of the portion encircled by the track? of the track itself?
Ans. 550 feet 31f feet 121,000 square feet 97,428^ square feet
66.
parallel sides
13,200 square feet.

67. The fly-wheel of an engine is connected by a belt with a
smaller wheel driving the machinery of a mill. The radius of the
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES.
181
fly-wheel is 7 feet of the small wheel, 21 inches. How many

revolutions does the small wheel make to one of the fly-wheel ?
The distance between the centres of the two wheels is 10^ feet.
What is the length of the connecting band ?
;
Ans. 51 feet 2 inches.

58. If from each vertex of a regular polygon as a centre, with
a radius equal to one-half the side, an arc is described outward
from side to side of the polygon, an ornamental figure much
used in architecture is formed. Such a figure formed on a polygon
of numerous sides is often used as a rose-window.
The figure bounded by three arcs is called a trefoil by four
arcs, a quatre-foil
by five arcs, a cinque-foil.
;
Find the area
of a tregiven the distance between the centres of adjacent arcs equal to 21 inches.
Ans. 7.338 square feet.
foil,
69.
rose-window
is to be
placed in a circular
space 42 feet in diam-
of six lobes
eter.
How many
square feet of glass

will it contain ?
Ans. 1123.8 square
feet.
SYLLABUS OF PLANE GEOMETRY.

POSTULATES, AXIOMS,
Through any two
THEOKEMS.
AISTD
BOOK
I.
Postulate
I.
points one straight line,
and only one, can
be drawn.
Postulate
II.
Through a given point one straight

drawn having any given direction.
Axiom
A straight
two
line,
and only
one, can be
I.
line is the shortest line that
can be drawn between
points.
Axiom
Parallel lines
have the same
II.
direction.
Proposition
I.
At a given point in a straight line one perpendicular to the line

can be drawn, and but one.
Corollary. Tiirough tlie vertex of any given angle one straight
line can be drawn bisecting the angle, and but one.
Proposition
All right angles are equal.
'
II.
-^
Proposition
III.
The two adjacent angles which one straight line makes with
another are together equal to two right angles.
Corollary I. The sum of all the angles having a common vertex, and formed on one side of a straight line, is two right angles.
Corollary II. The sum of all the angles that can be formed
about a point in a plane is four right angles.
182
183
Proposition IV.
If the sum of two adjacent angles is two right angles, their
exterior sides are in the same straight line.
Proposition V.
If
two straight
tical)
lines intersect
each other, the opposite
(or ver-
angles are eqûal.
Proposition VI.
Two triangles are equal when two sides and the included angle
of the one are respectively equal to- two sides and the included
angle of the other.
Proposition VII.
Two triangles are equal when a side and the two adjacent
angles of the one are respectively equal to a side and the two
adjacent angles of the other.
Proposition VIII.
In an
isosceles triangle the angles opposite the equal sides are
equal.
Corollary.
The
straight line bisecting the vertical angle of
isosceles triangle bisects the base,
and
is
an
perpendicular to the base.
Proposition IX.
Two
triangles are equal
when
the three sides of the one are
respectively equal to the three sides of the other.
Proposition X.
Two
and a
when they have
side of the one respectively equal to the
the hypotenuse
hypotenuse and a
side of the other.
Proposition XI.
two angles of a triangle are equal, the

are equal, and the triangle is isosceles.
If
sides opposite to
them
Proposition XII.
If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the side opposite the
greater angle is greater than the side opposite the less angle.
184
Proposition XIII.
If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angle opposite the
greater side is greater than the angle opposite the less side.
Proposition XIV.
have two sides of the one respectively equal to
two sides of the other, and the included angles unequal, the triangle which has the greater included angle has the greater third
If
two
triangles
two
triangles
side.
Proposition XV.
If
have two sides of the one respectively equal to
two sides of the other, and the third sides unequal, the triangle
which has the greater third side has the greater included angle.
Proposition XVI.
From
a given point without a straight line one perpendicular

can be drawn to the line, and but one.
Proposition XVII.
The perpendicular is the shortest hne that can be drawn from

a point to a straight line.
Proposition XVIII.
is erected at the middle of a straight line,
then every point on the perpendicular is equally distant from the
extremities of the line, and every point not on the perpendicular
is unequally distant from the extremities of the line.
If a perpendicular
Proposition XIX.
Every point in the bisector of an angle is equally distant from

the sides of the angle and every point not in the bisector is unequally distant from the sides of the angle that is, the bisector
of an angle is the locus of the points within the angle and equally
;
distant from
its sides.
Proposition XX,
A convex broken line is less than any ether line which envelops
it
and has the same
extremities.
185
Proposition XXI.
If two oblique lines drawn from a point to a line meet the line
at unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular, the more
remote
is
the greater.
Proposition XXII.
Two
same
straight line are
parallel.
Proposition XXIII.

parallel to
a given
line,
and only
one, can be .drawn
line.
Proposition XXIV.
When
two straight
by a third, if the alternatetwo straight lines are parallel.

two straight lines are cut by a third, if a
lines are cut
interior angles are equal, the
Corollary I. When
pair of corresponding angles are equal, the lines are parallel.
Corollary II. When two straight lines are cut by a third, if the
of two interior angles on the same side of the secant line is
equal to two right angles, the two lines are parallel.
sum
Proposition
If
two
parallel lines are cut
XXV.
by a third straight
line,
the alter-
nate-interior angles are equal.

I. If two parallel lines are cut by a third straight
any two corresponding angles are equal.
Corollary II. If two parallel lines are cut by a third straight
line, the sum of the two interior angles on the same side of the
secant line is equal to two right angles.
Corollary
line,
Proposition XXVI.
The sum
of the three angles of any triangle is equal to two

right angles.
Corollary. If one side of a triangle is extended, the exterior
angle is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
Proposition XXVII.
The sum
twice as
of all the angles of any convex polygon is equal to

right angles, less four, as the figure has sides.
many
16*
186
Proposition XXVIII.
Two
parallelograms are equal when two adjacent sides and the

included angle of the one are equal to two adjacent sides and the
included angle of the other.
Corollary. Two rectangles are equal when they have equal
bases and equal altitudes.
Proposition XXIX.
The
site
opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal,

angles are equal.
Proposition
and the oppo-
XXX.
'
If two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal and parallel,

the figure is a parallelogram.
Proposition XXXI.
If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure
parallelogram.
is
Proposition XXXII.
The diagonals
of a parallelogram bisect each other.
BOOK
II.
PROPOSITIONS.
Postulate.
A circumference may be described with any point as centre and

any distance
as radius.
Proposition
Two
circles are
equal
when
I.
the radius of the one
is
equal to the
radius of the other.
Proposition
Every diameter bisects the
circle
II.
and
Proposition
its
circumference.
III.
In equal circles, or in the same circle, equal angles at the centre

intercept equal arcs on the circumference.
Corollary. Conversely, in the same circle, or in equal circles,
equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre.
187
Proposition IV.
In equal circles, or in the same

by equal chords.
circle,
Corollary. Conversely, in equal

equal chords subtend equal arcs.
equal arcs are subtended
circles,
or in the
same
circle,
Proposition V.
In equal circles, or in the same circle, the greater of two unequal arcs is subtended by the greater chord, the arcs being each
less than a semi-circumference.
Corollary. Conversely, in equal circles, or in the same circle
the greater of two unequal chords subtends the greater arc.
Proposition VI.
The diameter perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord and

the arcs subtended by it.
Corollary I. The perpendicular erected at the middle point of
a chord passes through the centre of the circle.
Corollary II. When two circumferences intersect, the straight
line joining their centres bisects their common chord at right
angles.
Proposition VII.
In the same circle, or in equal circles, equal chords are equally
distant from the centre and of two unequal chords the less is at
the greater distance from the centre.
Corollary. Conversely, in the same circle, or in equal circles,
chords equally distant from the centre are equal and of two
chords unequally distant from the centre, that is the greater
;
whose distance from the centre
is
the
less.
Proposition VIII.
A straight line cannot intersect a circle in more than two points.

Proposition IX.
A straight line tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius

drawn
to the point of contact.

perpendicular to a tangent line drawn through
Corollary I.
the point of c(mtact must pass through the centre of the circle.
Corollary II. If two circumferences are tangent to each other,
their centres and their point of contact lie in the same straight
line.
V^
188
Proposition X.
When
two tangents
to the
same
circle intersect,
the distances
from their point of intersection to their points of contact are

equal.
Proposition XI.
Two parallels
intercept equal arcs on a circumference.
Doctrine of Limits. Theorem.

If two variables dependent upon the same variable are so related that they are always equal, no matter what value is given
to the variable on which they depend, and if, as the independent
is changed in some specified way, each of them approaches a limit, the two Umits must be absolutely equal.
variable
Proposition XII.
In the same
are in the
circle,
same
or in equal circles,
two angles
at the centre
ratio as their intercepted arcs.
Proposition XIII.
The numerical measure of an angle at the centre of a circle is

the same as the numerical measure of its intercepted arc, if the
unit of angle is the angle at the centre which intercepts the
adopted unit of arc.
Proposition XIV.
An
inscribed angle
Corollary.
is
its
intercepted arc.
An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

Proposition XV.
An
angle formed by a tangent and a chord

half the intercepted arc.
is
measured by one-
Proposition XVI.
An
angle formed by two chords intersecting within the circumference is measured by one-half the sum of the arcs intercepted
between its sides and between the sides of its vertical angle.
Proposition XVII.
An
angle formed by two secants intersecting without the circumference is measured by one-half the difference of the intercepted arcs.
189
Proposition XVIII.
An
angle formed by a tangent and a secant is measured by onehalf the difference of the intercepted arcs.
Corollary. An angle formed by two tangents is measured by
one-half the difference of the intercepted arcs.
BOOK
III.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
I.
parallel to the base of a triangle divides the other

proportionally.
Proposition
If a straight line divides
it is
two
two
sides
II.
sides of a triangle proportionally,
Proposition
Two triangles
are similar
III.
when they
are mutually equiangular.
Proposition IV.
Two
an angle in the
other,
when an
and the
angle in the one is equal to

sides including these angles are
proportional.
Proposition V.
Two
when
homologous
their
sides are
proportional.
Proposition VI.
If two polygons are composed of the same number of triangles,
similar each to each and similarly placed, the polygons are
similar.
Proposition VII.
Two similar polygons may be decomposed
into the same

ber of triangles, similar each to each and. similarly placed.
num-
Proposition VIII.
The perimeters of two similar polygons

any two homologous sides.
are in the
same
ratio as
190
Proposition IX.
If a perpendicular
drawn from the vertex
is
to the hypotenuse of a right triangle

1st.
and
The two
to the
triangles thus
whole triangle
of the right angle
formed are similar to each othei
2d. The perpendicular is a mean proportional between the

ments of tlie hypotenuse
seg^
3d.
Each
side about the right angle
is
mean
proportional be-
tween the whole hypotenuse and the adjacent segment.

Corollary. If from any point in the circumference of a circle a
perpendicular is let fall upon a diameter, the perpendicular is a
mean proportional between the segments of the diameter.
Proposition X.
The square
of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle

of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides,
is the sum
the three lengths being expressed in terms of the same unit.
Proposition XI.
If
two chords
intersect within a circle, their
segments are
re-
ciprocally proportional.
Proposition XII.
If two secants intersect without a circle, the whole secants and
their external segments are reciprocally proportional.
Corollary. If a tangent and a secant intersect, the tangent is a
mean proportional between the whole secant and its external
segment.
BOOK
lY.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
I.
Parallelograms having equal bases and equal altitudes are

equivalent.
Corollary.
Any
parallelogram
is
having the same base and the same
equivalent to a rectangle
altitude.

Proposition
Two
191
II.
rectangles having equal altitudes are to each other as their
bases.
Corollary. Two rectangles having equal bases are to each other

as their altitudes.
Proposition
III.
Any two rectangles are to each other as the products of their

bases by their altitudes.
Proposition IV.
The
area of a rectangle
is
its
base
and
altitude.
Proposition V.
The area of a parallelogram

and altitude.
is
its
base
its
base
Proposition VI.
The area of a
and altitude.
triangle
is
triangle is equivalent to one-half of any paralCorollary I.

lelogram having the same base and the same altitude.
Corollary II. Triangles having equal bases and equal altitudes
are equivalent.
Corollary III. Triangles having equal altitudes are to each

other as their bases, and triangles having equal bases are to each
Proposition VII.
The area of a trapezoid is equal to the product of

half the sum of its parallel bases.
its
altitude
by
Proposition VIII.
Similar triangles are to each other as the squares of their homologous sides.
Proposition IX.
Similar polygons are to each other as the squares of their homologous sides.
Proposition X.
The square described upon the hypotenuse

is
equivalent to the
two
sides.
sum
of a right triangle
of the squares described
on the other
192
BOOK
V.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
I.
If the circumference of a circle be divided into any number of

equal parts, the chords joining the successive points of division
form a regular polygon inscribed in the circle and the tangents
drawn at the points of division form a regular polygon circumscribed about the circle.
Corollary I. If the vertices of a regular inscribed polygon are
joined with the middle points of the arcs subtended by the sides
of the polygon, the joining Unes will form a regular inscribed
polygon of double the number of sides.
Corollary II. If at the middle points of the arcs joining adjacent points of contact of the sides of a regular circumscribed
polygon tangents are drawn, a regular circumscribed polygon
of double the number of sides will be formed.
;
Proposition
A circle may be circumscribed

a circle may
also be inscribed in
II.
about any regular polygon, and

it.
Proposition
III.
Regular polygons of the same number of sides are similar.

Corollary. The perimeters of regular polygons of the same
number of sides
are to each other as the radii of the circumscribed

or as the radii of the inscribed circles ; and their areas are
to each other as the squares of these radii.
circles,
Proposition IV.
The area
Its
of a regular polygon
is
perimeter and apothem.
Proposition V.
An
arc of a circle is less than any line which envelops it and

has the same extremities.
Corollary, The circumference of a circle is less than the perimeter of
any polygon circumscribed about
it.
193
Proposition VI.
If the number of sides of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle
be increased indefinitely, the apothem of the polygon will approach the radius of the circle as its limit.
Proposition VII.
The circumference
of regular inscribed
of a circle is the Umit which the perimeters

and circumscribed polygons approach when
sides is increased indefinitely and the area
the number of their

of the circle is the limit of the areas of these polygons.
;
Proposition VIII.
The circumferences
and their areas
radii,
two circles are to each other as their

are to each other as the squares of their
of
radii.
Corollary
I.
The circumferences of circles are to each other as

and their areas are to each other as the squares
their diameters,
of their diameters.
Corollary II. The ratio of the circumference of a circle to

is constant.
its
diameter
Proposition IX.
The area of a circle is equal to half the product of its circumference by its radius.
Corollary. The area of a circle is equal to the square of its
radius multiplied by the constant number tt.
GEOMETRY OE
SPACE.
In Plane Geometry we have considered merely figures composed of lines and points,
the same plane
tions
and
tacitly
In
(v.
all
of which are supposed to
definitions of the preceding five
assumed that the
many
I.
books
has been
of the propositions and definitions this limitation
and XXII., Book
I.,
and Definition
others the demonstration given
is
the limitation
Proposition XXIII.,
is
20,
Book
II.
I.
In
inconclusive without the

is
true even
removed; for example. Exercise
Book
is
for example. Propo-
limitation in question, although the proposition
when
it
figures in question are plane figures.
essential to the truth of the proposition

sitions
in
lie
Introduction, 5 and 6), and in the proposi-
1,
While in propositions concern-
ing equal polygons, which depend for their proof directly or

indirectly
upon a superposition of one polygon upon the
other, the limitation is obviously of
no importance; for ex-
ample. Propositions YI., YII., and IX.,

important,
when we
Book
I.
It
is,
then,
use the theorems of Plane Geometry in
proving theorems of the Geometry of Space, to satisfy ourselves that they are
concerned.
194
still
true in the figures with which
we are
BOOK YI
THE PLANE. POLYBDRAL ANGLES.
Definition.
1.
A plane has already been defined as a surface
such that the straight line joining any two points in
it lies
wholly in the surface.

Thus, the surface
and
ikfiV" is
a plane,
being any two points in
AB
straight line
lies
if,
JIT
the
it,
/4-
?-
wholly in the sur-
face.
The plane
however
understood to be indefinite in extent, so that,
is
far the straight line
But
in the plane.
is
produced,
it
by a parallelogram supposed
A plane is
2. Definition.
or points
points
when one
plane,
it,
to
and we usually
lie
said to be determined
and only
lie
we
to represent a plane in a diagram,
are obliged to take a limited portion of
represent
all its
in the plane.
by given
lines
drawn
con-
one, can be
taining the given lines or points.
PKOPOSITION I.THEOREM.
K^^Through any given
straight line
a plane may be passed
hut the line will not determine the plane.
Let
AB be a given
straight line.
may
be drawn in
r~
!.-''
straight line
any
plane,
plane
line
shall
may
drawn
and the position of that
7^
'/
/I B
aJ.
L-
be changed until the

in
it is
brought into coincidence with AB.
then have a plane passed through
AB
and
We
this plane
195
r|o
may be turned upon AB as an axis, and made

as many different positions as we
and as
choose,
in each of these
AB,
positions it is a plane through
we may have as many planes as

we choose through AB ; consequently
AB does not determine
PBOPOSITION
/
4.
plane
is
without that line
to occupy-
lL
(2) a plane.
II.THEOKEM.
determined^ 1st, by a straight line

;
and a point
2d, by two intersecting straight lines
3d, by
7 three points not in the same straight line ; 4th, by two parallel
!
straight lines.
Through a given
Ist.
plane
may
it
may
be passed, and
be turned upon
AB
as
AB
line
an
then
^
<?
axis, until
contains a given point G.
If
it is
then turned by the smallest amount

in either direction,
it
ceases to contain C.
and a given point without that
Through one of the
2d.
other, one plane,
drawn.
and only
line
line.
lines
ABj and a point C of the
one, can be
This plane will contain
and no other plane through
(1),
Therefore on
and only one, can be drawn containing a given
plane,
AG
AB
will.
3d. If three points.
given,
A, Bj 0, are
any plane containing them
must contain one of them and the

(1)
and
one,
and only
line joining the other
one, such plane can be drawn.
two
BOOK
Two
4th.
nition
(I.,
5)
there
for through
is,
AB
in the
lie
is
two planes
and a point
of
^
intersection of
a straight
is
Defi-
only one,
only one plane can be passed.
^fo) Corollary. The
same plane, by
then, one plane
There
containing them.
CD
AB, CD,
parallels,
197
VI.
For
line.
if
two points of the

must
in-
tersection be joined
by a
both planes^ by (1)
and no point outside of this line can be
common
two
to the
straight line, that line
planes,
straight line in question

planes.
is
by Proposition
II.
lie
in
therefore the
the line of intersection of the two
PERPENDICULARS AND OBLIQUE LINES TO PLANES.
6. Definition.
when
it is
straight line
is
perpendicular to a plane
perpendicular to every straight line drawn in the
plane through
its
foot ; that
is,
through the point in which
it
meets the plane.
In the same
the
case, the plane is said to be perpendicular to
line.
III.THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
Cy From
a given point without a plane, one perpendicular
the plane can he drawn,
and hut one ; and
the shortest line that can he
Let
plane.
JOT
the perpendicular is
the point to the plane.
the
Consider the various lines that can
be drawn from
obviously not
all
must, then, be
minimum
lines.
drawn from
line,
to
MN.
lines are
of the same length
among them
there
either one
or a set of equal shortest
There cannot be a
shortest lines.
These
set
y
^^
of equal
For, suppose that

17*
to
AB and
AB'
are two such
198
Join BB'.
lines.
drawn from
to
BB'
pendicular to
AB
Then, since
BB\
and AB'' Sire equal
(I.,
'Proposition XYI.),
and consequently they are longer than the
AC
to
BB\ by
Proposition XYII., which
is
contrary to
perpendicular
from
the hypothesis that they were
than any other
from
line
There
shorter
J
^^
be drawn
therefore one,
is
one,
BF drawn
in the plane
plane of the lines
AP
and
can be drawn from
plane
MN;
sition
XYII.).
therefore
Thus
every, straight line
through
JEF,
^P
its
For, in the
foot P.
the shortest line that
is
any point
in
drawn from
J.
to
shortest line that can be
is
1.,
minimum line from A to the plane/ Let AP be

minimum line then AP is perpendicular to any straight
and but
that
lines that could
to J/iV.
lines
they cannot be per-
FF, since it
to any point
is
the
in the
AP is perpendicular to FF (I., PropoAP is perpendicular to any^ that to

is,
drawn
in the plane
through
its foot,
and
therefore perpendicular to the plane.
There can be no other perpendicular from
MN;
for, if
to the line joining the points
we
to the plane
there were, both lines would be perpe-ndicular
where they met the
plane,
should have two perpendiculars from a point to a
which
is
contrary to
I.,
Proposition
vj) Corollary. At a given point

can be erected to the plane, and but
Let ilOTbe the plane and
in
and
line,
XYI.
a plane one perpendicular
j
one.
the point.
Let
Jif'iV'
plane, A'
be
any other
any point without
it,
and A'P' the perpendicular

from A' to
this plane.
Suppose the plane Al'N^ to be applied
BOOK
MN with
to the plane
199
VI.
the point P' upon P, and let
AP
the position then occupied by the perpendicular A'P'.
then have one perpendicular, J.P, to the plane

at P.
There can be no other
Then
dicular at P.
PC, the
in the
lines
I.
Scholium.
meant the
for let
PB
PB
We
erected
be another perpen-
are both perpendicular to
MN with
AP and BP^
same plane with^
Proposition
9.
and
of intersection of
line
mined by the two

lie
AP
MN^
be
the plane deter-
at the
same
P(7, ând this is
point,
and
contrary to
I.,
the distance of a point from a plane
hence
shortest distance;
it
is
is
the perpendicular
EXERCISES.
Theorem.
and meeting
Oblique
lines
drawn from a point
the plane at equal distances
perpendicular, are equal i
and of two
from
to
a plane,
the foot of the
oblique lines meeting the
plane at unequal distances from the foot of the perpendicular

the
more remote
2.
Theorem.
from a point
(^
^lr^li' ^x^::..--^rar^)
By
distance from the point to the plane.
1.
is
the greater.
Equal
to
oblique lines
a plane meet the
plane at equal distances from the foot

of the perpendicxdar ;
and of two un-
equal oblique lines the greater meets

the plane at the greater distance
the foot of the perpendicular.
from
200
(Ô) If a straight line
lines at their
of those
perpendicular
is
point of intersection^
it is
to
each of two straight
perpendicular
to the
plane
lines.
PB and
at their intersection P ; then AP is
AP
Let
P(7,
be perpendicular to
MN which
perpendicular to the plane

contains those lines.
PD
For, let
be any other straight
drawn through
line
Draw any
P in the plane MN.

BDG intersect-
straight line
AP
A
to A',
and A'
Since
BP
is
equal
The
ABD
AD = A'D.
triangles
and A'PD are equal
the adjacent angles
is,
MNp
and
is
(I.,
I.
is
are
equal to
equal,
triangles
Therefore
and
PD
is
perpendicular to any^
At a given point of
plane can he drawn perpendicular
two
Hence the
Proposition IX.).
then,
is
and A'BD are equal
and A'PD are
AP,
ABC, A'BC,
ABD
consequently perpendicular to the plane.
Corollary
Let
we
to every, line passing, through its foot in the plane
that
\l|t
APD
AP.
perpendicular to
middle point,
its
Proposition XYIII.), and for a like
(I.,
Proposition YI.), and
APD
a^
D,
Proposition IX.), and the angle
(I.,
the angle A'BD.

(I.,
perpendicular to AA', at
= BA'
CA = GA'
reason
produce
and join
(7,
to each of the points B, C,
BA
have
D;
= PA,
PD, in J5,
making PA'
ing PB, PC,
AP
be the
planes,
and
line,
and
the point.
in each of these planes
line perpendicular to AP.
g,
to the line,
straight
and
line
one
hut one.
Through
AP
draw through
pass
The plane determined by these
BOOK
two
lines
is
No other
201
VI.
AF
perpendicular to
at
P,
by Proposition
perpendicular plane can
be drawn through P,
a plane containing
for, if it could,
AF would
inter-
sect the two perpendicular planes

in lines
which would
plane with J.P,

ular
which
tion
AF
to
is
lie
in the
same
and be perpendic-
at
same
the
contrary to
I.,
point,
Proposi-(
-^"^
"
4^**v
yj^^-^tj^
ok.^^v^"'^'
*
* ^-^'H
I.
QS^ Corollary
line one
II.
Through a given point without a straight
plane can he drawn perpendicular
to the line,
and but
one.
In the plane determined by the point and the line draw a

perpendicular from the point to the
foot of this perpendicular draw, in
through the given
line,
line,
and through the
any second plane passing
a second perpendicular to the
The plane of these two perpendiculars
is
line.
obviously a plane
passing through the given point and perpendicular to the
given
No
line.
second perpendicular plane can be drawn through
thtj
given point, for the plane determined by the line and the
point would cut the two perpendicular planes in lines which
would be two perpendicular

given
line,
which
is
lines
contrary to
from the given point to the
I..
Proposition
XYL
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
All
straight line at the

line at the point.
the perpendiculars that can be
same point
lie
in
drawn
a plane perpendicular
to a-
to the
202
If from
Theorem.
2.
perpendicular
is
drawn at
the plane,
to
a plane a straight
right angles to
and
its
any
line
line of
intersection with that
any point of
line is joined to
of a
the foot
the perpen-
dicular, this last line will be perpendic-
ular
to the line
of the plane.
PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES.

13. Definitions. A straight line is parallel to a plane when it
cannot meet the plane, though both be indefinitely produced.
In the same case, the plane is said to be parallel to the line.
Two
planes are parallel
when they do not
meet, both being
indefinite in extent.
Jy.
Two
(14)
lines in space
having the same direction are par-
allel.
AB
Let
.
and
CD
Through
the same direction.
E of CD
point
'^^^^
II.),
therefore coincide with CD,
Corollary. Two
allel to
each
AB
(I.,
and consequently the same direction as CD, and
by
I.,
AB and CD are parallel, (f"^^ T''15.
a line parallel to
This line will have the same direction as
/^ ^jSpîom
^>-^^ must
AB and any
pass a plane, and in this
plane draw through

y'^^.y^ '^^'
be two lines having
other.
Postulate 11. Hence,^' '^-^.

^
ff
lines paraltet to the
For they have the same
seme
lirie
tT^l^
are par-
direction.
^..^^
<ISJ If two straight lines are parallel, every plane passed
through one of them and not coincident with the plane of the
parallels
is
parallel to the other.
BOOK
203
VI.
AB and CD be parallel lines, and MW any plane passed

through CD then the line AB and
Let
the plane
MN are
For the
31
AB, CD, are in

A CDB, which in-
parallels
the same plane,
tersects the plane
CD; and
CD, which
is
the line
cannot leave
MN at
meets
it
common
MN in
AB
since
this plane, if
point
parallel.
all it
two planes;
to the
must meet
thatî^, in
it
in
some
some point of
contrary to the hypothesis that
AB
and
CD
are parallel.
Corollary
17.
Through any given straight
I.
can be passed parallel
UK
Let
and any point
drawn
18.
parallel to
AB
Let
be
then the plane

is
par-
to
Through any given point a plane can
II.
any two given
given straight
and the
line
drawn through
lines.
drawn through
In
a 06 be
let
parallel to
line
AB
by the given
AB
in the plane determined
and the
CD
let
AB
by the
cOd be
parallel to
CD;
then the plane determined by the lines ab and cd

to each of the lines
Ir*
straight lines in space.
CD the
point
AB
HL
SK and HL,
the plane determined
and
let
AB, by Proposition YI.
Corollary
passed parallel
point
other given straight line.
UK
of
determined by
allel to
and
any
a plane
be the two given
In the plane determined by
lines.
MNj
to
AB
and
line
AB and
is
CD, by Proposition VI.
parallel
204
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
If a
intersection of the
and a plane are
straight line
parallel^ the
plane and a plane passed through the given
line is parallel to the given line.
(v.
Figure of Proposition VI.)
(10} Planes perpendicular to the
to
same
straight line are parallel
each other.
The planes
same straight
MW, PQ,
line
AB, cannot meet
jn
for, if
--A
they met, we should have through a point
of their intersection two planes perpendicular to the

possible
same straight
(Proposition
line,
IV.,
which
Corollary
im-
is
II.);
therefore these planes are parallel.
I
;^
^2J The
any
intersections of two parallel planes with
third
plane are parallel.
MW and PQ be parallel planes,

AD any plane intersecting them
in the lines AB and CD; then AB
and CD are parallel.
For the lines AB and CD cannot
Let
and
meet, since the planes in which they
y\
/^^
y
'\
\~
\i)
\
^
\
^
are situated cannot meet, and they

are lines in the same plane
AD
therefore they are parallel.
EXERCISE.
Theorem. Parallel
are equal.
lines intercepted between parallel
planes
\(\
BOOK
205
VI.
21.
is
straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel planes

to the other.
perpendicular
MW and FQ be parallel planes, and
Let
the straight line
then
it
AB be perpendicular to PQ;
MN.
will also be perpendicular to
For through
draw any
straight line
in the plane JOT, pass a plane through
and AC, and
BD
let
Then
parallel (Proposition YIII.)
BD
fore
AG
AB
be the intersection of
this plane with PQ.
pendicular to
let
(6),
AC
BD are
AB is per-
and
but
and consequently
AB, being perpendicular
any
to
line
also to
AC
AC;
which
in the plane JfiV", is perpendicular to the plane
it
there-
meets
JOT.
Corollary. Through any given point one plane can
22.
passed parallel
to
a given plane, and but
Drop a perpendicular
Suggestion.
line
be
one.
from the point to the
and then pass a plane through the point perpendicular
plane,
to this line.
same plane, have
23. If two angles, not in the
and
respectively parallel
lying in the
same
their sides
direction, they are
BQual and their planes are parallel.
Let BAC, B'A'C, be two angles lying

in the planes
AC, be
A!C',
parallel
and
1st.
in the
and
respectively
same
The angles
let
BAC
and A!C' and
BC and
B'
BB', and Cp'.
to A'B',
and B'A!C' are
AC
equal,
Draw now
The
AB,
directions.
Take the distances A!B' and
equal.
equal,
MN, M'N' ;
AB
and join
the lines AA',
quadrilaterals
is
AB' and
AC are parallel-
206
ograms, by
Proposition
I.,
XXX.
Therefore
They
are equal and parallel to AA'.
BB' and
CC
are
then equal and parallel to each other

(Proposition Y., Corollary), and
the triangles
by
the angles
are equal,
Consequently
IX.
For
MN
MN parallel
equal.
and M'N' are
planes
is
and A'C\ by Proposition
M'N'
A5(7and A'B'C
BAG dmd. B'A'C are
The
2d.
parallel.
is
B'C\ and
Proposition
I.,
BC
BC =
Hence
parallelogram.
YI.,
A'B'
to
and therefore, since
if it
met
the line of intersection would have to cut one or the
other of the intersecting lines A!B'^ A!G\
it is
parallel to
M'W,
Yf
one of two parallel lines
is
perpendicular
a plane,
to
the other is also perpendicular to that plarie.
Let AB^ A'B\ be
AB
let
MN;
to
parallel lines,
be perpendicular to the plane
then A'B^
is
i^
and A' be the intersections
of these lines with the plane
A'C
A' draw any line
AG
parallel to A'G'
BAG,
BA
a right angle
is
;
A'
W
N
through
in the plane
MN,
and in the same
A draw
and through
direction.
B'A'G', are equal (Proposition X.)
angle, since
1r
?.
also perpendicular
MN.
For, let
is
and
but
The angles
BAG m
2i
right
perpendicular to the plane; hence B'A'G'

that
A'G' drawn through
is,
its
B'A'
is
foot in the plane
quently perpendicular to the plane.

V("
*\-
perpendicular to any line
,'
MN,
and
is
conse-
-'^
X^
vi^..
-^V^-.c.I3t>v^5r-v
<^
BOOK
Corollary. Two
25.
plane are parallel
to
207
VI.
same
each other,
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
Two parallel planes are everywhere equally
distant,
BIEDRAL ANGLES.ANGLE OF A LINE AND PLANE,

ETC.
When two
26. Definition.
by
their
common
planes meet and are terminated
intersection,
they form a diedral
angle.
Thus, the planes AE, AF^ meeting in AB^ and
terminated by AB^ form a diedral angle.
The planes AE^ AF, are
AB the
the line
called the faceSy
and
edge, of the diedral angle.
A diedral angle may be named by four letters,

one in each face and two on
its
edge, the
two
on the edge being written between the other two ; thus, the
angle in the figure
When
edge,
it
there
may
may
be named
DABC.
but one diedral angle formed at the same?
is
be nariied by two letters on
the preceding figure, the diedral angle
its
edge
,-
thus, in
DABC may be named
the diedral angle AB.

27. Definition.
The angle
AC, AD, drawn, one

pendicular to
its
in
edge
CAD formed hj two
straight lines
each face of the diedral angle, per-
AB
at the
same
point, is called the
plane angle of the diedral angle.

EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
equal,
2.
uj
(v.
All plane
Theorem.
If a plane
a diedral angle,
angle
form
angles of the same diedral angle are
Proposition X.)
the
its
is
drawn perpendicidar
to the
edge
intersections with the faces of the diedral
plane angle of the diedral angle.
208
28.
ated
DABG may be
diedral angle
by a
conceived to be gener-
plane, at first coincident with a fixed plane
revolving upon the line
A^ as
an axis
until it
AE,
comes into the
AF. In this revolution a straight line CA, perpento AB, generates the plane angle CAD.
position
dicular
29. Definition.
Two
diedral angles are equal
when they
can be placed so that their faces shall coincide.
CABD,
when the
Thus, the diedral angles
G'A'B'D', are equal,
edge A'B'
AB
if,
D'
applied to the edge
is
and the face A'F' to the face
AF^ the
face A'E' also coincides
Br
Ff
with the face AE.
E'
Since the faces continue to coincide
when produced
indefinitely, it is
apparent that the
magnitude of the diedral angle does not depend upon the

extent of
its faces,
30. Definition.
but only upon their relative position.
Two
AB
have a common edge
BD between them,
Two
diedral
placing
angles
GABE is
when
edral angle
angle.
are added
together
to each other.
the
by
Thus, the
sum of the two
,,^
diedral
GABD and DABE.
31. Definition.
dicular
and a
are called adjacent.
angles
them adjacent
diedral angle
GABD, DABEj which

common plane
diedral angles
The
Two
the plane angle of the
which they form

diedral angle
a right diedral angle.
cA
planes are perpen-
is
is
di-
a right
then called
VI
BOOK
209
VI.
(^
diedral angles are equal if their plane angles are
Two
equal.
CAD
Let the plane angles
C'A'D' of the diedral angles
1/
and
CABD,
C'A'B'D', be equal; then are the

diedral angles equal.
superpose
For,
CABD, making
B'
the
C'A'D' coincide with
angle
plane
equal
its
CAD ;
these angles will coincide (Proposition
now
being
B'C
sition 11.)
then the planes of
A'B' and AB^
II.).
perpendicular to the same plane at the same point,
must coincide (Proposition

planes
F'
C'A'B'iy upon
50 will
and
III.,
Corollary)
coincide,
and, finally, the
and B'D' and
BD (Propo-
Therefore the diedral angles are equal.
PROPOSITION XIII. THEOREM.

Two
331
diedral angles are in the
same
ratio
as.
their
plane
angles.
Let
CABD
and
diedral angles;
GEFH be
and
let
two
CAD
'
V-
and
a
GEH be their plane angles.
1
1
1
Suppose the plane angles have

a
common
times in
GEH; we
and n times
II
^^^^
-ij
have, then,
CAD
this
measure to
lines of division
o
II
in
^m
GEH
Apply
III
ill
measure, contained
CAD
-1
CAD
and
GEH^ and
through the
and the edges of the given diedral angles

18*
210
pass planes, thus dividing
CABD
into
GEFII
and
into n
Each of
smaller diedral angles.
these small diedral angles has one
CAD
of the parts into which
is
divided, or one of the parts into
GEH
which
as
divided,
is
AB
plane angle, because
its
"
per-
is
?Fr::rl
^^-\ \i
CAD,
the plane of GEH, by
pendicular to the plane of
and
EF
to
These small diedral angles
Proposition lY.
equal,
by Proposition
XII.,
are, then, all
and we have
CABD
^m
GEFH
n'
Therefore
CABD
GEFH
The proof
is
CAD
GEH'
extended to the case where the given
angles are incommensurable,
the proof of
II.,
Proposition XII., of
of IV., Proposition
planej
by the method exemplified

III.,
Proposition
I.,
in
and
II.
34. Scholium. Since the diedral angle is proportional to its
plane angle (that
is,
varies proportionally with
is
arc
taken as the measure of a plane angle.
angle will be expressed by 45 if
by
the plane
taken as the measure of the diedral angle, just as an
angle
is
it),
its
Thus, a diedral
plane angle
is
expressed
45, etc.
V^Sa If a straight
passed through the
line is
perpendicular
line is also
to
a plane, every plane
perpendicular
to that
plane.
BOOK
Let
211
VV
AB be perpendicular to the plane MJSf;
PQ, passed through AB,
is
then any plane
also perpendic-
ular to JfiV.
For, at
draw BC^
in the
MWj
plane
perpendicular to the intersection BQ. Since
AB is
perpendicular to the plane 3IW,
BQ
perpendicular to
ABC
the angle
is
the plane angle of the
diedral angle formed
the angle
ABC
is
it is
and BG; therefore
by the planes
PQ and MN;
and since
a right angle, the planes are perpendicular
to each other.
PROPOSITION XV.-THEOBEM.
(^g) If two planes are perpendicular to each other, a straight
line
drawn
in one of them, perpendicular to their intersection, is
perpendicular
to the other.
PQ and JfZV be perpendicular to each other and at any point B of

their intersection BQ let BA be drawn, in
Let the planes
the plane PQ, perpendicular to
BA
BQ;
then
perpendicular to the plane 3fN.
is
For, drawing BC, in the plane
pendicular to BQ, the angle
ABC
MW,
is
per-
a right angle, since
the plane angle? of the right diedral angle formed

planes
therefore
BQ, BC,
is
AB, perpendicular
to the
perpendicular to their plane
by the two
two straight
MW
it is
lines
(Proposition
IV.).
37.
other,
Corollary
a straight
I.
line
If two planes are perpendicular to each
drawn through any point of
tion perpendicular to one of the planes will
Proposition
III., Corollary.)
lie
their intersec-
in the other,
(v.
212
Corollary
38.
If two planes are perpendicular^ a straight
II.
line let fall
from any point of one plane perpendicular
other will
in the first plane,
lie
(v.
to the
Proposition III.)
PROPOSITION XVI.THEOREM.
39. If two intersecting planes are each perpendicular to a
third plane, their intersection
is
also perpendicular to that plane.
Let the planes PQ, BS, intersecting
in
the line AB, be perpendicular to the plane
MN
AB
then
is
plane M]Sf.
For, if from
pendicular be drawn to
dicular will
and
BS
lie
A of A B a perMNj this perpen-
any point
in each of the planes
(Proposition XY., Corollary
and must
PQ
II.),
therefore be their intersection
AB.
fwi Through any
given straight line a plane can be passed
perpendicular to any given plane.
AB
Let
MW the
of
AB
given plane.
let
AC
line,
From any
and
point
he drawn perpendicular to
MN,
and through
AD.
This plane
AB and A C pass a plane

is
perpendicular to
MN
EE3
(Proposition XIY.).
Moreover,
since,
by Proposition XY., Corollary IL, any
AB perpendicular to MN must contain

a
the plane AD is the only plane perpendicular to MN that can be passed through AB, unless AB
plane passed through
the perpendicular
is
itself
through
A C,
perpendicular to
MN,
in
which case every plai^
AB is perpendicular to MN.
BOOK
213
VI.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
The
locus of the
from
equally distant
points
two given -planes
plane
is ttie
bisecting the diedral angle be-
tween the given planes,
(v.
Proposition XIX.)
I.,
41. Definitions.
point
The
upon a plane
MN
of the perpendicular
upon the
The
projection
let
of
the foot a
is
from
fall
plane.
ABODE
projection of a line
upon a plane
MN
is
the line abcde
containing the projections of

points of the line
ABODE
the
all
upon the
plane.
PROPOSITION XVIII.THEOREM.
(42^ The projection of a straight
line
upon a plane
is
a straight
line.
AB
Let
and
MI^
the given plane.
Ab, passed through

to'
the plane
MN,
pendiculars let
upon
AB
fall
The plane
perpendicular
contains
all
the per-
from points of
MN (Proposition
line,
AB
XY., Corollary
II.); therefore these perpendiculars all
meet the plane
MN in
ular plane with
MN. The
MN
is,
/V
t^t^^
the intersection ab of the perpeiidicprojection of
consequently, the straight line ab.
AB
iû\t
*^
^^^'â-y.ÂJ
upon the plane
V^
214
43. Scholium.
the straight line
The plane Ah
is
called the projecting plane of
AB upon the plane MN.
PKOPOSITION XIX.THEOREM.
The acute angle which a
44.
projection upon a plane
any
is
straight line
makes with
the least angle which
it
its
own
makes with
line of that plane.
Let Ba be the projection of the straight

line
BA
MN,
upon the plane
the point
being the point of intersection of the line
BA
with the plane
be any other
drawn through
straight line
plane; then the angle

the angle
BC
let
ABa
in the
is less
than
ABC.
BG = Ba, and join AC.

have AB common, and Ba
For, take
ABC, we
since the perpendicular
45. Definition.
its
= BC;
Aa
but
than any oblique
line
<i AC,
therefore
ABa is less than the angle ABC(1., Proposition XY.).
the angle
with
is less
In the triangles ABa,
own
of the line to
The acute angle which a
projection
upon a plane
is
Two
straight lines
makes
called the inclination
the plane, or the angle of the
46. Definition.
straight line
line
and
plane.
AB,
CD, not in the same plane, are regarded
making an angle with each other which

is equal to the angle between two straight
lines Ob, Od, drawn through any point O
as
in space, parallel respectively to the

lines
and
47.
in the
From
same
two
directions.
the preceding definition,
straight line is perpendicular to a plane,
it
follows that when a
it is
perpendicular to all
the lines of the plane, whether the lines pass through
or not.
its
foot
BOOK
215
VI.
POLYEDRAL ANGLES.
48. Definition.
mon
point,
Thus the
When
three or more planes meet in a com-
they form a polyedral angle.
S-ABCD, formed by
figure
the
ASB, BSC, CSD, DSA, meeting in

the common point S^ is a polyedral angle.
The point S is the vertex of the angle
planes
the intersections of the planes SA^ SB,

etc.,
are
the portions of the
edges;
its
planes included between the edges are
ASB^ BSG,
etc.,
A triedral angle
which
is
its
formed by the edges, are
the least
is
faces ; the angles
its
face angles.
a polyedral angle having but three faces,
number of
faces that can
form a polyedral
angle.
In a polyedral angle every pair of adjacent edges form
49.
a face angle, and every pair of adjacent faces form a diedral
These face angles and diedral angles are the parts of
angle.
the polyedral angle.
Two
50. Definition.
faces
polyedral angles are equal
and edges can be made to
when
coincide, if one angle
their
is suit-
ably superposed upon the other.
Of
course
it
follows that corresponding parts of
two equal
polyedral angles are equal.

51. Definition.
Two
polyedral angles are symmetrical if the
parts of one are respectively equal to the parts of the other
but the corresponding parts succeed each other in the two

angles in inverse order.
(symmetrical,
it is
When two
in such a
way
figure
so to speak, right-handed
is,
polyedral angles are
impossible to superpose one upon the other
as to bring corresponding parts together.
One
and the other left-handed.
216
52. Definition.
any
section,
A polyedral
ABCD, made by
a convex polygon
(I.,
angle
S-ABCD
a plane cutting
is
convex,
when
all its faces, is
54).
)-The
sum
of any two face angles of a triedral angle
is
greater than the third.
The theorem requires proof only when the

considered
is
S-ABC
Let
third angle
greater than each of the others.
be a triedral angle in which
ASC is greater than either

ASB or BSC; then ASB + BSG > ASC.
For in the face ASC draw SD making the
angle ASD equal to ASB, and through any
point D of SB draw any straight line ADC
the face angle
cutting
The
(I.,
SA
and SG; take
triangles
SB
ASD and ASB are equal,
Proposition YI.), whence
angle
= SD, and join AByBG.

AD
by the construction
= AB.
Now,
in the tri-
ABC, we have
AB + BC>AG,
and, subtracting the equals
AB and AD,
BC > DC;
therefore, in the triangles
BSC
> DSC
angles
(I.,
BSC
and DSC, we have the angle
Proposition XY.), and adding the equal
ASB and ASD, we
have
ASB + BSC >-ASC.
BOOK
217
VT.
[5^ The sum
is less
of the face angles of any convex polyedral angle
than four right angles.
Let the polyedral angle

section
ABCDE^ by
From any
polygon.
be cut by a plane, making the
hypothesis, a convex
point
within this
polygon draw OA, OB, OC, OB,
OK
The sum of the angles of the triangles

ASB, BSC, etc., which have the common
vertex S,
gles
sum of
equal to the
is
A OB, BOO,
etc.,
But
vertex 0.
by the
in the triedral angles
we have
(Proposition
SBA
hence, taking the
vertex
is
+ SBC> ABC, etc.
sum of
all
less
these inequalities,
it
follows that
the angles at the bases of the triangles whose

is
greater than the
of the angles at
is,
0, etc.,
and the plane of the
> EAB,
sum of the
bases of the triangles whose vertex
that
formed at A, B,
XX.)
SAB + SAB
sum of
r>
which have the common
faces of the polyedral angle
polygon,
the
the an-
of the same number of triangles
>S^
is less
angles at the
0; therefore the sum

than the sum of the angles at 0;
than four right angles.
is
218
PROPOSITION XXII.-THEOREM.
55. If
two triedral angles have the three face angles of the one
respectively equal to the three face angles of the other^ the cor-
responding diedral angles are equal.
In the triedral angles
and
BSC =
bsc
S and
s,
ASB =
let
then the diedral angle
ash,
SA
is
ASC =
asc,
equal to the
diedral angle sa.

*>C?
.^
On
the edges of these angles take the six equal distances
SA, SB, SC,
sa, sb, sc,
isosceles triangles
and draw AB, BC, AC,
SAB
and sab are
angle included by equal
same reason,
ABC
BG =
and abc are
At any
point
in the face
hence
AC = ac
angle
AB = ah
and
for the
D in SA, draw DE
ASC, perpendicular
the angles
for,
SAB
to
in the face
SA;
the triangles
and
SAC
be the points of meeting, and join
= SB,
The
ah, he, ac.
having an equal
equal.
and AC, respectively,

isosceles,
hc,
sides,
equal,
ASB and DF
these lines meet
ASB
and
ASC
are acute; let
EF.
Now
and repeat the same construction
in
AB
being
and
on sa take sd
the triedral
s.
ADE and ade are equal, since AB = ad, and

the angles at A and B are equal to the angles at a and d;
hence AE = ae and BE = de. In the same manner we have
The
triangles
BOOK
AF = of
and
aef are equal
DF = df.
(I.,
are equal;
FDF
and
edf,
therefore the angle
the diedral angle SA,
is
AEF and
have FF =
Therefore the triangles
Proposition YI.)j and
Finally, the triangles

eral,
219
VI.
we
ef.
being mutually equilat-
FDF, which
equal to the angle
edf,
ures the diedral angle sa, and the diedral angles
are equal (Proposition XII.).
sc,
SB and SO
and sa
it
may
are equal to
respectively.
Scholium. It follows that the polyedral angles

either equal or symmetrical.
the figure.
SA
In the same manner
be proved that the diedral angles

the diedral angles sb and
measures
which meas-
>S^
and
are
Both cases are represented
in
EXERCISES ON BOOK
YI.
THEOREMS.
AB
AB
1. If a straight line
is parallel to a plane JfJV, any plane
perpendicular to the line
is perpendicular to the plane 3lJS\
(v. Proposition VI., Exercise.)
2. If a plane is passed through one of the diagonals of a parallelogram, the perpendiculars to this plane from the extremities
of the other diagonal are equal.
3. If the intersections' of a number of planes are parallel, all the
perpendiculars to these planes, drawn from a common point in
space, lie in one plane.
Suggestion.
Through the common point pass a plane perpen-
dicular to one of the intersections,

lary II.)
4. If the projections of a
number
{v.
Proposition XV., Corol-
of points on a plane are in a
straight line, these points are in one plane.

5. If each of the projections of a line
AB upon two intersecting
AB
the line
is a straight line.
6. Two straight lines not in the same plane being given
1st, a
common perpendicular to the two lines can be drawn 2d, the
common perpendicular is the shorte
d
o
est distance between the two lines.
,1
Suggestion. Let
and CD be
the two given lines. Pass through
M
parallel to CX>, and
a plane
and CD pass planes
through
/
perpendicular to MN. Their inter"
'
section Co is the required common
perpendicular. CD and cd are parN
allel, by 18, Exercise.
joining
2d. Any other line
and CD is greater than JEIT, the perpendicular from
to cd
(Proposition XV.), and therefore greater than Cc.
planes
is
a straight
line,
AB
MN
AB
AB
/i
l'\
i\
BF
AB
220
BOOK
VI.
7. If two straight lines are intersected by

three parallel planes, their corresponding
segments are proportional, {v. Proposition
VIII.)
8.
plane passed through the middle point of the common
perpendicular to two straight lines in space, and parallel to both
these lines, bisects every straight line joining a point of one of
these Hues to a point of the other, {v. Exercise 7.)
9. In any triedral angle, the three planes bisecting the three
diedral angles intersect in the same straight line. {v. 40, Exer-
cise.)
10. In any triedral angle, the three planes

passed through the edges and the bisectors
of the opposite face angles respectively intersect in the same straight line.
Suggestion. Lay off equal distances SAj
SB, SC, on the three edges, and pass a plane
through Aj B, C. The intersections of the

three planes in question with ABCsive the
medial lines of ABC, and have a common intersection, and the line
joining this common intersection with S lies in the three planes.
11. In any triedral angle, the three planes passed through the
bisectors of the face angles, and perpendicular to these faces
same straight line.

Use the same construction as in Exercise
respectively, intersect in the
Suggestion.
10.
Then
ABC
are perpendicular
the intersections of the three planes with
at their middle points, and have a common
to the sides of
ABC
intersection.
12. In any triedral angle, the three planes
passed through the edges, perpendicular to
the opposite faces respectively, intersect in
the same straight line.
Suggestion. At any point A of one of the
edges, draw a plane
perpendicular to
the edge SA. The intersections of the three
planes with
are the perpendiculars
from the vertices of ABC^ upon the opposite sides, and have a common intersection, {v. Proposition XVI.)
ABC
ABC
19*
222
LOCI.
13. Find the locus of the points in space which are equally
distant from two given points.
14. Locus of the points which are equally distant from two
given straight lines in the same plane.
15. Locus of the points which are equally distant from three
given points.
16.
Locus of the points which are equally distant from three
given planes,
17.
{v. 40,
Exercise.)
Locus of the points which are equally distant from three
given straight lines in the same plane.

\ 18. Locus of the points which are equally distant from the three
edges of a tried ral angle (Exercise 11).
19. Locus of the points in a given plane which are equally distant from two given points out of the plane.
20. Locus of the points which are equally distant from two
given planes, and at the same time equally distant from two
given points.
PROBLEMS.
In the solution of problems in space, we assume, 1st, that a

plane can be drawn passing through three given points (or two intersecting straight lines) and its intersections with given straight
lines or planes determined; and, 2d, that a perpendicular to a
given plane can be drawn at a given point in the plane, or from
a given point without it. The actual graphic construction of the
solutions belongs to Descriptive Geometry.
21. Through a given straight line, to pass a plane perpendicular
to a given plane, (v. Proposition XVII.)
22. Through a given point, to pass a plane perpendicular to a
given straight line.
Suggestion. If the given point is in the given line, pass two
planes through the given line, and draw in each of them, through
the given point, a line perpendicular to the given line. The plane
determined by these lines is the perpendicular plane required.
{v.
Proposition IV.)
If the given point
is
not in the given
line,
pass a plane through
and the given line, and in this plane, through the given point,
draw a line parallel to the given line. A plane through the given
it
point, perpendicular to this second line,
Proposition XI.)
is
the plane required,
(v.
BOOK
223
VI.
point, to pass a plane parallel to a given

Proposition IX., Corollary.)
24. To determine that point in a given straight line which is
equidistant from two given points not in the same plane with
the given line. (v. Exercise 13.)
25. To find a point in a plane which shall be equidistant from
23.
Through a given
plane,
(v.
three given points in space.

26. Through a given point in space, to draw a straight line
which shall cut two given straight lines not in the same plane.
Suggestion. Pass a plane through the given point and through
one of the given lines the line through the given point and the
point where the plane cuts the second given line is the solution
;
required.
27. Through a given point, to draw a straight line which shall
meet a given straight line and the circumference of a given circle
not in the same plane. (Two solutions in general.)
28. In a given plane and through a given point of the plane, to
draw a straight line which shall be perpendicular to a given line
in space.
Suggestion.
Draw a plane through
dicular to the given line.

the solution required.
29.
the given point and perpenwith the given plane is
Its intersection
Through a given point
^ in a plane,
AT in that plane, which shall be

given point P without the plane.
to
draw a
straight line
at a given distance
PT from a
to the plane, and with

Suggestion. Drop a perpendicular from
the foot of this perpendicular as a centre, and with a radius equal
to a side of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is PT, and whose
other side is the length of the perpendicular, describe a circumtangent from A to this circumference is
ference in the plane.
the solution required, {v. 12, Exercise 2.)
30. Through a given point A, to draw to a given plane
a
and of a
straight line which shall be parallel to a given plane
given length.
BOOK YIL
POLYBDRONS.
1.
Definition.
by
The bounding
polyedron
a geometrical solid bounded
is
planes.
planes,
by
their
mutual
intersections, limit
each other, and determine the faces (which are polygons),

the edgeSj and the
polyedron
vertices
A diagonal of
of the polyedron.
a straight line joining^ any two of
is
its
vertices
not in the same face.
The
angle
least
is
extent,
number of planes that can form a polyedral
three
and
it
but the space within the angle
form a
solid
planes that can form a polyedron

2. Definition.
;
faces,
3.
one of six
octaedron ;
an
indefinite in
requires a fourth plane to enclose a finite por-
tion of space, or to
edron
is
hence the least number of

is
four.
polyedron of four faces

faces, a
is
called a tetra-
hexaedron ; one of eight faces, an
one of twelve faces, a dodecaedron ; one of twenty
icosaedron.
Definition.
polyedron
is
formed by any plane intersecting
convex
it is
when
the
section
a convex polygon.
All the polyedrons treated of in this
work
will be under-
stood to be convex.
4. Definition.
ical
measure of
edron as the
The volume of any polyedron

its
unit.
is
the numer-
magnitude, referred to some other poly-
The polyedron adopted
as the unit
is
called the unit of volume.
To measure the volume of

ratio to the unit of volume.
224
a polyedron
is,
then, to find its
BOOK
225
VII.
The most convenient unit of volume

edge
5.
is
is
the cube whose
the linear unit.
Definition. Equivalent solids are those
which have equal
volumes.
PEISMS AND PARALLEL0PIPED8.

6. Definitions.
prism
site faces, called hases^
and whose
a polyedron two of whose oppo-
is
are in parallel planes,
edges (that
lateral
the edges
is,
intersecting the bases) are all parallel to the
same
line.
From
following consequences
Any two
1st.
deduce the
this definition werreadily

:
lateral edges of a
prism are
parallel (VI., Proposition Y., Corollary).
prism are parallelograms (YI.,
2d. All the lateral faces of a
Hence
Proposition YIII.).
all
the lateral edges are equal.
The bases of a prism are equal polygons
3d.
(YI., Proposi-
tion X.).
The
lateral faces of' a
prism constitute
its lateral
or convex
surface.
The
altitude of a
tween the planes of
prism
its
triangular prism
is
the perpendicular distance be-
bases (YI., Proposition IX.)
is
one whose base
rangular prism, one whose base

7.
Definitions.
right
prism
is
is
is
a triangle
a quadrilateral
one whose lateral
edges are perpendicular to the planes of
its faces
(YI., Proposition XI.)
In a right prism, any lateral edge
is
equal to
the altitude.
The
lateral faces of a right
prism are perpen-
dicular to the bases (YI., Proposition
XIY.)
a quad-
etc.
226
An
prism
oblique
the planes of
is
one whose lateral edges are oblique to
its bases.
In an oblique prism, a lateral edge is greater than the altitude.
8. Definition.
regular prism
a right prism whose bases
is
are regular polygons.
is
8. Definition.
Ifaprism,A5CZ)jE^-JF;
intersected
by a plane GK, not
pj^rallel to
base, the portion of
its
the prism included between the base
and
plane, namely, \A
this
QHIKLy
is
5 (7D.&-
called a truncated prism.
10. Definition.
A right section of a prism is the
section
by a plane passed through the prism perpendicular

its lateral
to one of
edges.
right section
is
perpendicular to
and
(YI., Proposition XI.)

sition
the lateral edges
all
to all the lateral faces (YI., Propo-
XIY.) of the prism.
11. Definition.
parallelopiped
whose bases are parallelograms.

fore a polyedron all of
is
a prism
It is there-
whose
faces are par-
and
YI., Proposi-
allelograms.
From
this
definition
tion X.,
it is
evident that any two oppo-
site faces
of a parallelopiped are equal parallelograms.
12. Definition.
allelopiped
A right
whose
6, its
parallelopiped
is
a par-
lateral edges are perpendic-
ular to the planes of
may
made
its bases.
Hence, by YI.,
lateral faces are rectangles
but
be either rhomboids or rectangles.
its
bases
BOOK
rectangular parallelopiped
a right parallelepiped whose
is
Hence
bases are rectangles.
227
VII.
it
is
a parallelopiped
all
of
whose faces are rectangles.

13. Definition.
A cube is a rectangular parallelo-
piped whose edges are

are
all
Hence
all equal.
its
faces
squares.
14.
The
sections of
a prism made by parallel planes are equal
polygons.
For the portion of the prism

cluded between the two sections
new prism
(6).
which are the
Therefore
inis
its bases,
sections in question,
are equal.
Corollary. Any
section
of a
prism made by a plane parallel
to the
15.
base
is
equal to the base.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
In a rectangular parallelopiped, the four diagonals
are equal to each other ;

to
the
sum
common
and
the square of
a diagonal
is
equal
of the squares of the three edges which meet at a
vertex.
228
II. THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
The
16.
lateral area of
a prism
is
equal to the product of the
perimeter of a right section of the prism by a lateral edge.
Let
AD'
be a prism, and
right section of
it;
GHIKL
then the area of
the convex surface of the prism
is
equal
GHIKL multiplied
to the perimeter
by
a lateral edge AA'.

For, the sides of the section
GHIKL^
being perpendicular to the lateral edges

AA',
BB'
(YI., 6), etc., are the altitudes
of the parallelograms which form the
convex surface of the prism,
we take as the bases of these

AA\ BB\ etc., which are all
of the sum of these parallelo-
if
parallelograms the lateral edges

equal
(6).
grams
Hence the area
is
GH X AA' -\-HIX BB' + etc.
= {GH-\-HI+
Corollary. The
17.
etc.)
PROPOSITION
Two prisma
18.
AA'.
lateral area of
product of the perimeter of
to the
its
a right prism
base by
is
equal
its altitude.
III.THEOREM.
are equal, if three faces including a triedral
angle of the one are respectively equal to three faces similarly

'placed including
Let the
a triedral angle of
triedral angles
and a of the prisms ABCDE-
A\
abcde-a', be contained by-
equal faces similarly placed,
namely,
abcde,
AE'
ABCDE
AB'
equal to
equal to
equal to
aef ;
prisms are equal.
ab',
and
then the
the other,
BOOK
229
VII.
For, superpose the second prism
upon the
base ahcde coincide with the equal base

diedral angles ah
and
first,
making the
ABCDE.
Since the
AB are equal and ae and AE
are equal
(YI., Proposition XXII.), the plane ah' will coincide
plane AB'^ and the plane
ae'
with the plane AE',
with the
Hence the
As the
intersection aa' will fall along the intersection AA',

faces ah'
and AB' are
and have now been suitably
equal,
superposed, they must coincide throughout^ and

coincide with A'B'.
For the same
Consequently, the plane determined by
with A'E'.
will
a'h'
reason,^ a'e' will coincide
and
a'h'
aV, namely, the plane of the upper base of the second prism,
will coincide
with the plane of the upper base of the
Any
prism.
lateral edge, as
eef^
sponding lateral edge EE'^ for they are
same
line AA'^
point
^ and
and have a point
now
parallel to
the
of one coinciding with a
They have thus the same
of the other.
first
will fall along the corre-
direction
a point in common, and must coincide throughout^ by
I.,
Postulate II.
Since
all
the lateral edges of the second prism coincide
with the corresponding lateral edges of the

of
all
first,,
the planes
the corresponding lateral faces must coincide.
fore, as all the
There-
corresponding faces of the two prisms coincide
(the bases included), the prisms are equal.

19.
Corollary
I.
Two
truncated prisms are equal, if three
faces including a triedral angle of the one are respectively equal

to three
faces similarly placed including a triedral angle of the
other.
For the preceding demonstration applies whether the
planes A'B'C'D'E' and
a'h'c'dle
are parallel or inclined to the
lower bases.
20.
Corollary
II.
Two
right prisms are equals if they
equal bases and equal altitudes.
20
have
230
/
In the case of right prisms,
it is
not necessary to add the
condition that the faces shall be

similarly placed
right prisms
two
dbc-a\ can-
by inverting one of the
and applying the base
prisms
ABC
ABC upon the equal base
yetj
for if the
made to coincide by placing
not be
the base
ahc
ABC-A!
to the base a'6V, they will
coincide.
V
Any
21.
base
is
oblique
prism
equivalent to a right prism whose
is
a right section of the oblique prism, and whose altitude
is
equal to a lateral edge of the oblique prism.
JjQtABCDE-A^hG the oblique prism.

At any point F in the edge AA\ pass
to
AA' and
forming the right section
FGHIK.
plane
perpendicular
Produce AA' to
AA\ and
F\ making FF'
z=
through F' pass a second
plane perpendicular to the edge AA',

intersecting all the faces of the prism
produced, and forming another right

section
F'G'H'I'K' parallel and equal
to the
first.
base
is
The prism
FGHIK-F'
is
a right prism whose
the right section and whose altitude
FF'
is
equal to
the lateral edge of the oblique prism.
The
shown
solid
ABCDE-F
is
a truncated prism which
to be equal to the truncated prism
(Proposition
III.,
the whole solid
Corollary
I.).
ABCDE-F',
Taking the
is
easily
A'B'C'D'E'-F'
first
away from
there remains the right prism
BOOK
231
VII.
taking the second
away from
the oblique prism
therefore the right prism and the oblique
prism have the same volume
that
is,
solid,
there remains
they are equivalent.
^V^..^^
26.
the same
Any parallelopiped
is
equivalent to a rectangular parallel-
opiped of the same altitude and an equivalent base.
ABGDÂ'
Let
any oblique
be
parallel-
opiped whose base
A BCD
is
and altitude
B'O.
Produce the edges
AB,A'B',I)C,D'C';
AB produced
take FG = AB, and
through F and G
in
pass planes
edges
piped
FF'FI, GG'H'H, perpendicular
to the
produced
then the given parallelopiped and the right parallelo-
FF'FI-H are
equivalent,
by Proposition lY.
Produce, now, the edges of this second parallelopiped ZF,
IF produced take NKÎF, and through

planes KLL'K' smd NMM'N' perpendicular
FF\HG, H'G';
.N and
K pass
in
to the produced edges.
the parallelopiped
tion lY.
Then the second
NMM'W-K are
parallelopiped
NMM'N'-K
is
edges.
equivalent,
by Proposi-
Consequently, the given parallelopiped and the
parallelopiped
the face
parallelopiped and
are equivalent.
a right parallelopiped,
KLL'K' was drawn
by
The last-named
construction, since
perpendicular to the lateral
KL' and KN' are perpendicto AG, they are perpendicular
Moreover, as the planes
ular, the first to
to the plane
KI, the second
AHK, by
YI., Proposition
XIY., and their
inter-
232
KK' is perpendicular to AHK(Y1.^ Proposition XYI.)>
section
and therefore
to
KL
^
Hence the
(YL,
6).
base
KLL'K'
^'
^'
''
is
and the
rectangle,
par allelopiped
Xii'X'-iVîs a
rec-
tangular parallelopiped.
now,
If,
take
KIjMN
base, its
we
as
its
altitude is
equal to that of the given parallelopiped, since the planes
AUK
and A'H'K' are
ABGD^
to
parallel;
since each of
Proposition
them
is
and
its
base
equivalent to
is
equivalent
FGHI
(lY.,
I.).
23.
The plane passed through two diagonally
of a parallelopiped divides
it
opposite edges
into two equivalent
triangular
prisms.
Let
ABCD-A'
ped the plane

;
its
it
opposite edges
into
AA' and CC,
divides
two equivalent triangular prisms
ABC-A'
Let
be any parallelopi-
A CCA', passed through
and
ADC-A\
FGHI be
any right
the parallelopiped,
section of
made by a plane
A A'. The
perpendicular to the edge

intersection,
FH,
of this plane with the plane
diagonal of the parallelogram
FGHI, and
allelogram into two equal triangles,

oblique prism
ABG-A'
is
AC
is
the
divides that par-
FGH
and FIH.
equivalent to a right prism
The
whose
BOOK
base
the triangle
is
233
VII.
FGH and whose
altitude
sition lY.); and the oblique prism ADC-A'
a right prism whose base

tude
AA\
is
the triangle
is
AA' (Propo-
equivalent to
FIH and whose alti-
The two right prisms are equal (Proposition

therefore the oblique prisms, which are
Corollary II.)
III.,
is
is
respectively equivalent to them, are equivalent to each other.
PKOPOSITION VII.THEOREM.
i-
Tioo rectangular parallelopipeds having equal bases are to
24.
each other as their altitudes.
Let
P and
be two rectangular
parallelopipeds having equal bases,
and
let
AB
and
CD
be their
alti-
!\
tudes.
Ist.
tained
in
Suppose the altitudes have
common
CD.
measure, which
times in
AB
is
con-
and n times
I\
Then we have
AB ^m
CD~ n'
Apply
this
measure to
AB and
CJ),
and through the poinds
of division draw planes perpendicular to
and
will thus be divided into m,
pipeds, all of
lary,
which
will be equal,
and Proposition
Therefore
III.,
into
m
n'
AB
and CD.
smaller parallelo-
by Proposition
Corollary II.
n,
I.,
Corol-
Hence
PÂB
i
CD'
The proof may be extended

are incommensurable,
to the case
where the
altitudes
by the method exemplified in the proof

20*
^/
234
of
Proposition XII., of
II.,
Proposition
^'25.
$
lY.,
common
vertex are called
paralleloits
dimen-
rectangular parallelopipeds which have two dimensions
common are
to
each other as their third dimensions.
^6. T.0
and of
and the preceding theorem may be expressed as follows
Two
in
I.,
The three edges of a rectangular
Scholium,
piped which meet at a

sions
Proposition
III.,
II.
Kaun,
rectangular parallelopi,e,s
e.ual aUitudes
are to each other as their bases.
Let
a, b,
sions of
piped
and
be the three dimen-
the rectangular
P;
m,
and
parallelo-
F^
those of the
rectangular
dimension
w,
parallelopiped
the
Q;
rA
or the altitude, being
c,
common.
n'
Construct B,
sl
third rectangular
parallelopiped, having the dimensions
m,
b,
and
c.
If a and
tudes of
equal, and,
are taken as the
and
JR,
alti-
their bases are
by Proposition
YII.,
P^ a
1^
m*
If b and n are taken as the altitudes of
bases are equal, and,
by
Proposition VII.,
R^b,
Q
n'
and, multiplying these ratios together,
P^ a
Q
m X
'
and
, theii
BOOK
But a
235
vir.
the area of the base of P,
y^ b is
area of the base of Q; therefore
awFm
awRft X
and Q are
is
the
in the ratio
of their bases.
This proposition
27. Scholium.
may
also be expressed as
follows
Two
rectangular parallelopipeds which have one dimension in
common, are
each other as the products of the other two
to
dimensions.
Any
28.
two rectangular parallelopipeds are
to
each other as
the products of their three dimensions.
Let
a, by
and
be the three dimen-
piped
P;
m,
n,
sions of the rectangular parallelo-
and p those of the

L._P_
rectangular parallelopiped Q.
Construct P, a third rectangular

parallelopiped,
sions a,
YII.
6,
and
having the dimenp.
By
Proposition
we have
P
P
and by Proposition YIII.,
P _ axb
m Xn'
Q
and, multiplying these ratios together,
P
Q
axb X
mXnXp
/4^
236
The volume of a rectangular parallelopiped

product of
its
whose edge
is
Let
a,
b,
the linear unit.
P; and
whose edge
three
is
be the three dimen-
c,
sions of the rectangular parallelo-
piped
equal to the
is
three dimensions, the unit of volume being the cube
let
The
the linear unit.
dimensions of
are
we
equal to unity, and
be the cube
i
each
have,
by
the preceding proposition,
ax
= aXbXc.
as the unit of volume, -
30. Scholium
when
proposition
c is
I.
Since the product a
b represents the
called the altitude, of the parallelopiped, this
may
also be expressed as follows
The volume of a rectangular parallelopiped

product of
31.
the numer-
is
measure, or volume of P, in terms of this unit (4);

is equal to the product ^ X ^ X <^-
therefore the volume of
base,
P.,
Now, Q being takeA

ical
X
X
its
base by
Scholium
II.
is
equal to the
its altitude.
When
the three diment\
sions of the
actly divisible
^ ^"^^^
v. ^
V.
parallelopiped are each ex-
by the
of the proposition
is
linear unit, the truth
rendered evident by
dividing the solid into cubes, each of which

is
equal to the unit of volume.
the three edges which meet at a
vertex
Thus,
common
are, respectively, equal to 3, 4,
unit, these
edges
may
if
and
5 times the linear
be divided respectively into
3, 4,
and 5
BOOK
237
VII.
equal parts, and then planes passed through the several points
of division at right angles to these edges will divide the solid
into cubes, each equal to the unit cube, the
is
evidently
number of which
3x4x5-
But the more general demonstration, above
given, includes
also the cases in
which one of the dimensions, or two of
them, or
are incommensurable with the linear unit.
all three,
32. Scholium III. If the three dimensions of a rectangular
parallelopiped are each equal to
<2,
<^
power of
its
edge
is a,
of a cube
and
is
its
volume
the third
is
the solid
<^
<^'
a cube whose
is
;
or, the
Hence
edge.
it is
volume
that in
arithmetic and algebra the expression " cube of a number"
has been adopted to signify the
"
third
power of a number."
The volume of any parallelopiped
33.
of the area of
For,
its
base by
by Proposition
is
equal to the product
its altitude.
Y., the
volume of any parallelopiped
is
equal to that of a rectangular parallelopiped having an equivalent base
and the same
altitude (30).
34.
of
its
The volume of a triangular prism

base by
its altitude.
Let ABC-A' be a triangular prism.

In the plane of the base complete the
parallelogram
ABGD, and then through
D draw a line DD' parallel to AA\

through
AA\
DD'
and CO', and
DD'
and
and
pass planes, thus constructing the
is
'
n/
238
ABCD-D'.
parallelopiped
parallelepiped,
it
The given prism

by Proposition YI., and
half of the
has the same altitude.
The volume of the
BD
parallelopiped
equal to
its
altitude
(Proposition XI.)
base
by
multiplied
;
is
its
therefore
the volume of the triangular prism
equal to
its
multiplied
.
is
base
by
ABC,
the half of
is
BD,
its altitude.
Corollary. The volume of any prism
35.
product of
Let
its
base by
ABCDE-A'
is
equal to the
its altitude.
be any prism.
It
may
be divided into triangular prisms by planes

passed through a lateral edge AA' and the
several diagonals of
its
of the given prism
is
umes of the triangular
base.
the
The volume
sum of
of their bases multiplied by their

altitude,
plied
by
which
is
the vol-
sum
common
prisms, or the
the base
ABODE of
''-
the given prism multi-
its altitude.
PYKAMIDS.
36. Definitions.
pyramid
is
a polyedron bounded by a
polygon and triangular faces formed by

the intersections of planes passed through
common
S-ABGDE.
the sides of the polygon and a

point out of
its
plane
as
The polygon, ABODE,
is
the base of
the pyramid; the point, S, in which the

triangular faces meet,
is
its
vertex;
the
triangular faces taken together constitute

its lateral, or
convex, surface; the area of
BOOK
this surface
which the
is
239
VII.
the lateral area; the lines SA^ SB^
etc., in
The
lateral faces intersect, are its lateral edges.
altitude of the
pyramid
is
the perpendicular distance
SO
from
the vertex to the base.
pyramid
triangular
is
one whose base
quadrangular pyramid, one whose base
A triangular
are triangles),
be taken as
is
pyramid, having but four faces
is
a tetraedron
and any one of
a triangle; a
a quadrilateral
is
(all
of which
faces
its
etc.
may
its base.
pyramid
is
regular polygon, and whose vertex
is
37. Definitions.
regular
one whose base
This perpendicular
in the
perpendicular to the base erected at the centre

of the polygon.
is
called
is
the axis of the regular pyramid.
From
this definition
it
can be readily shown
that the lateral edges of a regular pyramid are

all equal,
and hence that the
lateral faces are
/''
equal isosceles triangles,
The
^"^L^^
slant height of a regular
pyramid
is
the
perpendicular from the vertex to the base of any one of

It is the
lateral faces.
common
its
altitude of all the lateral
faces.
38. Definitions.
truncated pyramid
pyramid included between
its
is
the portion of a
base and a plane cutting
all its
lateral edges.
When
the cutting plane
cated pyramid
of a frustum
is
is
is
parallel to the base, the trun-
called a frustum of
a pyramid.
The
the perpendicular distance between
altitude
its bases.
In a frustum of a regular pyramid, the lateral faces are

equal trapezoids; and the perpendicular distance between
the parallel sides of any one of these trapezoids
height of the frustum.
is
the slant
240
V
39. If
the edges
section is
PEOPOSITION XIII.THEOREM.
a pyramid
and
is
cut by
a plane parallel
a polygon similar
1st,
2d, the
alti-
SOj be cut by the plane abode par-
is
allel to
the base, intersecting the lateral
edges in the points

tude in
a, 6,
c,
d^
and the
e,
alti-
then
The edges and the
1st.
to the base.
Let the pyramid S-ABCDE, whose

tude
to its base
the altitude are divided proportionally
altitude are dir
voided proportionally.
SO
Pass a plane through the altitude
and any
in
AO
lateral
edge SA, cutting the base
and the section
Proposition YIII.,
to
_,ab,
AB, BC, CD, ...AO.
2d.
The
cd,
YI.,
ao are parallel respectively
by
Therefore,
8a
Sb
Sc
Sd
SA
SB
SG
SD"
section abode
similar triangles
III.,
'
and the base are
are mutually equiangular,
ab
By
in ao.
be,
by
Proposition
I.,
So
SO'
similar.
For they
YI., Proposition X.,
and by
we have
Sa
Sb
be
BC~ 'SB'
AB ~'SA'
cd
Sc
CD ~ SC
whence
ab
bc_
cd
AB
BC
CD
and the homologous
sides of the polygons are proportional.
Therefore the section and the base are similar.
BOOK
Corollary
40.
its
base, the
square of
1.
If a pyramid
area of the section

distance
its
altitude of the
from
241
VII.
is
is to
cut by a plane parallel to
the area of the base as the
the vertex is to the square of the
pyramid.
For
abcde
ABODE
a^
^^ jy^ Proposition IX.

"^
-^
Z3^'
'
but
ab
Sa
AB~~
So
SA~ SO
Therefore
Corollary
41.
II.
abcde
So
ABCDE
SO'
If two pyramids have equal altitudes
equivalent bases, sections
and
at equal distances
made by planes
from
and
parallel to their bases
their vertices are equivalent.
The
42.
lateral area of
a regular pyramid
product of the perimeter of
its
base
height.
For, let
amid the
;
S-ABCDE be a regular pyrlateral faces
SAB, SBC, etc.,

whose
being equal isosceles triangles,
bases are the sides of the regular poly-
gon
tude
ABCDE
is
and whose common
the slant height
alti-
SH, the sum
of their areas, or the lateral area of

the pyramid,
AB, BC,
L
etc.,
is
equal to the
multiplied
sum of
by \SH.
21
is
equal to the
by one-half
its
slant
242
43.
Corollary. The
pyramid
lateral area of the frustum of
equal to the half
is
sum
a regular
of the perimeters of
its
bases
multiplied by the slant height of the frustum.
44. If the altitude of
into equal parts,
passed parallel
made by
any given triangular pyramid
and through
divided
the points of division planes are
to the base of the pyramid,
these planes as upper bases
and on
the sections
prisms are described having
an edge of the pyramid and
their edges parallel to
is
their altitudes
equal to one of the equal parts into which the altitude of the
pyramid
is
divided, the total volume of these prisms will approach
the volume of the

into
pyramid as
its
limit as the
which the altitude of the pyramid
is
number of parts
divided
is indefinitely
increased.
Let
S-ABC
be the given trian-
gular pyramid, whose altitude
A T.
Divide the altitude
AT
is
into
any number of equal parts Ax,

xy, etc.,
parts
by
and denote one of these
Through the points
h.
of division x,
y, etc.,
pass planes
from
parallel to the base, cutting
the pyramid the sections
GUI,
Upon
etc.
DEF, GHI,
etc.,
the triangles
as upper bases, construct prisms
lateral edges are parallel to
This
equal to
h.
HI,
parallel to
etc.,
of prisms
DBF,
is
SA, and whose altitudes are each
effected
SA.
by passing planes through EF,
There will thus be formed a
DEF-A, GSI-Dj^tc,
/(^ rror^
whose
inscribed in the
tWIvIÂ
'
series
pyramid.
BOOK
ABC^ DEF, GHI^
Again, upon the triangles

bases,
243
VII.
construct prisms whose
SAj and whose altitudes are each equal to
This also
h.
effected by passing planes through BG, JSF, HI^
There
to SA.
DEF-G,
etc.,
formed a
will thus be
which may be
as lower
etc.,
lateral edges are parallel to
series of
etc.,
prisms
is
parallel
ABC-D,
said to be circumscribed about
the pyramid.
The
volume of the inscribed prisms
total
and the
total
is
obviously less
volume of the circumscribed prisms
is
obviously
greater than the volume of the pyramid.
Each
inscribed prism
is
prism immediately above
and equal
equivalent to the circumscribed
it,
have the same base
since they
Consequently, the difference between
altitudes.
the total volume of the inscribed prisms and the total volume
of the circumscribed prisms
tween the
total
is
cir-
therefore the difference be-
volume of the inscribed prisms and the
volume of thp pyramid
is less
"By increasing at pleasure the
AT
the volume of the lowest
ABC-D, and
cumscribed prism
than the volume of
number of
ABC-D.
parts into which
we can make the volume of

ABC-D as small as we please, since we diminish its altitude
at pleasure without changing its base. Therefore we can
make the difference between the total volume of the in-
the altitude
is
divided,
scribed prisms and the volume of the
we
please
but, as
absolutely zero.
limit of the
pyramid as small as
seen above,
we cannot make
Hence the volume of the pyramid
total
number of parts
we have
is
it
the
volume of the inscribed prisms, as the
into
which the
altitude
AT
ia
divided
is
244
PROPOSITION XVI.THEOREM.
Two
45.
triangular pyramids having equivalent bases
and
equal altitudes are equivalent.
Let
S-ABC
and 8'-A'B^C' be two triangular pyramids
A!
having equivalent bases ABC^ A'B'C'^ in the same plane, and

a
common
A T.
altitude A T into
altitude
Divide the
n of equal parts, Ax^ xy^
any
yz^ etc.,
arbitrarily chosen
number
and through the points of
division pass planes parallel to the plane of the bases, inter-
secting the
two pyramids.
In the pyramid
S-ABG
inscribe
a series of prisms whose upper bases are the sections
GHIj
etc.,
and
in the
pyramid S'-A'B'C
prisms whose upper bases are the sections D'B'F'.,

etc.
BEF,
inscribe a series of
G'HT,
Since the corresponding sections are equivalent (Propo-
sition XIII., Corollary II.), the
corresponding prisms, having
equivalent bases and equal altitudes, are equivalent; therefore the

is
sum of
the prisms inscribed in the pyramid
equivalent to the
sum of
pyramid S'-A'B'C; that
is,
if
of the two series of prisms by
S-ABG
the prisms inscribed in the
we
denote the total volumes
V and
F',
we have
BOOK
245
VII.
we vary
If
n.
w,
V and
F'
obviously vary.
If n
V has
is
the volume of the pyr-
amid S-ABG, and F' the volume of the pyramid S'-A'B'C,

as its limit (Proposition XY.). Therefore, by III., Theorem
of Limits, these volumes are equal.
i|fp
triangular
of the same base
pyramid
and
a triangular prism
one-third of
is
altitude.
and
prism, there remains a quadrangular pyramid whose base
is
Let
draw
S-ABC
Through
AE
Through
be a triangular pyramid.
AE
the lines
CD
and
BS,
parallel to
and CD, which are
parallel,
by
VI., Proposition V., Corollary, pass a plane, and
through
S pass a second
The prism
ABC-E
plane parallel to
tude as the given pyramid, and

that the pyramid
passed through
we are
alti-
to prove
one-third of the prism.
is
S-ABC
Taking away the pyramid

the parallelogram
ABC.
has the same base and
ACDE
SE
triangular pyramids,
from the
and vertex
and SC^ divides
S-AEC
S.
The plane SEC^

two
this pjrramid into
and S-ECD, which are equiva-
lent to each other, since their triangular bases
AEC and ECD
A CDEj and their common

altitude is the perpendicular from S upon the plane ACDE
(Proposition XVI.). The pyramid S-ECD may be regarded
are the halves of the parallelogram
as having
ESD
as
its
base and
its
vertex at C; therefore
it
equivalent to the pyramid
S-ABC, which has an equivalent
base and the same altitude.
Therefore the three pyramids
is
into
which the prism
is
and the given pyramid
divided are equivalent to each other,

is
one-third of the prism.

21*
246
Corollary. The volume of a triangular pyramid
47.
is
equal
to one-third of the product of its base by its altitude.
PEOPOSITION XVIII.THEOREM.
^^^
48.
The volume of any pyramid
product of
base by
its
is
equal to one-third of the
its altitude.
For any pyramid, S-ABCDB, may be
di-
vided into triangular pyramids by passing
SA and
planes through an edge
ABj ACj
etc.,
of
its base.
the diagonals
The bases of these
pyramids are the triangles which compose

the base of the given pyramid, and their
common
altitude
given pyramid.
pyramid
is
by
their
of the base
dividing
is
ABODE
it
SO
sum of
of the
^
the volumes of the triangular
one-third of the
common
49. Scholium.
by
the altitude
equal to the
pyramids, which
plied
is
The volume of the given
sum of
their bases multi-
altitude, or one-third
of the product
by
SO.
The volume of any polyedron may be found
tte altitude
and computing the volumes of
into pyramids,
these pyramids separately.
The
division
may
be effected by
taking a point within the polyedron and joining

the vertices.
The polyedron
will
it
with
all
then be decomposed into
pyramids whose bases
will be the faces of the polyedron,
whose common vertex
will
be the point taken within
and
it.
PROPOSITION XIX.THEOREM.
60.
sum
frustum of a triangular pyramid
is
of three pyramids whose common altitude
the frustum,
and whose
equivalent to the
is
the altitude of
bases are the lower base, the upper base,
and a mean proportional between
the bases, of the frustum.
'^
'
1V
BOOK
ABC-D
Let
plane
DEF
being parallel to the base
ABC.
and
vertices A, B,
the vertices E, D, and
^DC,
/y^
pass a
/^
dividing the frustum
into three pyramids.
The
first
J'
// y^\/
pass a plane ^-E^C, and through
plane
247
;,';
be a frustum of a triangular pyramid, the
Through the
vir.
\y^\
'
/'
a\
^C^^/i'J!jf---j53^^'^
of these,
ABG-E, has
^^^l^""'^'^
for its base the lower base of the
frustum, and for

second,
DEF-C,
tum, and for
its
has for
remains to show that the third,
and
the
base the upper base of the frus-
its
altitude the altitude of the frustum.
its
pyramid having
(^^^
altitude the altitude of the frustum
ACD-E,
is
It
equivalent to a
for its altitude the altitude of the frustum,
for its base a
mean
proportional between the bases of
the frustum.
Through
E in the plane ABED draw a line EEf parallel to
AD, and through

to the plane
pyramids
E', D,
ACFD, by
ACD-E
and
and
pass a plane.
ACD-E'
have the same base and equal

the vertex and
AE'C
EE'
YI., Proposition YI.
is
parallel
Therefore the
are equivalent, since they
altitudes.
as the base of
If
ACD-E'
we
,
it
as
has for
its
take
altitude the altitude of the frustum.
Through
F in
the plane
ACFD draw FF' parallel
to
AD,
AE'F'-D is a prism, and consequently its bases DEF and

AE'F' are equal^ and E'F' is parallel to EFy and therefore
to
5a
AE'F'
AE'C
since the triangles
AE'F' and AE'C have
AE'C = AE'
AJjC
AF'
AC'
..
-j^-, for the
ab
the same altitude.
same reason.
248
by
III.,
AF'
AE'
AG
AB
Proposition
I.
Therefore
DEF ^ AE'C
AE'C
ABC'
and the base of the pyramid
AE'C-D
is
mean
proportional
between the bases of the frustum.
^1. Corollary. A frustum

the
sum
of three pyramids whose
of the frustum,
base,
of any
and whose
pyramid
common
S-ABCDE.
Let
altitude is the altitude
ABCDE-F
the bases, of the frustum.
be a frustum of any pyramid
Construct a triangular pyramid, S'-A'B'C,
having the same altitude as

equivalent to
equivalent to
bases are the lower base, the upper
and a mean proportional between
Suggestion,
is
ABODE
and
S-ABCDE, and
in the
a base
same plane with
A'B'C
it.
Let
the plane of the upper base of the given frustum be pro-
duced to cut the triangular pyramid

bases of the frustums are equivalent,
in
F'G'T.
The upper
by Proposition XIII.)
BOOK
Corollary
since the
II.,
249
VII.
and the frustums themselves are equivalent,
pyramids are equivalent and the pyramids above
the frustums are equivalent.
"^
52.
truncated triangular prism
pyramids whose common base
three
whose
Let
is
is
equivalent to the
sum of
and
the base of the prism^
vertices are the three vertices of the inclined section.
ABC-BEF
tri-
ABC
and
angular prism whose base

inclined section
be a truncated
is
BEF.
Pass the planes
AEC
and DEC,
dividing the truncated prism into the
three pyramids
E-ABC, E-ACI), and
E-CBF.
The
first
E-ABC^ has
of these pyramids,
the base
ABC
and the vertex E.
The second pyramid, E-A CD,
B-ACB
for they
altitude, since their vertices
B-ABC ;
The
that
is, it
third pyramid,
B-ACF ;
for they
and
are in the line
But the pyramid
parallel to this base.
as
is
have the same base ACB, and the same
has the base
E-CBF,
is
B-ACB
ABC
is
EB
the same
and the vertex B.
have equivalent bases
CBF
and
ACF
in
the same plane, and also the same altitude, since their vertices
E and B are in the line EB
the pyramid
the base
B-ACF
ABC
is
the same as
F-ABC;
that
is, it
But
has
and the vertex F.
Therefore the truncated prism
mids whose common base

D, and F,
parallel to that plane.
is
is
ABC
equivalent to three pyra-
and whose vertices are E^
250
THE KEGULAR POLYEDRONS.

53. Definition.
all
regular polyedron
is
one whose faces are
equal regular polygons and whose polyedral angles are
all
equal to each other.
Only
64..
five regular (convex^ polyedrons are possible.
(^The faces of a regular polyedron must be regular polygons,
and at
least three faces are necessary to
angle
moreover, the sum of the face angles of a polyedral
form a polyedral
angle must be less than four right angles )(YI., Proposition
XXI.).
1st.
The simplest regular polygon
angle, and, since each angle of

eral triangle is
an angle of
lateral triangles
an
is
the equilateral
tri-
equilat-
60, three equi-
an be combined to form
a polyedral angle.
It
is
probable, then,
that a regular polyedron can be formed
bounded by equilateral triangles and having three at each vertex.
There
is
has four
such a regular polyedron.
faces,
and
is
It
called the regular
tetraedron.
Since four angles of 60 are less than four right angles,

four equilateral triangles can be combined to form a polyedral
BOOK
It
angle.
251
VII.
probable, then, that a regu-
is
lar polyedron can be
formed bounded
equilateral triangles
and having four at
by-
each vertex.
There
is
It has eight faces,
and
is
called the regu-
lar octaedron.
Since five angles of 60 are less than four right angles,

five
equilateral
triangles can
to form a polyedral angle.
It
be combined
is
probable, then, that a reg-
ular polyedron can be formed bounded

equilateral triangles
and having
five at
by
each
vertex.
There
is
has twenty faces, and
is
It
called the regular
icosaedron.
No
regular polyedrons bounded by equi-
lateral triangles
possible.
For
and having more than
six or
five at
a vertex are
more angles of 60 cannot form a poly-
edral angle.
2d.
The next regular polygon
to the equilateral triangle,
in order of simplicity, is the square, each of
whose angles
is
a right angle.
Three right angles can be combined to form

a polyedral angle.
It
is
probable, then, that a
regular polyedron can be formed bounded by
squares and having three at each vertex.
There
six faces,
No
is
and
is
regular polyedrons bounded
more than three
It
has
called the cuhe^ or the regular hexaedron.
by squares and having
at a vertex are possible.
right angles cannot form a polyedral angle.
For four or more
ELEMENT8 OP GEOMETRY.
252
3d.
The next regular polygon
of whose angles contains 108
is
(I.,
the regular pentagon, each
Proposition XXYII.).
Three angles of 108 each can be combined to form a polyedral angle.
It
is
probable, then, that a
regular polyedron can be formed bounded
by regular pentagons and having three

at each vertex.
There
is
such a regular
and
It has twelve faces,
is
polyedron.
called the
regular dodecaedron.
!No
regular polyedrons bounded
by
regular pentagons and having more than three at a vertex

are possible.
For four or more angles of 108 cannot be
combined to form a polyedral angle.

4th.
Each angle of the regular hexagon contains
No
120.
regular polyedron can be formed bounded by hexagons.
For
three or more angles of 120 cannot be combined to form a
polyedral angle.
No
regular polyedron can be formed bounded
ular polygons of
I.,
more than
For
six sides.
55, Exercise, that the greater the
it
since, as
we have
seen,
follows,
number of
regular polygon the greater the magnitude of
by
its
reg-
from
sides in a
angles,
and
the angles of a hexagon are too great
to allow the existence of a polyedral angle
whose plane
faces
are regular hexagons, those of any regular polygon of more
than six sides will be too great.

Therefore the only possible regular polyedrons are the five
we have
55.
figured.
Scholium
I.
It
must be observed that we have not
attempted to prove that the

sible.
five regular
This can be done by showing
but the investigation
is difficult
and
how
polyedrons are posto construct
tedious.
them
BOOK
56. Scholium II.
253
VII.
The student may
derive
some aid
in com-
prehending the preceding discussion of the regular polyedrons
by constructing models of them, which he can do
in a
very
simple manner, and at the same time with great accuracy, as

follows.
Draw on
entire,
card-board the following diagrams
and at the
lines separating adjacent
card-board half through

into the
in that
cut
them out
polygons cut the
the figures will then readily bend
form of the respective
surfaces,
and can be retained
form by gluing the edges.
Hexaedron,
Tetraedron.
Octaedron.
V
Dodccaedron.
Tcosaedron.
EXERCISES ON BOOK VIL

THEOREMS.
1. The volume of a triangular prism is equal to the product of
the area of a lateral face by one-half the perpendicular distance
of that face from the opposite edge.
2. The lateral surface of a pyramid is greater than the base.

Suggestion. Join the projection of the vertex on the base with
the corners of the base.
3. At any point in the base of a regular pyramid a perpendicular to the base is erected which intersects the several lateral faces
of the pyramid, or these faces produced. Prove that the sum of
the distances of the points of intersection from the base is con-
stant.
Suggestion. The distances in question are proportional to the

distances of the foot of the perpendicular from the sides of the
{v. V., Exerbase, and these distances have a constant sum.
cise 16.)
4. Two tetraedrons which have
a triedral angle of the one equal
to a triedral angle of the other,
are to each other as the products
of the three edges of the equal
triedral angles,
{v.
IV., 19,
Ex-
ercise.)
6. In a tetraedron, the planes passed through the three lateral

edges and the middle points of the edges of the base intersect in
a straight line.
254
BOOK
255
VII.
Suggestion. The intersections of the planes with the base are

medial lines of the base. Therefore they intersect in the line
joining the vertex with the point of intersection of the medial
lines of the base.
6. The lines joining each vertex of a tetraedron with the point
of intersection of the medial lines of the opposite face all meet in
a point, which divides each line in the ratio 1 4.
Note. This point is the centre of gravity
of the tetraedron.
:
AF
DG
Suggestion. If
and
are two of
the lines in question,, they must intersect,
since they both lie in the plane passed
through
and the middle point
of
the opposite edge. Moreover, since
lED and
lEA (I., Exercise 38),
GFis, parallel to
and is equal to ÂD.
EG =
AD
Whence
The
lines
HF = iHA
and
through C and B
the four lines have a
/g
E
^V/
EF
M
AD
GH =
iHD.
will also each cut off \ of
common
AF,
Hence
intersection.
7. The straight lines joining the middle points of the opposite

edges of a tetraedron all pass through the centre of gravity of
the tetraedron, and are bisected by the centre of gravity, {v. III.,
Exercise 7.)
8. The plane which bisects a diedral angle of a ie^raedron

divides the opposite edge into segments which are proportional
to the areas of the adjacent faces.
Suggestion. Consider the volumes of the two parts into which
the tetraedron is divided.
9. If a, 6, e, d, are the perpendiculars from the vertices of a

tetraedron upon the opposite faces, and a\ 6'', g\ d^, the perpendiculars from any point within the tetraedron upon the same
faces respectively, then
abed
Suggestion. Join the point in question with the vertices of the
and compare the volumes of the four tetraedrons thus
tetraedron,
obtained with the volume of the given tetraedron.
'
256
10. The altitude of a regular tetraedron is equal to the sum of

the four perpendiculars let fall from any point within it upon the
four faces.
11.
Any
lateral face of a
lateral faces,
{v.
prism
is less
than the sum of the other
Proposition II.)
PROBLEMS.
12.
Given three indefinite straight
lines in space
intersect, to construct a parallelopiped

its
edges on these lines,
{v.
which
VI., Exercise
shall
which do not
have three of
8.)
13. Within a given tetraedron, to find a point such that planes

passed through this point and the edges of the tetraedron shall
divido^lie tetraedron into four equivalent tetraedrons. {v. Exer-
cise 6.)
BOOK
YIIL
THE THREE ROUND BODIES.

Op
1.
the various solids bounded
by curved
three are treated of in Elementary Geometry,

cylinder^ the cone^
and the
which are
sphere^
surfaces,
but
namely, the
called the
three
ROUND BODIES.
THE CYLINDER.
2.
Definitions.
erated
curved surface gen-
cylindrical surface is a
by a moving
given curve, and in
straight line
all
of
its
which continually touches a
positions
is
parallel to a given
fixed straight line not in the plane of the curve.
Thus,
the straight line
if
touch the given curve

that in any of
Cc,
Dd,
ABCD, and
its positions,
etc., it is
Aa moves
so as continually to
so
as ^6,
parallel to a given
fixed straight line 3im, the surface
ABCDdcba
a cylindrical surface.
is
If the moving line
is
of indefinite
length, a surface of indefinite extent

is
generated.
The moving
it
touches
is
line is -called the generatrix
called the directrix.
surface, as Bb^
generatrix,
is
Any
the curve which
straight line in the
which represents one of the positions of the
called
an element of the surface.
To draw an element through any given point of a

drical surface,
it is
sufficient to
draw a
line
cylin-
through the point
parallel to the given fixed straight line, or parallel to ap
element
r
(I.,
Postulate
.
II.).
22*
257
258
In
trix
it
this general definition of a cylindrical surface, the direc-
may
be any curve whatever.
to be a closed curve,
circle, as this is
Hereafter
we
shall
assume
and usually a
the only curve whose
properties are treated of in element-
ary geometry.
3.
by a
Definition.
The solid Ad bounded
cylindrical surface
ABD
allel planes,
a cylinder ;
its
and
and two paris
called
plane surfaces
ABD,
ahd^
abd, are called its bases;
called its
between
lateral
its
bases
surface;
the curved surface
is
sometimes
and the perpendicular distance
is its altitude.
The elements of a
cylinder are
all equal.
A cylinder whose base is a circle is called a circular cylinder.

4. Definition. A right cylinder is one whose
elements are perpendicular to
5. Definition.
base, as
because
ABCa,
it
as
an axis
surface,
base.
cylinder with a circular
m\-
called a cylinder of revolution,
be generated by the revolution
A Ooa
the side
and the
The
the bases.
The
is
may
of a rectangle
A right
its
about one of
Aa
sides
OA
fixed side
radius of the base
its sides,
Oo,
generating the curved
is
and oa generating
Oo
is
the axis of the cylinder.
called the radius of the cylinder.
6.
Every
an element
section of
is
a cylinder made by a plane passing through
a parallelogram.
Let Bb be an element of the cylinder Ac ; then the section
BbdD, made by a plane passed through Bb,
is
a parallelogram.
BOOK
The
Dd
line
in
which the cutting plane
curved surface a second time

ment.
For, if
259
VIII.
an
is
this intersection a straight line
parallel to Bh^ this line,
by
of a cylindrical surface,
is
ele-
through any point
of
drawn
is
the definition
an element of
must
also lie in the
Bd ; therefore this
common to both surfaces,
element, being
the surface, and
it
plane
The
lines
BD
is
and hd are
their intersection.
parallel (VI., Proposition YIII.),
Dd
and the elements Bh and
intersects the
are parallel
therefore
Bd
is
parallelogram.
7.
Corollary. Every
plane perpendicular
to its
base
PROPOSITION
8.
The
Let
a right cylinder made by a
section of
is
rectangle.
II. THEOREM.
bases of a cylinder are equal.
BD
be the straight line joining two points of the
perimeter of the lower base, and
BD
plane passing through
ment Bb cut the upper base

bd
sponding element.
Aa and Bb
Dd
and Aa the
Through the
corre-
parallels
pass a plane, and through
Then
pass a plane.
sition I.)
if
I.).
be any third point in the perim-
eter of the lower base,
and
ele-
in the line
then BD = bd (Proposition
Let
let
and the
AB =
and the triangles ABD^
Aa
*^
ab and
AD = ad (Propo-
abdj are equal.
Therefore,
the upper base be applied to the lower base with the line
bd in coincidence with
incide
and the point a
of the upper base will
its
equal
will fall
fall
BD^ the
upon
A;
triangles will co-
that
is,
any point a
on the perimeter of the lower base,
260
and consequently the perimeters
throughout.
will coincide
Therefore the bases are equal.
Corollary
9.
tions of
Any two parallel sec-
I.
/-^^^^î^V
For these sections are the bases of a
A>-^^- /
/ .../^/'^
cylinder.
10.
Corollary
parallel to
its
II. All
the
sections
w/.^^
a cylindrical surface are equal.
of a circular cylinder
and
bases are equal circles;
the straight line
joining the centres of the bases passes through the centres of all
the parallel sections.
This line
Suggestion. In the base
is
called the axis of the cylinder.
draw two diameters, and through
these diameters and elements of the cylinder pass planes.
They
will cut all the sections in diameters,
and their
line
of
intersections will pass through all the centres.

11.
Definition.
A tangent plane to a cylinder is a plane which
passes through an element of the curved surface without cut-
ting the surface.
The element through which
it
passes
is
called the element of contact
THE CONE.
12. Definition.
conical surface is a
curved surface gener
ated by a moving straight line which continually touches a
given curve, and passes through a given fixed point not in

the plane of the curve.
Thus,
if
touch the given curve
SBj
etc.,
SA moves
ABGD, and in all
the straight line
so as continually to
its positions,
passes through the given fixed point
S-ABCD
is
a conical surface.
aS,
SB, SC,
the surface
BOOK
The moving
touches
it
Any
is-
line is called the generatrix
the
called
the curve which
directrix.
straight line in the surface, as
SBj which represents one of the

tions of the generatrix,
is
posi-
called
an
The point
element of the surface.

is
261
VIII.
called the vertex.
The
any point
of a conical surface with the vertex

is
obviously an element.
If the generatrix
is
of indefinite
ASa^ the whole surface generated
length, as
consists of
two
symmetrical portions, each of indefinite extent, lying on

opposite sides of the vertex, as
are called nappes

13. Definition.
S-ABGD
and S-abcd, which
one the upper, the other the
The
solid
lower, nappe.
S-ABCD, bounded by
a conical
ABD cutting the surface, is called a cone

ABD is its base, the point is its vertex, and
surface and a plane

its
plane surface
;S^
SO
from the vertex to the base
is
its altitude.
A cone whose base is a
circle is called a circular cone.
straight line
drawn from the vertex of a
centre of
base
its
14. Definition.
cular cone
base, as
is
the axis of the cone.

right circular cone is a cir-
whose axis
is
perpendicular to
its
S-ABCD.
The right
of revolution,
circular cone
because
it
is
may
also called a cone
be generated by
the revolution of a right triangle,
one of
The
circular cone to the
its
SA 0,
about
perpendicular sides, SO, as an axis
the hypotenuse
SA
generating the curved surface, and the
remaining perpendicular side
OA
generating the base.
262
III.THEOREM.
PROPOSITION
Every
15.
vertex
its
is
section of
a cone made by a plane passing through
triangle.
Let the cone
S-ABCD
be cut by a
plane SBC^ which passes through the
vertex
line
S and
BC
SBC
then the section
angle; that
SG
cuts the base in the straight
is,
the intersections
is
SB
tri-
and
with the curved surface are straight
lines.
For the straight
lines joining
S with B and C
are elements
of the surface, by the definition of a cone, and they also

in the cutting plane
lie
therefore they coincide with the inter-
sections of that plane with the curved surface
the intersection of two planes,
is
a straight
and BG^ being
line.
16. If the base of
plane parallel
base
to the
Let the section
a cone
abc,
is
is
circle^
every section
made ty a
circle.
of the circular
cone S-ABGj be parallel to the base.
be the centre of the base, and
Let
let
be the point in which the axis
SO
cuts the plane of the parallel section.
Through
SO
and any number of
ments SAj SBj
etc.,
ele-
pass planes cutting
the base in the radii OA^ OB,
etc.,
and
the parallel section in the straight lines oa,

is
parallel to
ofi
Since oa
ob, etc.
OA, and ob to OB, we have

So j ob
So
i^
oa
ob
BOOK
But
lines
OA
section
= oh
therefore oa
hence
all
the straight
o to the perimeter of the section are equal,
drawn from
and the
17.
= OB,
263
VIII.
is
circle.
Corollary. The axis of a
circular cone passes through
the centres of all the sections parallel to the base,
18. Definition.
tangent plane to a cone
is
a plane which
passes through an element of the curved surface without

cutting this surface. The element through which it passes
is
called the element of contact.
Cv//^^^'^^^
THE SPHERE.
19. Definition.
sphere
is
a solid bounded by a surface
all
the points of which are equally distant from a point within,

called the centre.
A sphere may be generated by the revoluABC about its diameter
tion of a semicircle
an axis
J. (7 as
by the curve
for the surface generated
ABC
have
will
all its
points
equally distant from the centre 0.
A
line
radius of the sphere
drawn from the centre
A diameter is any
is
any straight
to the surface.
straight line
drawn through the centre and
terminated both ways by the surface.

Since
all
the radius,
the radii are equal and every diameter

all
20. Definition. It will be
sphere
made by
sible section is
a plane
double
is
shown that every
a circle
section of a
and, as the greatest pos--
one made by a plane passing through the
centre, such a section
is
called a great circle.
Any
made by a plane which does not pass through the

called a small
is
the diameters are equal.
circle.
section
centre
is
264
The
21. Definition.
poles of a circle of the sphere are the
extremities of the diameter of the sphere which

dicular to the plane of the circle
the axis of the
and
is
perpen-
this diameter is called
circle.
Every
22.
section of
a sphere made by a plane
If the -plane passes
1st.
circle.
.^-^^---^
joining points on the perimeter of
the section with the centre
aJifs//.V}liyss^\c
/ ^^^vHI]^?'^
of the
Consequently
a circle with
it is
centre at 0.
plane
the
2d. If
its
not
does
^F;--- --^------^
sphere are radii of the sphere, and

all equal.
through
the centre of the sphere, the lines
are therefore
is
X,^^
^^/
pass
through the centre of the sphere, as

abcj
EOD
draw a diameter
meeting
with
0,
it
at
and
If points
o.
also
a, b,
c,
(I.,
equal,
and the section
Proposition X.).
Corollary
I.
is
and
of the perimeter are joined
with 0, the triangles aeO, boO, coO, are
equal
23.
pei*pendicular to the section
Therefore
a circle with
The axis of a
all
ao, bo, co, etc., are all
its
centre at
circle
o.
on a sphere passes
through the centre of a .circle.

24.
Corollary
II. All great circles of the
Corollary
III.
same sphere are
equal.
25.
Every great
circle divides the
sphere into
two equal parts.

Suggestion. Superpose one part
Proposition II.)
upon the
other,
(v. II.,
BOOK
Corollary IY. Any two
26.
section
great circles on the same sphere
common
each other ; for the
bisect
265
VIII.
inter-
AB of their planes passes through
the centre of the sphere and
is
a diame-
ter of each circle.
Corollary Y. An arc of a
he drawn through any two
27.
great
may
circle
given
points of the surface of the sphere^ and,

unless the points are the opposite eoctremities
of a diameter, only one such arc can he drawn; for the

points, together
two
with the centre 0, determine the plane of a
great circle whose circumference passes through the points.
however, the two given points are the extremities
If,
and
is
5 of
not determined, for the points
same straight
tion
line, will
J.,
0,
and B, being
in the
not determine a plane (YI., Proposi-
I.).
28.
any
a diameter of the sphere, the position of the circle
Corollary YI. An arc
of a circle
may
he
drawn through
three given points on the surface of the sphere;
for the
three points determine a plane which cuts the sphere in a

circle.
EXEBCISE.
Theorem.
hsircle
li
from
The greater
the distance of the plane of
the centre of the sphere, the less the circle.
23
a small
266
29. All the points in the circumference of a circle of the sphere
J,-
are equally distant from either of
Let abed be any
and PP'
circle'of the sphere,
and P' are the
poles of the circle ahcd^ and,

osition Y., Corollary
I.,
any
points, a,
cumference of the
FT'
6, c,
\^
Join
^1^
cir-
Then Pa, P6,
Pc, are equal, since
the triangles Poa, Tob^ Poc^ are equal, by
Hence
%.
passes
on the
circle.
^\j
^^^
by Prop-
the centre of ahcd.
0,
/^'Wt'^'
plane; then, by
its
the definition (21),
P with
..-s^^^--^
the diameter of the sphere
perpendicular to
through
its poles.
I.,
Proposition VI.
the points of the circumference abed are equally
all
distant from the pole P.
For the same reason, they are
equally distant from the pole P'.

30.
Corollary
pole of a
All the arcs of great circles
I.
circle to points in its circumference
drawn from a
are equal, since
their chords are equal chords in equal circles.
By
is
the distance of two points on the surface of a sphere
usually understood the arc of a great circle joining the
points.
given
The
arc of a great circle
circle abc, to
one of
drawn from any point of a
its poles,
the polar distance of the given
two
as the arc Pa,
circle,
is
called
and the distance from
the nearest pole, is usually understood.

31.
Corollary
II.
The polar distance of a great circle is a

etc., P'A, P'B, etc., polar distances
quadrant ; thus, PA, PB,

of the great circle
ABCD,
are quadrants
measures of the right angles
for they are the
A OP, BOP, AOP', BOP',
whose vertices are at the centre of the great
PBP',
etc.
circles
etc.,
PAP'j
BOOK
267
VIII.
In connection with the sphere, by a quadrant

be understood a quadrant of a great
32.
Corollary
III. If
at a quadrant's distance
usually to
is
circle.
a point on the surface of a sphere
from
is
each of two given points of the
surface which are not opposite extremities of a diameter,
it is
the
pole of the great circle passing through them.
P be at a quadrant's distance from B and

then FOB and POC are right angles, and FO is perpenLet
Suggestion.
C;
dicular to the plane
By means
33. Scholium.
drawn upon the

upon a plane
the pole P,
ABCD.
extremity a will describe the small
and by revolving the quadrant

extremity
will describe the great
If two points,
required to
it
FA
and
(7,
arc
BC
abd ;
ABD.
are given on the surface, and
draw the arc ^C, of a great

and
circle,
it is
between them,
P of this
circle
for
as poles, and at a quadrant's
two arcs on the surface intersecting
distance describe
The
Fa about
circle
about the pole P, the
circle
will be necessary first to find the pole
which purpose, take
be
same ease as
Thus, by revolving the arc
surface.
its
may
of poles, arcs of circles
surface of a sphere with the
in P.
can then be described with a pair of compasses,
placing one foot of the compasses on
with the other
foot.
between their
feet)
of a quadrant
and
and tracing the arc
The opening of the compasses

must
(distance
in this case be equal to the chord
to obtain this
it is
necessary to
know
the
radius of the sphere.

34. Definition.
but one point in

35. Definition.
A plane
is
tangent to a sphere
common with
Two
when
it
has
the surface of the sphere,
spheres are tangent to each other
their surfaces have but one point in
common.
when
268
36.
drawn
plane tangent
a sphere
to
perpendicular to the radius
is
to the point of contact.
For any other
line
drawn from
the centre of the sphere to the
plane must reach beyond the surface of the sphere,
and therefore
must be greater than the
The radius
line that
radius.
then, the shortest
is,
can be drawn from the
centre of the sphere to the plane,
and
consequently perpendicular to the plane (YI., Proposi-
is
tion III.).
37.
Corollary. Conversely, a plane perpendicular
radius of a sphere at
38. Scholium.
its
Any
extremity
is
straight line
straight lines,
AT,
tangent to the sphere.
A T, drawn
plane through the point of contact,
Any two
to
A T\
is
in the tangent
tangent to the sphere at
the same point A, determine the tangent plane at that point.
39.
The
intersection of two spheres is
straight
spheres,
and whose
centre
Through the centres

the two spheres
let
is
circle
line joining
the
whose plane
is
centres of the
in that line.
and
(7 of
any plane be
passed, cutting the spheres in great

circles
the points
is
intersect each other in
which
and
bisected at
right angles
G by
(II.,
the chord
AB
the line 0(7 at
Proposition YI., Corollary
II.).
If
we now
Tv^
BOOK
269
VIII.
revolve the plane of these two circles about the line 0(7, the
circles will
generate the two spheres, and the point
describe the line of intersection of their surfaces.
AC will,
since the line
dicular to 0(7,
it
will
Moreover,
during this revolution, remain perpen-
whose plane
will generate a circle
pendicular to 0(y, and whose centre
per-
is
is C.
SPHERICAL ANGLES.
The
40. Definition.
same point
is
angle of two curves passing through the
the angle formed
by the two tangents
to the
curves at that point.
This definition
in space,
is
applicable to
whether drawn
in the
any two
intersecting curves
same plane or upon a surface
of any kind.
M. The angle
of their planes^
described
from
(produced
Let
great
AB
of two arcs of great circles
and
its
is
is
equal to the angle
measured by the arc of a great
vertex as a pole
and included between
its
sides
if necessary).
and AB' be two arcs of
circles,
AT
and
A T'
centre of the sphere.
TA
>^
the tan-
gents to these arcs at A^ and
the
and T'A
^L^
and
\^^~~"^
are perpendicular to the radius
OA
X^^
drawn to their point of contact.

They form, then, the plane angle
in the planes of their arcs,
lie
circle
j,
\^V~-^
\b
4*r~"f3)^
\
J/
measuring the diedral angle formed by the planes of the arcs

by (40), the angle which they form is equal to the angle
but,
of the two arcs.
270
Now let
CO' be the arc of a great
circle described
from
as a pole aiid intersecting the arcs
AB^ AB' (produced

in G and C. The
if necessary),
OG
radii
OG' are perpendicular
and
to J.0, since
the arcs AG, AG', are quadrants

(Proposition YI.,
Corollary
therefore the angle
GOG' is
angle of the diedral angle

is
equal to TAT', or to
by the
42.
II.);
a plane
A 0,
and
BAB', and
it is
obviously measured
arc GG'.
Corollary. All arcs of great
circles
drawn through
pole of a given great circle are perpendicular to

ence
its
the
circumfer-
for their planes are perpendicular to its plane (YI.,
Proposition XIY.).
SPHERICAL POLYGONS.
43. Definition.
face of a sphere
circles, as
spherical polygon is a portion of the sur-
bounded by three or more arcs of great
ABGD.
Since the planes of
all
great circles pass
through the centre of the sphere, the planes

of the sides of a spherical polygon form, at
the centre 0, a polyedral angle of which
the edges are the radii drawn to the vertices of the polygon, the face angles are
angles at the centre measured
and the diedral angles are equal
by the
sides of the polygon,
to the angles of the polygon
(Proposition IX.).
Since in a polyedral angle each face angle

less
is
assumed to be
than two right angles, each side of a spherical polygon
will be
assumed to be
less
than a semi-circumference.
BOOK
A spherical polygon
is
convex
edral angle at the centre
A diagonal of a
joining
any two
sides.
when
convex (VI.,
spherical polygon
corresponding poly-
its
52).
an arc of a great
is
circle
vertices not consecutive.
44. Definition.
of three
is
271
viir.
spherical triangle
a spherical polygon
is
It is called right angled^ isosceles^ or equilat-
the same cases as a plane triangle.
eral^ in
In consequence of the relation established between
45.
polyedral angles and spherical polygons (43),
from any property of polyedral angles we
it
may
follows that
infer
an anal-
ogous property of spherical polygons.

Eeciprocally, from
may
infer
The
any property of
spherical polygons
we
an analogous property of polyedral angles.
latter is in almost all cases the
more simple mode of
procedure, inasmuch as the comparison of figures
the surface of a sphere
comparison of plane
is
nearly
drawn on
not quite as simple as the
if
figures.
46. Arcs of great circles on the
same sphere can be super-
posed and made to coincide just as straight lines are super-
We
posed and made to coincide.

point of the
first
keeping this point

pivot, until
fixed, to
turn the
some second point
opposite the fixed point

arcs
have merely to place one
arc on some given point of the second, and,
falls
first
arc about
it
as a
in the arc not diametrically
on the second
arc.
must then coincide throughout, by Proposition
The two
Y., Corol-
lary Y.
Equal angles formed by arcs of great
circles
on the surface
of the same sphere can be superposed and made to coincide

just as equal plane angles are superposed
incide
that
is,
if
the vertex of the
first
and made to
angle
is
the vertex of the second, and one side of the
upon the corresponding
co-
placed upon
first
placed
side of the second, the other side of
272
the
coincide with the other side of the second.
first will
For,
the two given angles are equal, their diedral angles are
if
If the vertices of the angles co-
equal (Proposition IX.).
incide, the edges of the diedral angles coincide
if
a side of
placed on a side of the second, one face of
the
first
angle
the
first
diedral angle coincides with one face of the second.
is
The remaining
faces of the diedral angles
must then
coincide,
and consequently the remaining sides of the given angles

coincide.
47. Definition.
all
Two
spherical triangles are symmetrical if
the parts of one are respectively equal to the parts of the
other, but the corresponding parts are arranged in opposite
orders in the two triangles.
Two
symmetrical triangles, as
for, to
bring the vertex
sponding vertex
have
C,
ABC^ ABC'j
made
in the figure cannot be
to coincide;
upon the
corre-
the second triangle would
to be turned over,
and the two convex
surfaces would thus be brought together.
48;^here
last
remark,
is,
however, one exception to the
namely, the
case of symmetrical isosceles trian-
ABC is an isosceles
spherical triangle and AB = AC,
gles,
Por, if
then, in its symmetrical triangle,
we have A'B'
sequently
A'B\ and,
AB
since the angles
A' are equal,

equal
= A!C\ and con= A'C, AG =
if
AB
and
be placed on A'G\
A'B\ and the two
AG
will fall
on
its
triangles will coincide through-
out.
49. Definition. If
from the vertices of a spherical triangle
as poles, arcs of great circles are described, these arcs form
/4
/}l\
BOOK
by
273
VIII.
which
their intersection a second triangle,
polar triangle of the
Thus,
if
Aj B, and
A'B'C
called the
are the poles of the
arcs of great circles, B'C'j

respectively,
is
first.
is
A'C\ and A'B\
the polar triangle of
ABC.
Since
great
all
circles,
intersect each other in

jB'C",
A'C, A'B\
other triangles
triangle
is
if
when
two
completed,
points, the arcs
produced, will form three
but the triangle which
that whose vertex
the same side of the arc
BC
is
taken as the polar
A\ homologous
as the vertex
to A, lies
A; and
on
so of the
other vertices.
50y^f
the first of two spherical triangles is the polar triangle
of the second, then, reciprocally, the second
is
the polar triangle
of the first.
ABC;
Let A'B'C be the polar triangle of

then
is
ABC
the polar triangle of A'B'C,
For, since
the point 5'
is
A;
C;
and, since
the point ^'
is
therefore B'
shown that A'
B'C\
same
side of
A'B'C.
from
is
the pole of the arc A'B',
from
is
the pole of the arc
(Proposition YI., Corollary III.).
the arc AB.
B'C,
the pole of the arc
is
is
AC
In the same manner
it is
the pole of the arc BC, and C" the pole of
Moreover,
and A' are on the same
and B' on the same

A'B' ; therefore
side of
ABC
A'C, C and
is
side of
on the
the polar triangle of
274
triangles, eaÛ anyle of one is
5lX/ t.o polar
the supplement of the side lying opposite to
ABC
Let
and A'B'C be two polar
measure,
l>y
in the other.
it
tri-
angles.
Let the
and
arc
The vertex
c.
he,
AB
sides
meet the
necessary,
the angle
and AC, produced
B'C
side
A
is
if
in the points h
being the pole of the
measured by the arc he
(Proposition IX.).
Now,
'
being the pole of the arc Ac, and
C the pole of the arc Ah^ the arcs B'c and G'h are quadrants
hence
we have
B'C
Therefore
-\-
he
=^B'c
-\-
C'h
Si
semi-circumference.
which measures the angle A,
he,
is
the supplement
of the side B'G\

In the same manner
either triangle
is
lying opposite to
.52.
gle
it
can be shown that each angle of
measured by the supplement of the

it
side
in the other triangle.
Scholium. Let the angles of the trian-
ABC
be denoted by A, B, and
C,
and
let
the sides opposite to them, namely, BC, AC,
and AB, be denoted by

tively.
a, h,
and
c,
respec-
Let the corresponding angles and
sides of the polar triangle be denoted
B',
C,
a', h',
and
c\
Also
let
by
A',
both angles and
sides be expressed in degrees.
Then the preceding theorem
gives the following relations
+a'=B -\-h':=^C +c'^

A' +a :=:^B' -\rh =C' + c =
180.
180.
BOOK
275
VIII.
Two
53.
when two
metrical,
same sphere are
triangles on the
and
sides
spectively equal to txoo sides
In the triangles
angle
the included angle of one are re-
and
the included angle of the other.
be equal to the angle D, the side
equal to the side
AG
equal to the side
When
applied to
DE, and
DF.
the side
the parts of the two trian-
same
gles are in the
DEF^
ABC
order,
can be
as in the corresponding
case of plane triangles

VI.),
sym-
^50 and DEF, let the
AB
1st.
either equal or
Proposition
(I.,
and the two triangles
will coincide
therefore they are
equal.
When
2d.
the parts of the two
triangles are
DE'F
of
in inverse
order, let
be the symmetrical triangle
BEF, and
therefore having
its
angles and sides equal, respectively,

those of
to
triangles
DEF.
ABC
BAC
have the angle
E'DF,
angle
AG
Then, in the
and DE'F, we
equal to the
the side
to the side
AB
DF, and
with
to the
side
DE', and the
these parts arranged in the
order in the two triangles

equal to the triangle
shall
therefore the triangle
side
same
ABG
is
DE'F, and consequently symmetrical
DEF,
54. Scholium.
which
In this proposition, and in the propositions
follow, the
sphere, or on
two
triangles
may be
two equal spheres.
supposed on the same
276
PKOPOSITION XIII.THEOREM.
55.
Two
respectively to
BEF
a side and two adjacent angles of the
sym-
other.
ABC
have the side a
equal to the side

angles B^
either equal or
and two adjacent angles of one are equal
side
Let the triangles
and
same sphere are
triangles on the
when a
metrical^
d^
and the
c' /
"^
X6'
equal respec-
C,
tively to the angles E,
then are the triangles equal.

Construct the polar
angles of
D\ by
tri-
ABC and DEF. We have h' =
e', c'
/',
and A' ==
Then A'B'C and D'E'F' are equal
Proposition XI.
or symmetrical, by Proposition XII.
Therefore their polar
ABC, DEF, are equal or symmetrical.

The proposition might be proved by
triangles
58. Scholium.
superposition, as in
I.,
direct
Proposition YII.
57.
Two
metrical,
triangles on the
when
same sphere are
either equal or
sym-
the three sides of one are respectively equal to the
three sides of the other.
For
if their vertices
are joined with the centre of the
sphere, the triedral angles thus formed have the three face
angles of the one respectively equal to the three face angles
of the other, and consequently, by VI., Proposition XXII., their

corresponding diedral angles are equal.
are, then,
The given
triangles
mutually equilateral and mutually equiangular, and
are equal or symmetrical.
BOOK vni.
277
The proposition can be proved
58. Scholium.
as in
Prop-
I.,
osition IX.
same sphere are mutually
59. If two triangles on the
angular, they are also mutually equilateral,

or symmetrical.
equi-
either equal
^^^^^
'^'"'^
Let the spherical

gles
and are
trian-
M and JV be mutually
equiangular.
Let
M'
angle of
be the polar
M, and
tri-
iV' the polar triangle of iV.
Since
M and
N are mutually equiangular, their polar triangles M' and
iV'
XL); therefore, by
M^ and N' are mutually equi-
are mutually equilateral (Proposition
Proposition XIY., the triangles

angular.
But M' and
iV' being
mutually equiangular, their
M and iV are mutually

equal or symmetrical.
M and N are
polar triangles
quently,
equilateral.
Conse-
either
may seem
60. Scholium. It
to the student that the pre-
ceding property destroys the analogy which subsists be^êen

plane and spherical triangles, since two mutually equiangular
plane triangles are not necessarily mutually equilateral.
But
in the case of spherical triangles the equality of the sides
follows from that of the angles only
upon the condition that
the triangles are constructed upon the same sphere or on

equal spheres
radii,
if
they are constructed on spheres of diiferent
the homologous sides of two mutually equiangular
tri-
angles will no longer be equal, but will be proportional to the

radii of the sphere
the two triangles will then be similar, as
in thje case of plane triangles.

24
278
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
In
an
isosceles
spherical
triangle
the angles
opposite the equal sides are equal.

2.
Theorem.
The
arc
drawn from
the vertex of
spherical triayigle to the middle point of the base

to the base,
3.
and
Theorem.
the triangle
is
an
isosceles
perpendicular
bisects the vertical angle.
If two angles of a spherical
triangle are equal,
is isosceles.
PROPOSITION XVI.-^THEOREM.
Any
61.
a spherical triangle
side of
is less
than the sum of
the other two.
ABC
Let
then
be a spherical triangle;
AC,
any. side, as
sum of
For,
the other two,

in
the
than the
is less
AB and
BC.
corresponding triedral
angle formed at the centre
we have
than the sum of
the angle
sphere,
BOC
the angles
(VI., Proposition
XX.)
of the
AOC
AOB
;
/^'l-"''''
o**'
less
and
and since the sides of the
angle measure these angles, respectively,
we have
AC
<^
tri-
AB
+ BC.
EXERCISES.
1.
Theorem.
If
two angles of a spherical triangle are un-
equal, the side opposite the greater angle is greater than the side
opposite the less angle,

2.
Theorem.
(v.
If two
I.,
Proposition XII.)
sides of
a spherical triangle are unequal,
the angle opposite the greater side

site the less side.
(v.
is
greater than the angle oppo-
L, Proposition XIII.)
BOOK
279
VIIT.
PEOPOSITION XVII.THEOEEM.
The sum of
62.
the sides of
a convex spherical polygon
than the circumference of a great
is less
circle.
For the sum of the face angles of the corresponding polyedral angle at the centre of the sphere
than four right
is less
angles (YI., Proposition XXI.).
PEOPOSITION XVIII.THEOEEM.
The sum of
63.
than two, and
less
the angles of
than
a spherical triangle
For, denoting the angles of a spherical
angle by A, B,
them
opposite to
h',
d,
A=
the
we have
180
C,
and the
a'
^y
in its polar triangle
o!,
J?=: 180
by
^<
a',
0= 180 c',
6',
is
180
{a!
<i 360 (Proposition
-\- c'
;
that
is,
the
+ +
6'
XYII.)
sum of
greater than two right angles.

less
tri-
(Proposition XI.)
sum of which
-\-
greater
sides respectively
A^ B -^C ^ 540
But
is
six, right angles.
c').
therefore
A+
the three angles
is
Also, since each angle
is
than two right angles, their sum
is less
than six right
angles.
64. Scholium.
three right angles
spherical triangle
j
also
may have two
two or even three obtuse
or even
angles.
280
PROPOSITION XIX.-THEOEEM.
65.
Two
Let
ABG
Let
symmetrical spherical triangles are equivalent.
and A'B'C be symmetrical spherical
triangles.
be the pole of the
small circle passing through
A, B, and
(Proposition
Then
Corollary YI.).
Y.,
the arcs PA, PB, PC, are

equal (Proposition YL, Corollary
I.),
and divide
ABG
isosceles
trian-
into three
gles.
Through A' and B'
in the triangle
A'B'C draw
ing with A'B' angles equal respectively to
PAB
and join P\
their point of intersection, with G'.
celes triangle
PAB
sition
is
The
Proposition
isosceles triangle
The
PBG
P'B'G\ by Proposition XII. and
isosceles triangle
PGA
XIY. and
is
equal
(48).
The
equal to the triangle P'G'A\
(48).
should
without the triangle

triangle
to the
celes
the
Hence
ABG
ABG,
sum of two of
fall
the
the isos-
triangles diminished
;
but, as the
by
same
thing would occur for the symmetrical triangle, the conclusion
would be the same.
by
and A'B'C' are
would be equivalent
third
isos-
is
equivalent.
If the pole
mak-
equal to the triangle P'A'B\ by Propo-
XIII. and (48).
to the triangle
arcs
and PBA,
\p
pv
-/--
BOOK
281
VIII.
ABC
66. Definition. If a spherical triangle
has two right angles,
hi-rectangular triangle
and, since the sides
and
J. (7
and
(7,
it is
called a
(Proposition IX., Corollary), the vertex
AB and A C are quadrants.
that pole, and therefore

67. Definition.
A lune is a portion of the sur-
face of a sphere included
between two semi-
circumferences of great circles
The two angles of a lune

each
as
the planes of the arcs of the lune

lune
is
AMBNA.
are equal, since
equal to the diedral angle formed
is
AB
BO
A is
must each pass through the pole of
equal to the
sum of two
by
and the
equal bi-rectan-
gular triangles, each of which has the angle of the lune for its
third angle.
EXERCISE.
Theorem. Two
lunes on the
same sphere or on equal spheres
re equal if their angles are equal.
68. If two arcs of great circles intersect on the surface of
hemisphere^ the
form
is
sum
^
a
of the opposite spherical triangles which they
equivalent to a lune whose angle
is
the angle between the
arcs in question.
Let the arcs ACA',

on
the
surface of the
ABA'B'C.
ABG^
BCB\
Then
will
hemisphere
the triangles
AIB'C^ be together equivalent
to a lune
whose angle
is
For, continue the arcs

until
intersect
they intersect in
B'C ^^ BCy and
A'B'
A GB.
ACA\ BCB\
A'
C = AC,
= AB, since they subtend equal angles.
282
The
triangles
A'B'C and
ABC
are
then equal or symmetrical, by PropoXIY., and are in either case
sition
equivalent (Proposition XIX.). There-
ABC
fore
and A'B'C are together
A'B'C
equivalent to
is,
+ A'B'C;
that
to the lune CA'C'B\
MEASUEEMENT OF THE SUEFACES OF SPHEEICAL

FIGUEES.
A degree of spherical surface, or, more briefly,

It
degree, is -^ of the surface of a hemisphere.
69. Definition.
u spherical
is
a convenient unit in measuring the surfaces of spherical
Like the degree of
figures.
arcs, it is
not a unit of absolute
magnitude, but depends upon the size of the sphere on which

the figures are drawn.
may be
It
ical triangle
conveniently conceived as a bi-rectangular spher-
whose third angle
is
an angle of one degree.
PEOPOSITION XXI.THEOEEM.
70.
lune
is to
Let
MNP
lune
is to
the surface of the sphere as the angle of the
four right angles.
AWBMA
be a lune, and
let
be the great circle whose poles
are the extremities of the diameter
AB.
Since the angle of the lune
ured by the arc

lune
MN
is
is
Ist.
MW,
is
meas-
the angle of the
to four right angles as the arc

to the
whole circumference
Suppose that
MNPM.
MN and the circumference have a com-
'
BOOK
mon measure which

in
MNPM.
is
283
VIII.
contained
MN and n times
times in
Then
MN _ m
MNPM~~
Apply the measure
and through the
to the circumference,
AB
points of division and the axis
pass planes; they will
divide the whole surface of the sphere into n equal lunes (67,
Exercise), of
which the given lune
ANBMA will contain m.
Therefore
_m
ANBMA
surface of sphere
w'
and we have
ANBMA
MNMNFM'
surface of sphere
We
2d.
can extend the proof to the case where
MNPM are incommensurable by our usual method,
MN and
(v.
YII.,
Proposition YII.)
Corollary. The area of a lune
71.
is
angle, the angular unit being the degree,
expressed by twice
and
its
the unit of surface
the spherical degree.
For,
by
(69), the area of the surface of the sphere is 720
spherical degrees.
We
have, then, if
is
the area and
the angle of the lune,
360
720
whence
S=2A.
72. Scholium. If the angle
degrees,
above
two
is
and each of the parts of the arc
MN in
one degree, each of the small lunes
spherical degrees,
tains twice as
and the lune
many spherical
degrees of arc.
number of
contains a whole
the figure
made up of
is
AMBN obviously
degrees as the arc
con-
MN contains
284
PROPOSITION XXII.THEOREM.
A-
73.
The area of a
sum
the
of
For, let
its
ABC
is
equal to the excess of
be a spherical triangle.
Complete the great
this circle in A'
circle
AC
produce the arcs
We have,
spherical triangle
angles over two right angles.
and
ABA^B', and
BC
to
meet
and B\
by the
figure,
ABC + A'BC = lune A,

ABC + AB'C=luneB,
and,
by Proposition XX.,
ABC +
The sum of the
A'B'C
= lune
C.
members of these equations is equal to

ABC, plus the four triangles ABC, A'BC,
first
twice the triangle
AB'C, A'B'C, which compose the surface of the hemisphere,

whose area
is
360 spherical degrees.
Therefore, denoting the area of the triangle
we have
ABC
by
T,
(Proposition XXI., Corollary)
2T
+ 360 = 2A-\-2B +
180 = A + B-^ C,
A-i- B + C 180.
2(7,
T+
T=
74. Scholium.
The excess of the sum of the angles of a
spherical triangle over
two right angles
is
spherical excess.
its
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
is
The area of a spherical polygon
measured by the sum of
its
angles
minus
the product of two right angles multiplied by
the
number of
sides of the
polygon
less two.
sometimes called
BOOK
must not be forgotten that Propositions
75. Scholium. It
XXI. and XXII. merely enable

spherical degrees
that
the whole sphere.
is,
If the area
first
us to express our areas in
in terms of
ordinary unit of surface (lY.,

the sphere must
285
VIII.
1),
yj^ of the surface of

required in terms of the
is
the area of the surface of
be given in terms of the unit in question.
^
SHORTEST LINE ON THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE
BETWEEN TWO
POINTS.
PROPOSITION XXIII.THEOREM.
The
76.
drawn on
shortest line that can be
sphere between two points
the surface of
the arc of a great circle^ not greater
is
than a semi-circumference, joining the two points.
Let AB be an arc of a great
circle, less
than a semi-circumference, joining any
two points
sphere
and
B of
and
C be any
let
taken in that
face of the sphere,
arbitrary point
Then we say
arc.
the shortest line from
From A and
the surface of a
to B,
on the
that
sur-
must pass through
C.
as poles, with the polar distances
BCj describe circumferences on the surface

ences touch at
let
C and
lie
Mhe any point other
pole
is
wholly without each other.
than
AM + BM >
members of
have
in the circumference
A, and draw the arcs of great circles
ing the spherical triangle
XYI.,
this
is
B.
A MB. We
and
have,
AM, BM,
For,
whose
form-
by Proposition
AB, and subtracting from the two
mequality the equal arcs
BM > BC; therefore
whose pole
AC
these circumfer-
',
ikf lies
AM and
AC, wq
without the circumference
286
Now let AFGB be
any
line
from
to 5,
on the surface of
the sphere, which does not pass through the point
C,
and
which therefore cuts the two circumferences in different points, one in F^ the
other in G.
Then a shorter
drawn from
line
AF^ an equal
Ato C;
to be
can be
to B^ passing through G.
whatever may
For,
line
since, if
be the nature of the
line
can be drawn from
AC and AF be conceived
drawn on two equal spheres having
common diameter
passing through A, and therefor" having
their surfaces in coincidence,
turned upon the

will be fixed
and
if
common diameter
and the point
one of these spfh^res be

as an axis, the point
F will come
C; the surfaces of the two spheres continuing to

the line
AF will
and
For the same reason, a
0,
C.
equal to
through
less
G,
than
BG.
then
lie
common
line
coincide,
surface between
to
can be drawn from
Therefore a line can be drawn from
equal to the
AFGB. The
Consequently
it
to B,
sum of AF and BG, and consequently
passes through C; that
AB.
on the
into coincidence with
shortest line from

is,
to
therefore
through any, or every, point in
must be the arc
AB itself.
EXERCISES ON BOOK
VIII.
THEOREMS.
1.
A SPHERE can be circumscribed about any tetraedron.
Suggestion. The locus of the points

equally distant from A, B^ and C is the
erected at the centre
perpendicular
of the circle circumscribed about
The locus of the
(VI., Exercise 15.)
EM
ABC
points equally distant from B^ C, and

is tne perpendicular FN^ and both
and
lie in the plane perpendicular to
Sit its middle point, since that plane
contains all the points equally distant
from
and C.
and
therefore
intersect, and O, their point of intersection, is equally distant from the four vertices of the tetraedron.
There is only one such point. Therefore
only one sphere can be circumscribed about a tetraedron.
2. The perpendiculars erected at the centres of the four faces
of a tetraedron meet in a point.
EM
FN
BC
EM
FN
3.
sphere can be inscribed in any tetraedron.
Suggestion, The locus of the points equally
distant from two faces of the tetraedron is
the plane bisecting the diedral angle be-
tween them.
4. The planes bisecting the six diedral angles of a tetraedron

intersect in a point.
287
288
LOCI.
6. Locus of the points in space which are at a given distance
from a given straight line.
6. Locus of the points which are at the distance a from a point

Ay and at the distance b from a point B.
7. Locus of the centres of the spheres

three given planes.
which are tangent
to
8. Locus of the centres of the sections of a given sphere made

by planes passing through a given straight line.
Suggestion. Pass a plane through the centre of the sphere perpendicular to the given straight line. Then see II., Exercise 24.
9. Locus of the centres of the sections of a given sphere made
by planes passing through a given point.
PROBLEMS.
10. Through a given point on the surface of a sphere, to pass a
plane tangent to the sphere, (v. Proposition VII., Corollary.)
11. Through a given straight line without a sphere, to pass a
plane tangent to the sphere.
Suggestion. Through the centre of the sphere pass a plane perpendicular to the given line. In this plane, from its point of
intersection with the line, draw a line tangent to the circle in
which the plane cuts the sphere.
plane through the tangent
line and the given line is the tangent plane required. (Two solu-
tions.)
12. Through a given point without a sphere, to pass a plane
13. To cut a given sphere by a plane passing through a given
straight line so that the section shall have a given radius.
SuggeMion. Pass a plane through the centre of the sphere per-
pendicular to the given
line.
Then
v. II.,
Exercise
37.
BOOK
289
VIII.
14. To construct a spherical surface with a given radius Ist,

passing through three given points 2d, passing through two
given points and tangent to a given plane, or to a given sphere
3d, passing through a given point and tangent to two given planes,
or to two given spheres, or to a given plane and a given sphere
4th, tangent to three given planes, or to three given spheres, or to
two given planes and a given sphere, or to a given plane and
two given spheres.
;
15. Through a given point on the surface of a sphere, to draw a

great circle tangent to a given small circle.
Suggestion, With the pole of the small circle as a pole, and with
a polar distance equal to the polar distance of the small circle
plus a quadrant, describe a second small circle. With the given
point as a pole describe a great circle.
point of intersection of
this great circle with the second small circle will be the pole of
the great circle required.

16.
To draw a great
17.
At a given point in a great circle, to driaw an arc of a

which shall make a given angle with the first.
circle
circle
tangent to two given small
circles.
great
BOOK
IX.
MEASUREMENT OP THE THREE ROUND
BODIES.
THE CYLINDER.
1.
The area of the convex, or
Definition.
of a cylinder
is
2. Definition.
in a cylinder
lateral, surface
called its lateral area.
when
prism
its
base
is
inscribed
is
inscribed
in the base of the cylinder
and
its
lateral edges are elements of the cylIt follows that the
inder.
of the prism
is
upper base
inscribed in the upper
base of the cylinder.
To
inscribe, then, a
prism of any
given number of lateral faces in a cylinder,
we have merely to
inscribe in the base a polygon of the given
number of sides,
draw elements
and through the vertices of the polygon to

of the cylinder.
will
form the
Planes passed through adjacent elements
lateral faces of the
prism which
is
obviously
wholly contained in the cylinder.

3. Definition.
scribed
base
prism
is
circumscribed
is
circum-
when
about a cylinder
its
about the
base of the cylinder and
its lateral
edges are parallel to elements of

the cylinder.
It follows that its lateral faces
are tangent to the lateral faces of
the cylinder (YIII., 11)

face, as
for
any
AB'y contains the element bb\ since
290
it
contains the
BOOK
AA^ and the point
parallel line
by
YIII., Proposition
is
b (YI., Proposition II.), and,
cannot cut the surface of the cyl-
AB cuts the base
inder again jinless
base
I., it
291
IX.
again
and that
its
upper
circumscribed about the upper base of the cylinder.
The cylinder
is
4. Definition.
cylinder
is
obviously wholly contained in the prism.
right section
a section
made by
of a
a plane
perpendicular to its elements asabcdef.

;
The
intersection of the
same plane
with an inscribed or circumscribed

prism
5.
is
a right section of the prism.
Definition. Similar cylinders of revolution are those
by
are generated
gous
which
similar rectangles revolving about homolo-
sides.
PKOPOSITION I.THEOREM.
6.
If a prism whose base
is
a regular polygon be inscribed
in or circumscribed about a given cylinder^
proach the volume of the cylinder as
its
its limit,
volume
and
its
lateral sur-
face will approach the lateral surface of the cylinder as
as the number of sides of

For, if
we
could
its
make
base
is indefinitely
the base
of the prism exactly coincide with

the base of the cylinder, the prism
and the cylinder would coincide

throughout,
and
their
volumes
would be equal and their
lateral
surfaces equal.
But,
by increasing the number
of sides of the base of the prism.
will ap-
its
increased.
limit
292
we can make
it
come
as near as
we
please to coinciding with
the base of the cylinder (Y., Proposition YII.)
we can then make
the prism and cylinder
fail
of co-
amount
Consequently, by
as we choose.
increasing at pleasure the number
incidence
by
as small an
of sides of the base of the circumscribed or inscribed prism,
make
we can
the difference between the
volumes of prism and
and between the
cylinder,
lateral surfaces
of prism and cylinder, as small as

it
we
choose, but cannot
make
absolutely zero.
7.
The
Scholium.
base of the prism
proposition just proved
is
not a regular polygon
is
true
but
when
it is
the
only for
the case of the regular polygon that a rigorous proof has
been given in Book V.
PEOPOSITION II.THEOREM.
8.
The
lateral area of
the perimeter of
a cylinder
is
a right section of the cylinder by an element of
the surface.
Let
ABCBEF be
any element of a
the base and AA'
cylinder,
and
let
the
curve abcdef be any right section of

the surface.
Denote the perimeter of
the right section
AA' by E^ and the

cylinder
by
Inscribe
by
P, the element
lateral area of the
S.
in
ABCDEFA' of
the
cylinder a prism
any
arbitrarily chosen
BOOK
number n of
will be a
The
faces.
right section, abcdef, of this prism
polygon inscribed in the right section of the cylin-
der formed by the same plane
then, the lateral edge of the prism being equal to E,
we
= pX

approaches the limit
limit
PX
E.
JS
Therefore,
S
Corollary
9.
The
I.
its
II.)
n.
E,
If n
is
(Proposition
by
III.,
=PX
and p
I.),
E, the
Theorem of Limits,
E.
lateral area of
a cylinder of revolution
equal to the product of the circumference of
is
lateral area
by
and the perimeter of
s,
have (VII., Proposition
Denote the
(4).
right section
of the prism by
p;
293
rx.
its
base by
its
altitude.
This
may
be formulated,
R is the radius of
if
10.
Corollary
II.
the base and
The
lateral
areas of similar cylinders of revoare to
lution
each
other
as the
squares of their altitudes, or as the

squares of the radii of their bases.
Suggestion.
S
s
R
r
by
2t.R.H
27:r.h
H = -^ = -, smce R- = H
jff
'
r*
(5).
25*
h<^
H the altitude
^
294
PBOPOSITION
III.THEOREM.
The volume of a cylinder
11.
base by
is
its
its altitude.
Let the volume of the cylinder be

denoted by F,
altitude
by S.
its
base by B, and
inscribed prism be denoted

its
-H,
base by
by
F',
and
J5'; its altitude will also
and we
tion
its
Let the volume of an
shall
be
have (VII., Proposi-
XIL, Corollary)
no matter what the number of faces of the prism.
number of
If the
creased,
faces of the prism
F' has the limit F, and ^'
-S"
is
indefinitely in-
the limit
BX
S,
Therefore
v = bxb:.
Corollary
12.
may
For a
I.
be formulated^
cylinder of revolution this proposition
V = izB^.H.
(Y., Proposition IX., Corol-
lary.)
13.
Corollary
II.
The volumes of similar
cylinders of revo-
lution are to each other as the cubes of their altitudes^ or as the
cubes of their radii.
THE CONE.
14. Definition.
of a cone
is
The area of the convex,
called its lateral area.
or lateral, surface
BOOK
A pyramid
15. Definition.
a cone
in
when
its
base
IX.
inscribed
is
inscribed in
is
the base of the cone and
vertex
its
coincides with the vertex of the cone.

It follows that the lateral edges of
the pyramid are elements of the cone.
An
inscribed
pyramid
is
wholly con-
tained within the cone.

16. Definition.
scribed about
pyramid
a cone when
base of the cone and
its
its
circum-
is
base
is
circumscribed about the
vertex co-
incides with the vertex of the cone.
Any
lateral face, as
pyramid
since
is
SAB^ of the
tangent to the cone
for,
passes through a and S^
it
contains the element Sa^ and
it
can-
it
not cut the convex surface again
without cutting the perimeter of

the base again (YIII., Proposition
111.).
The cone
is
then wholly contained within the pyramid.
17. Definition.
truncated cone
is
the portion of a cone included be-
tween
its
its
When
allel to
is
base and a plane cutting
convex surface.
the cutting plane
is
par-
the base, the truncated cone
called a frustum of a cone;
ABCD-abcd. The
tum
is
altitude
as
of a frus-
Tt between
its bases.
If a pyramid
is
inscribed in the cone, the cutting plane
296
determines a truncated pyramid inscribed in the truncated

cone
and
if
a pyramid
is
circumscribed about the cone, the
cutting plane determines a truncated pyramid circumscribed
about the truncated cone.

18. Definition.
In a cone of revolution
the elements are equal, and any
all
ment
is
ele-
called the slant height of the
cone.
In a cone of revolution the portion

of an element included between the parallel
bases of a frustum, as Aa^ or Bh^
is
called the slant height of the frustum.

19. Definition. Similar cones of revolu-
tion are those
which are generated by similar right triangles
revolving about homologous sides.
20. If a 'pyramid he inscribed in or circumscribed about a
given cone,
limit,
and
approach the volume of the cone as
its
volume
its
lateral surface will
will
of the cone as a limit, as the
its
approach the convex surface
number of faces of
the
pyramid
is
The demonstration
sition
I.,
is
precisely the
same as that of Propo-
substituting cone for cylinder and pyramids for
prisms.
21.
Corollary.
scribed
and
whose faces
frustum of a cone
is
the limit of the in-
circumscribed frustums of pyramids, the number of

is indefinitely
increased.
BOOK
297
IX.
The
22.
a cone of revolution
lateral area of
product of the circumference of

Suggestion.
its
base by half
is
its
equal to the
slant height.
Circumscribe a regular
pyramid about the cone, and then suppose the number of

osition
YII., Prop-
(y.
XIY.)
CoROLLAEY
23.
faces to be
its
Thc proposition
I.
may
be formulated,
the radius of the base and
is
tcRI/,
where
L the
slant height.
Corollary
24.
The
II.
lateral areas
of similar cones of revolution are to each other as the squares

of their slant heights, or as the squares of their altitudes, or as
the squares of the radii of their bases.
^û:;^
The
25.
lateral area of
equal to the half

plied by
its
sum
a frustum of a cone of revolution
of the circumferences of
slant height.
Suggestion. Circumscribe the frus-
tum
of a regular pyramid about the
frustum of the cone (17), and suppose the number of

nitely increased,
its
faces indefi-
YII., Proposi-
(y.
tion XIY., Corollary.)
26.
may
if
Corollary
be formulated,
I.
The proposition
= t:{B
R and r are the radii of

L is the slant height.
and
-\-
r)L,
the bases
its
is
bases multi*
298
27.
Corollary
of revolution
is
The
II.
lateral area of
ence of a section equidistant

bases multiplied by
Exercise 24, Book
from
its
slant height.
its
IKz=
Suggestion,
a frustum of a cone
equal to the circumfer-
jji
+ OM).
^(om
(v.
I.)
28.
of
its
The volume of any cone

base by
is
equal to one-third of the product
its altitude.
Suggestion. Inscribe a
pyramid
the cone, and suppose the
in
number of
its
faces to be indefinitely increased.
(v.
VII., Proposition
29.
Corollary
I.
XVIII.)
For a
revolution, the proposition
mulated,
30.
V=
cone of
may
be for-
InW^.H.
Corollary
II.
Similar cones of
revolution are to each other as the cubes of their altitudes, or as

the cubes of the radii of their bases.
exercise.
Theorem.
equivalent to the
common
frustum of any cone
sum
is
of three cones whose
altitude is the altitude of the frus-
tum, and whose bases are the lower base,

the upper base,
and a mean proportional
between the bases of the frustum,

Corollary.)
(v.
VII., Proposition XIX.,
BOOK
299
IX.
THE SPHERE.
31. Definition.
spherical segment
a portion of a sphere
is
included between two parallel planes.

sections of the sphere
The
the bases of the segment
made by
the parallel planes are
the distance between the planes
is
the altitude of the segment.
Let the sphere be generated by the revolution of the semicircle EBF about the axis
EF;
and
let
be two
Aa and Bb
The
perpendicular to the axis.
ABba
ated by the figure
ment
are
bases
its
If
two
of which
EAa
is
and ab
parallels
is
is its
solid gener-
a spherical seg-
the circles generated
by Aa and Bb
altitude.
TE are
Aa and
parallels,
taken, one
a tangent at E^ the solid generated by the figure
is
a spherical segment having but one base, which
section generated
tween two
The segment
by Aa.
parallel planes,
at E, generated
32. Definition.
by the
one of which
line
zone
is still
is
the
included be-
the tangent plane
is
ET.
is
a portion of the surface of a
sphere included between two parallel planes.
The circumferences of the
sections of the sphere
the parallel planes are the bases of the zone
between the planes
A zone
is
is its altitude.
In the revolution of the semicircle
An
arc,
made by
the distance
the curved surface of a spherical segment.
AB generates a zone
of the zone
the points
EBF
and
and the altitude of the zone
EA, one extremity of which
ates a zone of one base,
by the extremity A.
which
is
about EFy an arc
B generate
is
the bases
is ab.
in the axis, gener-
the circumference described
300
33. Definition.
eter,
When
a semicircle revolves about
the solid generated
by any
its
diam-
sector of the semicircle
is
called a spherical sector.
when
about EFj the
Thus,
the semicircle
EBF
circular sector
COD generates
revolves
a spherical sector.
The
spherical sector
is
bounded by three
curved surfaces; namely, the two conical

surfaces generated
by the
radii
00 and
and the zone generated by the arc CD.

zone
is
OD
OD,
This
called the base of the spherical sector.
may, however, coincide with OF,
spherical sector
is
in
which case the
bounded by a conical surface and a zone
of one base.
-Again,
00 may be
spherical sector
is
perpendicular to OF, in which case the
bounded by a plane, a conical
surface,
and
a zone.
PROPOSITION VIII.LEMMA.
V
34.
The area of
volving about
the surface generated by
an axis
straight line re-
in its plane, is equal to the projection of
the line on the axis multiplied by the circumference of the circle
whose radius
line
is
the perpendicular erected at the middle of the
and terminated by
Let
AB
the axis.
be the straight
about the axis J^Y; ab

the axis
01
middle point
its
line
revolving
projection on
the perpendicular to
7,
it,
at its
terminating in the axis;
AB = ab X circ. 01.
draw IK perpendicular
then area
For,
parallel to the axis.
and
AH
The area generated
BOOK
by
AB
is
301
IX.
that of the frustum of a cone
"
hence (Proposition
VI., Corollary II.)
AB = AB X circ. IK.
triangles ABH and lOK are sinxjlar,
area
The
equiangular, and
rCj-^]
we have
AHÎK
ab_ÎK,
AB
AB
or
being mutually
OV
but
circ^ = ^(Y.,
Proposition YIIL),
circ. IK
ah
A B^ circ.OI'
an4
ah
au
= AB X
area AB = ah X
;x^
circ.
cue.
ui
01
jljd
;<,
circ. in..
IK.
_^--^
Therefore
circ.
AB
If
face
(v.
meets
XY^
the surface generated
but the proposition
still
holds, as
~~^
01
may
is
Jp
V'-'x
AN
'
'
a conical sur-
be easily proved.
Proposition Y.)
If
AB
is
Proposition
parallel to the axis, the result is the same.

II.,
Corollary
I.)
PEOPOSITION IX.THEOREM.
35.
The area of a zone
(y.
is
equal
by the circumference of a great
to the
product of
its
altitude
circle.
Let the sphere be generated by the revo-
EBF about the axis

arc AD generate the zone
^^.^^
/(i
lution of the semicircle
EF
and
let
whose area
is
Jj^t the arc
the
required.
AD be
divided into any
num-
ber of equal parts. AB^ BG, CD, and draw

the chords
AB, BC,
etc.
b/^-X^
These chords are

26
^V'
^^
302
they subtend equal ares
all equal, since
and the perpendic-
ulars at their middle points all pass through
of the semicircle, and are equal
the centre
(II.,
Proposition YII.).
Let
abj he, etc.,
be the projections of these
Then, by Proposition
chords on the axis.

YIII.,
area
area
area
AB = ab X
BC == be X
CD =z ed X
Hence the sum of these
by the broken
line
that
to
is,
ad
cire.
6c
cire.
01,
01.
is
which
is
the area generated
equal to
+ cd) X
cire.
01;
01.
Calling the area generated
we have
01,
cire.
areas,
ABCD,
(ab
cire.
S=
ad
by the broken
cire.
inscribed line, 8y
01,
no matter what the number of the equal parts into which the
arc
AD is divided.
indefinitely,
cire.
01
will
01
will
If,
now, we increase the number of parts
approach the radius of the sphere, and
the circumference of a great circle as
approach the surface of the zone as
its limit,
its limit.
and
There*
fore
surfaee of zone
36.
= ad X cireumferenee of great
Corollary. The proposition may
S=
where
is
eirele.
be formulated,
2tzR.H,
the radius of the sphere and II Ihe altitude of
the zone.
A'-
cJ-r
K'J+
BOOK
._
Sfr.
PEOPOSITION X.THEOREM.
The area of
the surface of
a sphere
is
diameter by the circumference of a great
its
of
303
IX.
circle%
This follows directly from Proposition IX., since the sur
may
face of the whole sphere

altitude
is
Corollary
38.
the surface of
Corollary
39.
This
may
B X2R = 4:nR\
I.
S
Hence
be regarded as a zone whose
the diameter of the sphere.
27:
a sphere
II.
is
be formulated^
equivalent to four great circles.
The surfaces of two spheres are
to
each
other as the squares of their diameters^ or as the squares of their

radii.
The area of a
40. Scholium.
whose radius
value,
is
we may
R is -^
spherical degree on a sphere
(ÎH.,
69), and,
by the
aid of this
readily reduce the area of a spherical polygon
to ordinary square measure.
41.
The volume of a sphere
multiplied by one-third of
its
is
Circumscribe a polyedron
the sphere.
This
may
equal
to the
area of
its
surface
radius.
about
be done by
taking at pleasure points on the surface
of the
sphere,
and drawing
tangent planes at these points.
The
circumscribed polyedron wholly contains the sphere,
the sphere.
and
Join
all
is
greater than
the vertices of the polyedron with the
centre of the sphere, and pass planes through the edges of
the polyedron and these
lines,
thus dividing the polyedron
'
304
which has
into pyramids, each of
its
vertex at the centre of
the sphere, and has a face of the poly-
edron as
its base,
and
has, therefore,
the radius of the sphere for
its alti-
The
tude (YIII., Proposition YII.).
volume of any one of these pyramids

is
\pJh
J^
then one-third of the product of a
face of the polyedron
by the radius
of the sphere, and the
sum of the
volumes of the pyramids, or the whole volume of the polyedron,
is
sum of the
one-third of the product of the
of the polyedron by the radius of its sphere
that
is,
faces
one-third
of the product of the whole surface of the polyedron by the
Representing the surface of the poly-
radius of the sphere.
edron by
s,
and
its
volume by
u,
we have
V = IBs,
and
this equation holds
no matter what the number of the
faces of the polyedron.

If,
now, we increase the number of faces of the polyedron
by drawing
additional tangent planes to the sphere,
crease the volume
v,
We may
corner of the polyedron.

process of shaving
down
the difference between
sphere as small as
we
now,
S is
limit of s
and
two surfaces
by
III.,
carry on indefinitely this
may
thus
make
but
we
cannot
make the two
As the two volumes approach

also
approach coincidence.
If,
V the volume of the sphere, S is the

number of
faces of the
Therefore,
the limit of
circumscribed polyedron
de-
off
volume and the volume of the
its
please
the surface and
we
plane cuts
the polyedron, and
volumes absolutely coincide.

coincidence, the
new tangent
for each
is
Theorem of Limits,
v,
as the
BOOK
Corollary
42.
The
I.
305
IX.
may
result of this proposition
be for-
mulatedj
F = p'
Corollary
43.
The volumes of two spheres are
II.
to
each
other as the cubes of their radii, or as the cubes of their diameters.
The volume of a spherical
44.
the zone which
forms
its
sector is equal to the area of
base multiplied by one-third the radius
of the sphere.
The proof
is
analogous to the proof of Proposition XI.
The form of the circumscribed polyedron
is,
however, some-
what more complicated, as it will be bounded by a surface

made up of plane faces tangent to the zone of the spherical
sector,
and by two pyramidal faces tangent to, or inscribed
in,
the two conical surfaces of the spherical sector.

45. Definition.
solid
spherical
pyramid
is
y^
bounded by a spherical polygon and
the planes of the sides of the polygon
0-ABCD. The
vertex of the
gon
is its
centre of the sphere
pyramid
is
as
//
'^~
^^
/\
/\,'''
the
the spherical poly-
f.
base.
EXERCISE.
Theorem.
area of
its
The volume of a spherical pyramid
sphere.
is
equal to the
base multiplied by one-third of the radius of the
26*
306
To find
46.
Any
sector
a spherical segment.
the volume of
spherical segment
by adding
to
may
be obtained from a spherical
or subtracting from
it,
it,
cones having as
bases the bases of the segment.
For example,
let
us consider a segment of
two bases which does not contain the centre
The segment generated by
of the sphere.
ABGD
the revolution of
OC may
about
be
'
obtained by taking the cone generated by
OAD from the sum of the cone generated by

OBG and the spherical sector generated by OAB.
Call OC /, ODp, DC h, AD
BC and OA E,
r',
and the
Then we have the simple
relations
r,
volume of the segment
F.
r'
P Pi
p'
K*,
r'^
+ p""
The area of the zone of the segment

IX., Corollary).
V = ^T:hB^ +
Hence
B\
is
27ri2.^ (Proposition
^^/{
i7r/r"- Upr" (Proposition XII., and Proposi-
^ tion YII., C orollayg
.T^~--^:;r2r:^^
y = !;:(/ -"^ + %^^î^'î V = (/ - p)7:R' - UG" -^ p%

^
a convenient formula
when
I.),
i^p(^ -%^
[1]
the distances of the bases of the
segment from the centre of the sphere are given.
Another convenient formula can be obtained by introducing

in [1] A,
r,
and /
in place of
j?
F=(/-;>)|[3iJ'
and p'.
We
have
(y + /j' + i'0]-
BOOK
IX.
Now
2/i>
;>'-
Hence
,;ît+Jt^\
and
= f(iP - /' + - - 1 = 3JP - Kr" + /^ iJ'
r")
1',
and we have
[2]
This formula
is
convenient
when
the segment are given, and
it
the areas of the bases of
may
be put into words as
follows
The volume of a spherical segment

of
its
bases multiplied by
of which that altitude
is
its
is
sum
equal to the half
altitude plus the
volume of a sphere
the diameter,
V^^\
-.^^;
EXERCISES ON BOOK
IX.
THEOREMS.
1. Give a strict proof of Proposition I. and Proposition IV. for

the volumes of cylinder and cone, by showing that the difference
between the volumes of the inscribed and circumscribed figures
can be decreased at pleasure.
2. Assuming that if a solid has a plane face the area of that face
is less than the rest of the surface of the solid, prove, first, that
if two convex solids have a plane face in common, and one solid
is wholly included by the other, its surface is less than that of the
other {v. V., 13), and then give a strict proof of Proposition I. and
Proposition IV. for the surfaces of cylinder and cone.
8. The volumes of a cone of revolution, a sphere, and a cylinder
of revolution are proportional to the numbers 1, 2, 3 if the bases
of the cone and cylinder are each equal to a great circle of the
sphere, and their altitudes are each equal to a diameter of the
sphere.
4.
An
equilateral cylinder (of revolution) is one a section of

is a square.
equilateral cone (of
An
which through the axis
one a section of which through the axis is an equilateral triangle. These definitions premised, prove the following
theorems
I. The total area of the equilateral cylinder inscribed in a
sphere is a mean proportional between the area of the sphere and
revolution)
is
the total area of the inscribed equilateral cone.

of the volumes of these three bodies.
The same
is
true
II. The total area of the equilateral cylinder circumscribed

about a sphere is a mean proportional between the area of the
sphere and the total area of the circumscribed equilateral cone.
The same is true of the volumes of these three bodies.
5. If h is the altitude of a segment of one base in a sphere whose
radius is r, the volume of the segment is equal to Trh'^H
^h),
6. The volumes of polyedrons circumscribed about the same
sphere are proportional to their surfaces.
308
7^
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
ON THE
GEOMETKY OF
SPACE.
1. A PERPENDICULAR let fall from the middle point of a line

upon any plane not cutting the line is equal to one-half the sum
of the perpendiculars let fall from the ends of the line upon the
same plane.
2. The perpendicular let fall from the point of intersection of

the medial lines of a given triangle upon any plane not cutting
the triangle is equal to one-third the sum of the perpendiculars
from the vertices of the triangle upon the same plane.
3. The perpendicular from the centre of gravity of a tetraedron
upon any plane not cutting the tetraedron is equal to one-fourth
the sum of the perpendiculars from the vertices of the tetraedron
upon the same plane.
4. The volume of a truncated triangular prism is equal to the

product of the area of its lower base by the perpendicular upon
the lower base let fall from the intersection of the medial lines of
the upper base.
6. The volume of a truncated parallelopiped is equal to the
product of the area of its lower base by the perpendicular from
the centre of the upper base upon the lower base.
ABCD
If
is any tetraedron, and O any point within it, and
the straight lines AO^ BO^ CO^ DO, are produced to meet the
faces in the points a, 6, c, d, respectively, then
6.
if
Aa'^ Bb~^ Cc
"^
Dd
809
310
the three
/7.
tetraedron
right
face angles of the vertical triedral angle of a
If
are
are represented by a,
angles,
6,
and
and the lengths of the lateral edges

and of the altitude by p, then
c,
8. If the three face angles of the vertical triedral angle of a

tetraedron are right angles, the square of the area of the base is
equal to the sum of the squares of the areas of the lateral faces.
9. The perpendicular from the middle point of the diagonal of

a rectangular parallelepiped upon a lateral edge bisects the edge,
is equal to one-half of the projection of the diagonal upon

the base.
and
A straight
line of a given length moves so that its extremiconstantly upon two given perpendicular but non-intersecting straight lines what is the locus of the middle point of the
10.
ties are
moving
line ?
PROBLEMS.
11. To cut a given polyedral angle of four fac^s
that the section shall be a parallelogram.
^\
12.
To cut a cube by a plane so that the
by a plane
so
section shall be a regular
hexagon.
13. To find the ratio of the volumes generated by a rectangle
revolving successively about its two adjacent sides.
SYLLABUS OP PROPOSITIONS
IN
SOLID GEOMETRY.
BOOK
VI.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
I.
Through any given straight line a plane

the line will not determine the plane.
Proposition
may
be passed, but
II.
A plane is determined, 1st, by a straight line and a point without that line 2d, by two intersecting straight lines 3d, by three
points not in the same straight line 4th, by two parallel straight
;
lines.
Corollary,
The
intersection of
two planes
Proposition
is
a straight
line.
III.
From a given point without a plane one perpendicular to the

plane can be drawn, and but one and the perpendicular is the
shortest line that can be drawn from the point to the plane.
Corollary. At a given point in a plane one perpendicular can be
erected to the plane, and but one.
;
Proposition IV.
perpendicular to each of two straight lines
at their point of intersection, it is perpendicular to the plane of
those lines.
Corollary I. At a given point of a straight line, one plane can
be drawn perpendicular to the line, and but one.
Corollary II. Through a given point without a straight line,
one plane can be drawn perpendicular to the line, and but one.
If a straight line
is
311
312
Proposition V.
Two
lines in space
Corollary,
Two
having the same direction are
lines parallel to the
same
parallel.
line are parallel to
each other.
Proposition VI.
two straight lines are parallel, every plane passed through

one of them and not coincident with the plane of the parallels is
If
parallel to the other.
Corollary I. Through any given straight line a plane can be

passed parallel to any other given straight line.
Corollary II. Through any given point a plane can be passed
parallel to any two given straight lines in space.
Proposition VII.
Planes perpendicular to the same straight line are parallel to
each other.
Proposition VIII.
The intersections of
are parallel.
two
parallel planes
with any third plane
Proposition IX.
straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel planes is

perpendicular to the other.
Corollary. Through any given point one plane can be passed
parallel to a given plane, and but one.
Proposition X.
If two angles, not in the same plane, have their sides respectively parallel and lying in the same direction, they are equal
and
their planes are parallel.
Proposition XI.
If one of
other
is
two
parallel lines is perpendicular to a plane, the
also perpendicular to that plane.
Two straight lines perpendicular to the

are parallel to each other.
Corollary.
same plane
Proposition XII.
Two
diedral angles are equal
if
their plane angles are equal.
Proposition XIII.
Two
diedral angles are in the
same
ratio as their plane angles.
SYLLABUS OF PROPOSITIONS IN SOLID GEOMETRY.
313
Proposition XIV.
If a straight line
through the line
is
perpendicular to a plane, every plane passed

perpendicular to the plane.
is
Proposition XV.
If two planes are perpendicular to each other, a straight line
drawn in one of them, perpendicular to their intersection, is
perpendicular to the other.
Corollary
I.
straight line
If
two planes are perpendicular
drawn through any point
to each other, a
of their intersection perin the other.
pendicular to one of the planes will lie

Corollary II. If two planes are perpendicular, a straight line
let fall from any point of one plane perpendicular to the other
will lie in the first plane.
Proposition XVI.
two
intersecting planes are each perpendicular to a third

plane, their intersection is also perpendicular to that plane.
If
Proposition XVII.
Through any given straight

dicular to any given plane.
line a plane
can be passed perpen-
Proposition XVIII.
The
projection of a straight line
upon a plane
is
a straight
line.
Proposition XIX.
acute angle which a straight line makes with its own proupon a plane is the least angle it makes with any line of
that plane.
The
jection
Proposition XX.
The sum
of
any two
face angles of
a triedral angle
is
greater
than the third.
Proposition XXI.
The sum
of the face angles of

less than four right angles.
any convex polyedral angle
is
Proposition XXII.
two
have the three face angles of the one respectively equal to the three face angles of the other, the corresponding diedral angles are equal.
If
triedral angles
27
314
BOOK
VII.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
The
sections of a prism
made by
gons.
Corollary. Any section of a prism
the base is equal to the base.
made by a plane
Proposition
The
a prism
I.
parallel planes are equal polyparallel to
II.
equal to the product of the perimeter of a right section of the prism by a lateral edge.
Corollary. The lateral area of a right prism is equal to the
product of the perimeter of its base by its altitude.
lateral area of
is
Proposition
III.
Two
prisms are equal, if three faces including a triedral angle

of the one are respectively equal to three faces similarly placed
including a triedral angle of the other.
Corollary I. Two truncated prisms are equal, if three faces including a triedral angle of the one are respectively equal to three
faces similarly placed including a triedral angle of the other.
Corollary II. Two ri^ht prisms are equal if they have equal
bases and equal altitudes.
Proposition IV.
Any oblique prism is equivalent to a right prism whose base is

a right section of the oblique prism, and whose altitude is equal
to a lateral edge of the oblique prism.
Proposition V.
Any parallelopiped is equivalent to a rectangular parallelopiped

of the
same
altitude
and an equivalent
base.
Proposition VI.
The plane passed through two diagonally

parallelopiiêd divides
it
into
opposite edges of a
two equivalent triangular prisms.
Proposition VII.
Two rectangular parallelepipeds having equal bases are to each

315
Proposition VIII.
Two
rectangular parallelepipeds having equal altitudes are to
each other as their bases.
Proposition IX.
Any two rectangular parallelopipeds are to each other as the

products of their three dimensions.
Proposition X.
of a rectangular parallelopiped is equal to tne
three dimensions, the unit of volume being the
The volume
product of its
cube whose edge
is
the linear unit.
Proposition XI.
any parallelopiped
base by its altitude.
The volume
area of
its
of
is
equal to the product of the
Proposition XII.
The volume
base by
Corollary.
its
of a triangular prism
is
its
its altitude.
base by
The volume
of
any prism
is
its altitude.
Proposition XIII.
cut by a plane parallel to its base, 1st, the edges
and the altitude are divided proportionally 2d, the section is a
polygon similar to the base.
Corollary I. If a pyramid is cut by a plane parallel to its base,
the area of the section is to the area of the base as the square of
its distance from the vertex is to the square of the altitude of the
If a
pyramid
is
pyramid.
two pyramids have equal altitudes and equivamade by planes parallel to their bases and at
equal distances from their vertices are equivalent.
Corollary II. If
lent bases, sections
Proposition XIV.
The lateral area of a regular pyramid is equal to the product of

the perimeter of its base by half its slant height.
Corollary. The lateral area of the frustum of a regular pyramid is equal to the half sum of the perimeters of its bases multiplied by the slant height of the frustum.
316
Proposition XV.
If the altitude of any given triangular pyramid is divided into
equal parts, and through the points of division planes are passed
parallel to the base of the pyramid, and on the sections made by
these planes as upper bases prisms are described having their
edges parallel to an edge of the pyramid and their altitudes equal
to one of the equal parts into which the altitude of the pyramid
is divided, the total volume of these prisms will approach the
volume of the pyramid as its limit as the number of parts into
which the altitude of the pyramid is divided is indefinitely
increased.
Proposition XVI.
Two
triangular pyramids having equivalent bases
and equal
altitudes are equivalent.
Proposition XVII.
A triangular
pyramid
is
same base and altitude.

Corollary. The volume
third of the product of
one-third of a triangular prism of the
of a triangular
its
base by
pyramid
is
equal to one-
its altitude.
Proposition XVIII.
The volume of any pyramid

of its base by its altitude.
is
equal to one-third of the product
Proposition XIX.
frustum of a triangular pyramid is equivalent to the sum of

three pyramids whose common altitude is the altitude of the frustum, and whose bases are the lower base, the upper base, and a
mean proportional between the bases of the frustum.
Corollary.
frustum of any pyramid is equivalent to the sum
of three pyramids whose common altitude is the altitude of the
frustum, and whose bases are the lower base, the upper base, and
a mean proportional between the bases of the frustum.
Proposition XX.
A truncated triangular
prism is equivalent to the sum of three

pyramids whose common base is the base of the prism and whose
vertices are the three vertices of the inclined section.
Proposition XXI.
Only
five regular (convex)
polyedrons are possible.
BOOK
317
Till.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
I.
made by a plane
passing through
Every section of a cylinder
an element is a parallelogram.
Corollary. Every section of a right cylinder made by a plane
perpendicular to
its
base
is
a rectangle.
Proposition
II.
The
bases of a cylinder are equal.

Corollary I. Any two parallel sections of a cylindrical surface
are equal.
Corollary II. All the sections of a circular cylinder parallel to
its bases are equal circles, and the straight line joining the centres
of the bases passes through the centres of all the parallel sections.
Proposition
Every
vertex
is
section of a cone
III.
made by a plane
passing through
its
a triangle.
Proposition IV.
If the base of a cone is a circle, every section
parallel to the base is a circle.
made by a plane
Corollary. The axis of a circular cone passes through the centres

of all the sections parallel to the base.
Proposition V.
section of a sphere made by a plane is a circle.
Corollary I. The axis of a circle on a sphere passes through
the centre of the circle.
Corollary II. All great circles of the same sphere are equal.
Corollary III. Every great circle divides the sphere into two
equal parts.
Corollary IV. Any two great circles on the same sphere bisect
Every
each other.
Corollary V. An arc of a great circle may be drawn through any
two given points on the surface of a sphere, and, unless the points
are the opposite extremities of a diameter, only one such arc can
be drawn.
Corollary VI. An arc of a circle may be drawn through any
three given points on the surface of a sphere.
27*
318
Proposition VI.
All the points in the circumference of a circle on a sphere are
equally distant from either of its poles.
Corollary I. All the arcs of great circles drawn from a pole of a
circle to points in its circumference are equal.
Corollary II. The polar distance of a great circle is a quadrant.
Corollary III. If a point on the surface of a sphere is at a quadrant's distance from each of two given points of the surface,
which are not opposite extremities of a diameter, it is the pole
of the great circle passing through them.
Proposition VII.
plane tangent to a sphere is perpendicular to the radius

drawn to the point of contact.
Corollary.
plane perpendicular to a radius of a sphere at its
extremity is tangent to the sphere.
Proposition VIII.
The
intersection of two spheres is a circle whose plane is per-^

pendicular to the straight line joining their centres, and whose
centre is in that line.
Proposition IX.
The angle
two arcs of great circles is equal to the angle of

and is measured by the arc of a great circle described
from its vertex as a pole and included between its sides (produced
of
their planes,
if necessary).
Corollary. All arcs of great circles drawn through the pole of a

given great circle are perpendicular to its circumference.
Proposition X.
If the first of two spherical triangles is the polar triangle of the
second, then, reciprocally, the second is the polar triangle of the
first.
Proposition XI.
In two polar triangles, each angle of one is measured by the
supplement of the side lying opposite to it in the other.
Proposition XII.
Two
rical
triangles on the
same sphere are
either equal or
symmet-
when two sides and the included angle of one are respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the other.
319
Proposition XIII.
Two triangles on
the same sphere are either equal or symmeta side and the two adjacent angles of one are respectively equal to a side and the two adjacent angles of the other.
rical
when
Proposition XIV.
Two triangles on the same sphere are either equal or symmetwhen the three sides of one are respectively equal to the
rical
three sides of the other.
Proposition XV.
If two triangles on the same sphere are mutually equiangular,
they are mutually equilateral, and are either equal or symmetrical.
Proposition XVI.
Any
side of a spherical triangle
is less
than the sum of the
other two.
Proposition XVII.
The sum
of the sides of a convex spherical polygon
the circumference of a great
is less
than
circle.
Proposition XVIII.
The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle

two, and less than six, right angles.
is
greater than
Proposition XIX.
Two symmetrical spherical
triangles are equivalent.
Proposition XX.
If two arcs of great circles intersect on the surface of a hemisphere, the sum of the opposite spherical triangles which they
form
is
equivalent to a lune whose angle
is
the angle between the
arcs in question.
Proposition XXI.
A lune is to the surface of the sphere as the angle of the lune is

to four right angles.
Corollary. The area of a lune is expressed by twice its angle,
the angular unit being the degree, and the unit of surface the
spherical degree.
320
Proposition XXII.
The area of a spherical triangle is equal to the excess of the

sum of its angles over two right angles.
Proposition XXIII.
shortest line that can be drawn on the surface of a sphere
between two points is the arc of a great circle, not greater than a
semi-circumference, joining the two points.
The
BOOK
IX.
THEOREMS.
Proposition
If a prism
whose base
is
I.
a regular polygon be inscribed in or
circumscribed about a given cylinder, its volume will approach

the volume of the cylinder as its limit, and its lateral surface will
approach the lateral surface of the cylinder as its limit as the
number of sides of its base is indefinitely increased.
Proposition
The
II.
lateral area of a cylinder is equal to the
product of the
perimeter of a right section of the cylinder by an element of the
surface.
Corollary I. The lateral area of a cylinder of revolution is equal

to the product of the circumference of its base by its altitude.
This
may be formulated,
Corollary II. The lateral areas of similar cylinders of revolution are to each other as the squares of their altitudes, or as the
squares of the radii of their bases.
Proposition
The volume
of a cylinder
is
III.
its
base by
its altitude.
Corollary
I.
For a cylinder of revolution this
may
be formu-
lated,
Corollary II. The volumes of similar cylinders of revolution

are to each other as the cubes of their altitudes, or as the cubes
of their radii.
321
Proposition IV.
If a pyramid be inscribed in or circumscribed about a given
cone, its volume will approach the volume of the cone as its limit,
and its lateral surface will approach the convex surface of the
cone as its limit as the number of faces of the pyramid is indefinitely increased.
frustum of a cone is the limit of the inscribed and
Corollary,
circumscribed frustums of pyramids, the number of whose faces
is
Proposition V.
The lateral area of a cone of revolution is equal to the product

of the circumference of its base by half its slant height.
Corollary I. This proposition may be formulated,
S = ^RL.
Corollary II. The lateral areas of similar cones of revolution
are to each other as the squares of their slant heights, or as the
squares of their altitudes, or as the squares of the radii of their
bases.
Proposition VI.
The
frustum of a cone of revolution is equal to

of the circumferences of its bases multiplied by its
lateral area of a
the half
sum
slant height.
Corollary
I.
This proposition
may
be formulated,
S=Tr{R-{.r)L.
Corollary II. The lateral area of a frustum of a cone of revoluis equal to the circumference of a section equidistant from its
bases multiplied by its slant height.
tion
Proposition VII.
The volume of any cone

base by its altitude.
Corollary
formulated,
I.
is
equal to one-third the product of
For a cone of revolution this proposition
its
may be
V= ITER'S.
Corollary II. Similar cones of revolution are to each other aa

the cubes of their altitudes, or as the cubes of the radii of their
322
Proposition VIII.
The area
of the surface generated by a straight line revolving

axis in its plane is equal to the projection of the line
about an
on the axis multiplied by the circumference of the circle whose
radius is the perpendicular erected at the middle of the line and
terminated by the axis.
Proposition IX.
The area of a zone is equal to the product of its altitude by the

circumference of a great circle.
Corollary. This proposition may be formulated,
Proposition X.
The area
of the surface of a sphere is equal to the product

diameter by the circumference of a great circle.
Corollary I. This may be formulated,
of^
its
S = 27ri2 X2B = ^TzB^,Hence the
surface of a sphere is equivalent to four great circles.

Corollary II. The surfaces of two spheres are to each other aa
the squares of their diameters, or as the squares of their radii.
Proposition XI.
The volume of a sphere is equal

by one-third of its radius.
to the area of its surface multi-
plied
Corollary
I.
This proposition
may be
formulated,
Corollary II. The volumes of two spheres are to each other as

the cubes of their radii, or as the cubes of their diameters.
Proposition XII.
The volume of a spherical sector is equal to the area of the zone

which forms its base multiplied by one-third the radius of the
sphere.
^__
"
THE END.
Of THB
T ^ I T^ F
({
THIS BOOK
IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF
25
CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN

THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
JEP
.'^-.
27
1934
Uvti^fe
Nov-i^t94fl1yt
::-:Jan'49R^
LD21-100m-7,'33
YB 56844
'S'Ût

Treatise On Elementary Geometry (1892)

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LIBRARY

REVISED AND ABRIDGED

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN HABVABD ONIVERSITY

he should not merely learn to understand and

demonstrate a few set propositions, hut that he should

power of grasping and proving any simple

geometrical truth that

must be remembered, can never be gained by

Systematic practice in de-

account the demonstrations of the main propo-

at first are full

more and more condensed,

and complete, are gradually

times reduced to mere hints, by the aid of which the

and numerous additional

theorems and problems are constantly given as exercises

the axioms, the postulates, and

the captions of the main theorems and corollaries, has

been added to aid student and teacher in reviews and

more easy and

and of giving the student,

as soon as possible, the

theorems which are the tools with which he must most

Teachers are strongly advised to require as

formal proofs of the corollaries and exercises as of the

demonstrations, which should be arranged as in the

In preparing a written exercise, or in passing a written

then conveniently refer to the propositions

In oral recitation, however, he should quote

the full captions of the theorems on which he bases his

Incommensurables. Doctrine of Limits.

Theory of Proportion. Proportional Lines. Similar Polygons

Exercises on Book III

Comparison and Measurement of the Surfaces of Rectilinear Figures

Regular Polygons. Measurement of the Circle

Miscellaneous Exercises on Plane Geometry

Syllabus of Plane Geometry.

Postulates, Axioms, and

Exercises on Book VII

The Three Bound Bodies. The Cylinder. The Cone.

Exercises on Book VIII

Measurement of the Three Bound Bodies

Miscellaneous Exercises on Solid Geometry

Syllabus of Propositions in Solid Geometry.

possesses a conception of space indefi-

nitely extended in all directions.

or limited, portions of space.

The portion of space

which a body occupies can be conceived as abstracted from

The material body

since only geometrical solids will be considered,

limited or bounded portion of space,

solid are surface^.

that which hae length and breadth,

If two surfaces intersect, their intersection

that which has length, but neither

breadth nor thickness.

If two lines intersect, they intersect in a point.

move from a given

which the point moves

definite direction; if it continues to

the same direction,

in space, its path will