Magnetic Particle Testing :

Magnetic particle testing is a non destructive testing method for detection

of surface and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that
will allow the inspection to be effective. They are,
Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their magnetic alloys.
Magnetic particle testing can detect, surface and near surface cracks
seams, laps, cold shuts in castings, laminations, lack of fusion near the
surface, undercuts, deep scratches and fatigue cracks are indicated. Linear
inclusions and porosity at or very near the surface may produce indications.
The technique uses the principle, that during the magnetization of a
ferromagnetic material, magnetic lines of force [ magnetic flux lines ]
pass through this magnetically conducting medium. If the magnetic flux lines
hit an area of different magnetic permeability such as a crack near the
surface, a portion of these flux lines gets diverted and leak out above the
surface of the material. A magnetic leakage field emerges from the part.
To show this leakage field, colored finely divided iron particles are sprayed
to the area under examination. The leakage field attracts and accumulates
some of these iron powder particles and essentially creates a powder
caterpillar worm - like visual indication for the human eye. The indication is
produced directly on the surface of the part and above the discontinuity.
There are variations in the way the magnetizing field is applied, but they
are all dependant on the above principle.
All surface and near surface crack like defects which produces a
leakage field at the test surface can be detected. No elaborate precleaning
is necessary, and surface defects filled with foreign material can be
detected.
Characteristics of a discontinuity that enhances its detection are,
Its depth is at right angles to the surface
Width of the surface opening small, so that the air gap created
Is narrow
Its length at the surface is large with respect to its width
It is comparatively deep in proportion to the width of its opening.
In general reliable detection requires that the width - depth - length
dimensions of the discontinuities correspond to the ratio 1 : 5 : 10. The
lowest detection limits are a 1m crack width, with a 10 m depth of cut.
Optimum crack detection occurs when the magnetic flux lines flow at
right - angles to the length of the defect. To form a detectable leakage field,
the angle between the field direction and the expected defects length shall
0
not be greater than 45 .
Disadvantages : It can be used only on ferromagnetic materials, has certain
application which require large amounts of electrical current and requires
the magnetic field to be properly oriented in relation to the discontinuities
anticipated. Paint coatings and nonmagnetic coverings affect the sensitivity of
examination. Demagnetization of the parts following examination may be
required. Post cleaning to remove the magnetic particle materials from the
test surface is required.
Detectability of Defects : Detectability depends on formation of a strong
leakage field which is dependent on surface opening of the discontinuity
and its depth through the part thickness. A shallow surface scratch which
may be as wide as it is deep, usually does not produce an indication. If
a crack is wide open at the surface, the reluctance of the air gap in the
crack opening reduces the strength of the leakage field. This, combining with
the inability of the particles to bridge the air gap, fails to form an indication.
Laps emerge at an acute angle to the surface and a wide air gap is
created between its lip and the part surface. The leakage field may be
quite weak because very little leakage flux takes the path out through the
surface lip of the lap to cross this high reluctance gap. If the faces of a
crack are tightly forced together under compressive stress, the almost
complete absence of an air gap may produce so little leakage field that no
particle indication is formed.

The surface structure of a test piece has

a significant influence on the detectability
of defects. The surface cutting depth of a
defect should be at least twice the
associated surface roughness. Defect
detectability can be further reduced by
false indications arising from magnetic
stray fields, accumulation of powder due to
surface roughness, part configuration,
scratches, scales, slots etc.
Cases can occur where It is difficult to
generate the force required for a positive
defect indication.
Surface irregularities and scratches can
give misleading indications. Therefore it is
necessary to ensure careful preparation of
the surface before magnetic particle testing
is undertaken.
Detectability of Sub Surface Defects :
Magnetic particle testing can detect near surface discontinuities of favorable
position and adequate size, but the
possibility of an indication rapidly
decreases when the discontinuity is more
than .2 mm below the surface.
Detection sensitivity increases with
increase in magnetic field strength, but
with very high field strength magnetic
particles will be attracted to defect free
areas of the surface as well as to
defects. The depth below the surface at
which a sub surface defect may be
detected is of the order of 3 to 7 mm
when direct current magnetization is used,
but this will also depend on the size,
shape and orientation. Therefore, the
deeper the discontinuity lies below the
surface, the larger it must be to yield a
readable indication and the more difficult
the discontinuity is to find by this method.
Cracks below a non magnetizable surface
layer up to 40 m are detectable.

Circular and Longitudinal Magnetic fields :

Circular field : When an electric current is passed through a
conductor, a circular magnetic field is produced that is
approximately perpendicular to the direction of current flow in the
part. This magnetic field has directional properties which depend on
the direction in which the current is flowing.
A simple rule for determining the direction of the magnetic field in
and around a conductor, is to grasp the conductor in the right
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow.
The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic lines
of force in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. This is
known as the right - hand rule.
[ current flows from Positive terminal to the Negative terminal ]
The strength of the magnetic field in and around a magnetic or
non magnetic conductor is directly proportional to the strength of
the current flowing through it, doubling the current doubles the
magnetic field strength.
Longitudinal fields : When a current carrying conductor is bent into
a single loop, the circular magnetic flux field surrounding the
conductor pass through the loop opening. The magnetic field within
the loop has a definite direction, one side of the loop will be a
north pole while the other side will be a south pole.
If the conductor is looped a number of times, a coil is formed
and each individual turn produces its own associated circular
magnetic field. These fields add together to form a combined
stronger longitudinal field around and through the coil.
The strength of the longitudinal field passing through the interior
of a coil is proportional to the product of the current, I, in amperes
and the number of turns, N, and is expressed as Ampere Turns.
Therefore, the magnetizing force of such a coil can be varied by
changing either the current or the number of turns in the coil.
Coils and yokes produce longitudinal magnetization.
Vector Fields : When two magnetizing forces are imposed
simultaneously in the same part, a vector field is formed which is
the resultant direction and strength of the two imposed fields.
Continuous Method : With this method, the magnetizing current
remains on during the application of particles, removal of excess
particles and performance of the examination. The current may be
continious or it may be applied as a series of short shots. The
continious method is sensitive and will give indications of fine
defects. Soft materials of low retentivity must be tested by this
method. Most of the examinations are performed by this method.
Residual Method : With this method, a part is magnetized, the field
removed and then the magnetic particles applied and inspection
carried out. It has the advantage that inspection may be made
away from the magnetizing equipment. This method is applicable
with parts which retains some magnetic field after the magnetizing
field is turned off. This method is less sensitive than continuous
method but non relevant indications are reduced and indications
are easily interpreted.
Magnetizing field strength : The strength of the magnetizing field is
is a factor affecting sensitivity of examination and recommended
magnetizing field strength is 2400 amp / meter or 30 g or .72 tesla
and above. Test sensitivity also depends on, size, shape and
general characteristics of the particles used and the nature of the
carrier fluid for these particles.

cont

Magnetizing Currents : Electric current is mostly used to establish the magnetic field in components during magnetic
particle inspection. Alternating current and rectified direct current are the two basic types of current commonly used.
Current from single phase 110 volts to three phase 440 volts AC are used to derive the magnetizing current. High
magnetizing currents can be obtained by the use of a step down voltage transformer.
The type of magnetizing current has significant effect on inspection result.
Direct Current : Direct current flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the most common
source of direct current. Direct current generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material and is
desirable when performing inspection in search of defects below the surface.
Alternating Current : high voltage alternating current is the source of electric current power to the industries which is
reduced to the required voltage level using a transformer. Alternating current reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60
times per second. If alternating current is used, the magnetic field generated within the work piece is largely confined to
the area that is close to the material surface. This is known as Skin Effect. Therefore, alternating current is
recommended only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. The advantage of using alternating current is that,
it is highly sensitive for detection of surface defects such as fatigue cracks and it is easy to demagnetize the work
piece after test by gradually reducing the current level or magnetic field to zero.
Rectified alternating currents : The skin effect limits the use of alternating current, since many inspection applications
call for the detection of sub surface defects. Hence, alternating current is converted to one directional current that is
very much like direct current, through the process of rectification.
Half wave rectified direct current [ HWDC ] : When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current
is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out, so that a one directional,
pulsating direct current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current
flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out, hence the amperage is half of the unaltered current.
HWDC has the penetrating characteristics of direct current. The pulsating nature of HWDC helps formation of magnetic
particle indications by vibrating the particles and gives them additional mobility. This added mobility is very important
when using dry particles for the inspection. The pulsation is reported to significantly improving detection sensitivity.
HWDC with dry powder is considered the best combination for subsurface defect detection. For this reason, HWDC is a
primary power source for welds and casting inspection. HWDC can also be used with a wet particle suspension to
provide good sensitivity for revealing fine surface cracks. Since HWDC will leave a part in a partially magnetized state, it
is usually packaged as an AC / HWDC combined unit so that the AC is available for demagnetization. Portable units
with up to 3000 amps current is available.
Full Wave rectified direct current [ FWDC, single phase ] : Full rectification inverts the negative current to positive current
rather than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating direct current with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is
usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While
particle mobility is not as good as half wave rectified current due to reduction in
pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved. Reduced particle
mobility makes this current less suitable for use with dry particle inspection.
Three phase full wave rectified direct current [ FWDC, three phase ] : Three phase
alternating current is rectified to power high current mobile and stationery
magnetizing units, because it has more favorable power transmission and line
loading characteristics. This current is normally used in units that provides more
than 3000 amperes of current. Three phase power requires a bridge rectifier in
each of the three phases. When it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current
very closely matches the DC output of a battery. Reduced particle mobility makes
this current less suitable for use with dry particle inspection.

cont

Magnetizing Currents : Electric current is mostly used to establish the magnetic field in components during magnetic
particle inspection. Alternating current and rectified direct current are the two basic types of current commonly used.
Current from single phase 110 volts to three phase 440 volts AC are used to derive the magnetizing current. High
magnetizing currents can be obtained by the use of a step down voltage transformer.
The type of magnetizing current has significant effect on inspection result.
Direct Current : Direct current flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A battery is the most common
source of direct current. Direct current generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material and is
desirable when performing inspection in search of defects below the surface.
Alternating Current : high voltage alternating current is the source of electric current power to the industries which is
reduced to the required voltage level using a transformer. Alternating current reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60
times per second. If alternating current is used, the magnetic field generated within the work piece is largely confined to
the area that is close to the material surface. This is known as Skin Effect. Therefore, alternating current is
recommended only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. The advantage of using alternating current is that,
it is highly sensitive for detection of surface defects such as fatigue cracks and it is easy to demagnetize the work
piece after test by gradually reducing the current level or magnetic field to zero.
Rectified alternating currents : The skin effect limits the use of alternating current, since many inspection applications
call for the detection of sub surface defects. Hence, alternating current is converted to one directional current that is
very much like direct current, through the process of rectification.
Half wave rectified direct current [ HWDC ] : When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current
is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out, so that a one directional,
pulsating direct current is produced. The current rises from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current
flows during the time when the reverse cycle is blocked out, hence the amperage is half of the unaltered current.
HWDC has the penetrating characteristics of direct current. The pulsating nature of HWDC helps formation of magnetic
particle indications by vibrating the particles and gives them additional mobility. This added mobility is very important
when using dry particles for the inspection. The pulsation is reported to significantly improving detection sensitivity.
HWDC with dry powder is considered the best combination for subsurface defect detection. For this reason, HWDC is a
primary power source for welds and casting inspection. HWDC can also be used with a wet particle suspension to
provide good sensitivity for revealing fine surface cracks. Since HWDC will leave a part in a partially magnetized state, it
is usually packaged as an AC / HWDC combined unit so that the AC is available for demagnetization. Portable units
with up to 3000 amps current is available.
Full Wave rectified direct current [ FWDC, single phase ] : Full rectification inverts the negative current to positive current
rather than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating direct current with no interval between the pulses. Filtering is
usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. While
particle mobility is not as good as half wave rectified current due to reduction in
pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved. Reduced particle
mobility makes this current less suitable for use with dry particle inspection.
Three phase full wave rectified direct current [ FWDC, three phase ] : Three phase
alternating current is rectified to power high current mobile and stationery
magnetizing units, because it has more favorable power transmission and line
loading characteristics. This current is normally used in units that provides more
than 3000 amperes of current. Three phase power requires a bridge rectifier in
each of the three phases. When it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current
very closely matches the DC output of a battery. Reduced particle mobility makes
this current less suitable for use with dry particle inspection.

Circular and Longitudinal Magnetic fields :

Circular field : When an electric current is passed through a
conductor, a circular magnetic field is produced that is
approximately perpendicular to the direction of current flow in the
part. This magnetic field has directional properties which depend on
the direction in which the current is flowing.
A simple rule for determining the direction of the magnetic field in
and around a conductor, is to grasp the conductor in the right
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow.
The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic lines
of force in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. This is
known as the right - hand rule.
[ current flows from Positive terminal to the Negative terminal ]
The strength of the magnetic field in and around a magnetic or
non magnetic conductor is directly proportional to the strength of
the current flowing through it, doubling the current doubles the
magnetic field strength.
Longitudinal fields : When a current carrying conductor is bent into
a single loop, the circular magnetic flux field surrounding the
conductor pass through the loop opening. The magnetic field within
the loop has a definite direction, one side of the loop will be a
north pole while the other side will be a south pole.
If the conductor is looped a number of times, a coil is formed
and each individual turn produces its own associated circular
magnetic field. These fields add together to form a combined
stronger longitudinal field around and through the coil.
The strength of the longitudinal field passing through the interior
of a coil is proportional to the product of the current, I, in amperes
and the number of turns, N, and is expressed as Ampere Turns.
Therefore, the magnetizing force of such a coil can be varied by
changing either the current or the number of turns in the coil.
Coils and yokes produce longitudinal magnetization.
Vector Fields : When two magnetizing forces are imposed
simultaneously in the same part, a vector field is formed which is
the resultant direction and strength of the two imposed fields.
Continuous Method : With this method, the magnetizing current
remains on during the application of particles, removal of excess
particles and performance of the examination. The current may be
continious or it may be applied as a series of short shots. The
continious method is sensitive and will give indications of fine
defects. Soft materials of low retentivity must be tested by this
method. Most of the examinations are performed by this method.
Residual Method : With this method, a part is magnetized, the field
removed and then the magnetic particles applied and inspection
carried out. It has the advantage that inspection may be made
away from the magnetizing equipment. This method is applicable
with parts which retains some magnetic field after the magnetizing
field is turned off. This method is less sensitive than continuous
method but non relevant indications are reduced and indications
are easily interpreted.
Magnetizing field strength : The strength of the magnetizing field is
is a factor affecting sensitivity of examination and recommended
magnetizing field strength is 2400 amp / meter or 30 g or .72 tesla
and above. Test sensitivity also depends on, size, shape and
general characteristics of the particles used and the nature of the
carrier fluid for these particles.

Current Flow Techniques :

Direct current flow method may be used when detecting
discontinuities at or near the outer surface of the part. The
magnetizing current should be applied for a duration of .5 to 2
seconds with a minimum of two shots. In order to indicate the
presence of all discontinuities, at least two separate
examinations shall be performed on each area. During the
second examination, the flux lines shall be directed
approximately perpendicular to those used during the first
examination. A different technique for magnetization may be
required for the second examination.
Head shot method :
Direct electrical contact at each end of a component, so that
the current passes through the whole part is a rapid and
reliable method which is very suitable for the inspection of
relatively small solid components. This is done by clamping the
ends of the part between the contact heads, generally on a
stationary horizontal bench unit that incorporates the source of
the current. The contact heads must be constructed so that the
surfaces of the part are not damaged, either physically by
pressure or structurally by heat from arcing or from high
resistance at the points of contact. The current flow is uniform
and passes through the entire piece being examined. The
circular field thus established around the test part will develop
leakage field across defects which lie along the same direction
as the connecting line between the contact heads. Strongest
indications are produced by discontinuities that are parallel to
the direction of current flow. The size and shape of the part
will determine whether another magnetic field, perpendicular to
the previous direction can be generated in the test part by this
method.
The current to be passed through the part is based on the
diameter or cross section area of it. The flux density is
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the test
part. To achieve adequate field strength for locating surface and
sub surface discontinuities, direct or rectified current is used.
For round parts, current to be applied is 12 to 31 amps per
mm of outer diameter including any hollow portion.
Alternating current can be used at half of the above current
for detection of surface discontinuities only.
For parts with geometric shapes other than round, the
greatest cross sectional diagonal in a plane at right angles to
the current flow should determine the inches to be used in
current computations.
For oddly shaped uniform cross section parts, the following
formula may be used to compute the current required for direct
current, direct contact magnetization,
Current in Ampere DC = [ P / 3.14 ] X 1000.
Where P is perimeter of cross section.

Stationary Horizontal Units : The general purpose unit

has a built in tank that holds the particle suspension
and contains a bath pump, which continuously agitates
the bath and supplies the liquid through an adjustable
hose to be applied to the test part surface.
Pneumatically operated contact heads, together with a
rigid type coil, provide capabilities of both circular and
longitudinal magnetization of the test part. Self
contained AC and rectified AC power supplies are
available in amperage ratings from 2500 to 10000
Amps. Maximum opening between contact heads varies
from 1 to 12 feet. Other options are curtains or hoods
and ultraviolet light for examination with fluorescent
particles.

Leakage Field :
aLeakage fields are the basis for magnetic particle
examination. A leakage field are the flux lines in the air
surrounding a discontinuity in a magnetized part.
The leakage field which develop at and above the surface of
a magnetized material attracts and accumulates iron particles
which forms a visible indication on the surface.
A bar magnet has a pole at each end. They are, a North
pole and a south pole. Magnetic lines of force flow through
the bar from the south pole to the north pole. Because the
lines of force within the bar magnet run the length of the bar,
it is said to be longitudinally magnetized.
If the magnet is cracked at right angle to the length but not
broken completely in two, a north and a south pole form at
opposite edges of the crack and a leakage field emerge. This
leakage field attracts iron particles that outlines the crack.
Surface Discontinuity : When a part is magnetized such that
the direction of the magnetic lines of force is at right angles
or nearly right angles to the length of a surface breaking
discontinuity, the flux lines are bend into the air above the
crack. This bending is caused by the change from high
permeability of the magnetic material to the low permeability
of air in the gap of the crack. The leakage field spans the
narrow air gap throughout the length of the discontinuity.
When fine iron particles are applied to the surface, the
particles are attracted to the poles of this miniature leakage
field. The first layer of particles shorten and strengthen the
leakage field causing additional particles to be attracted.
These particles attract more particles until the entire leakage
field is filled with chains of tightly held magnetized particles.
A surface breaking discontinuity forms a sharply defined
indication.
Near surface Discontinuity : When the discontinuity is near
the surface, some of the bent lines of force complete their
path within the metal above the discontinuity. Others that
complete their bent path in the air form a leakage field that
is broader and weaker than the leakage field for a similar
surface breaking discontinuity. Thus, the attracted particles
which accumulate at the leakage field of a near surface
discontinuity are more loosely held. The indication looks wide
and fuzzy. For a deep discontinuity, all of the bent lines of
force complete their path within the metal above the
discontinuity, as a result no leakage field emerges from the
part.
Orientation : The direction of magnetic flux must be at right
angles to the length of any discontinuity to produce the
strongest indication of that discontinuity.
When the lines of force are parallel to the length of a

discontinuity, they follow the metal path along the

edges of that discontinuity, rather than span the long
direction of the air gap. The result is that no leakage
field is created, and in tern no magnetic indication is
produced to reveal that discontinuity.

Induced current magnetization :

Induction is a magnetizing technique based upon transformer principle.
An alternating current is made to flow in a ring- shaped specimen by
effectively making it the secondary winding in a transformer set up. Since
the specimen is a short circuit single turn, very high current flows through
it.
A coil and a pre-formed laminated core form the primary section and
the ring shaped work piece surrounding the core forms a short circuit
secondary winding. In accordance with the induction law, the current
carrying primary coil induces a circulating current in the secondary, i. e.
the work piece. Like a current carrying conductor the circular field
associated with this current takes the form of a toroidal magnetic field
that encompasses all surface areas on the ring. All circumferential defects
in the ring shaped work piece can therefore be detected.
The magnetizing flux achieved is difficult to calculate because of the
unknown efficiency of the transformer coupling, and is usually measured
on a test piece with a clamp round meter, which measures the current
flow.
The choice of magnetizing current for the induced-current method
depends on magnetic properties of the part to be inspected.
Passing an alternating current through a conductor will set up a
fluctuating magnetic field as the level of magnetic flux rapidly changes
due to the current fluctuation. The alternating induced current in
conjunction with the continuous method renders applicable for processing
magnetically soft, or less retentive parts.
Quick Break : For retentive parts, such as for most bearing races or
similar parts having high magnetic retentivity, direct current is used for
magnetization. The current generates strong magnetic field in the
laminated core which passes through the ring. When the current is
broken, by a quick break circuitry results in a rapid collapse of the
magnetic flux and the generation of a high amperage. Thus the part is
residually magnetized with a toroidal field, and subsequent application of
magnetic particles will produce indications of circumferentially oriented
discontinuities in all surfaces in one operation. This method is used for
inspection of hollow circular parts, such as, spacers, rings, discs etc when
looking for discontinuities lying in a circumferential surface.
Transient current : When a bar is longitudinally magnetized, the field at
the end of the bar is not truly longitudinal, and does not indicate
transverse discontinuities at the ends of the bar. Direct current in the
magnetizing coil, suddenly broken, induces a heavy circular current in the
extreme outer layers of the metal, which extends to the very ends of the
bar. This provides a longitudinal field to indicate transverse discontinuities
in such critical areas.

Head shot Method :

The part is fixed between the heads ensuring good electrical
contact and the current is passed from end to end. A circular field
is developed in and around the part and the discontinuities oriented
along the length are indicated.
If the part contains more than one diameter, then the part is to be
tested separately for each diameter. The current applicable for each
diameter is applied and the corresponding section is tested. The
applicable currents are used in ascending order.
Central Conductor :
When current is passed through a hollow cylindrical conductor, the
magnetic field on the inner surface is zero. A component with a
continuous hole through it can be magnetized without contact by
means of a current carrying straight conductor passing through the
hole. The examination technique is often used in examination of
parts such as pipe connectors, hollow cylinders, gear wheels, springs
and large nuts.
For this technique, a central conductor is used to magnetize the
inner surface of the bore with a circumferential magnetic field.
Defect on the outer surface of a tubular can also be detected if
the wall thickness is not too large but there may be a large
difference in the magnetic field strength on the two surfaces.
When the axis of the central conductor is located near the central
axis of the test object, 12 to 31 amps current per mm of test
object diameter should be applied. The diameter to be used for
current computation is the largest distance between two points, 180
degrees apart on the inside circumference.
Alternating current is to be used only for surface discontinuities on
the inside surface of the test object. Where large diameter
cylindrical parts are to be examined, the conductor shall be
positioned close to the internal surface of the bore and the
circumference of the part shall be examined in increments. A
current of 12 to 31 amps per mm shall apply except that the
diameter shall be considered the sum of the diameter of the
conductor and twice the wall thickness of the part. The distance
along the test object circumference [ ID / OD ] which is effectively
magnetized is to be taken 4 times the diameter of the conductor.
The parts are the inspected in four quadrants or segments. This
provides a greater induced field for a lesser current value.
Bars or cables, passing through the bore of a cylindrical part, may
be used to induce circular magnetization.
Bars are usually made of copper to reduce heating. If a flexible
cable is used, several turns of cable may be passed through the
bore and the current reduced in proportion to the number of turns.
The magnetic field will increase in proportion to the number of
times the central conductor cable pass through the bore.
The magnetic field adequacy shall be verified using a field
indicator.
The strength of the magnetic field around a magnetic or non
magnetic conductor decreases as the distance from the surface of
the conductor increases. The amount of decreases is dependent on
the conductor material, cross section and type of current.

Indications
produced by
central
conductor.

Coil Magnetization :
Components in which length predominates, can be readily
magnetized in the longitudinal direction by an encircling coil.
For this technique, the magnetic field is produced in the part by
wrapping cable around it or placing it within a multi turn fixed coil.
Passing current through a coil encircling a section of the test part
or encircling the part produces a magnetic field parallel to the axis
of the coil. Strongest indications are produced when the length of
the discontinuities are at right angles to the axis of the coil. The
magnetic field strength of a coil is maximum near the inside wall
and zero at the center of the coil.
Portable magnetizing coils are available that can be plugged
directly into a standard electrical outlet. This coils are suitable for
bar shaped parts.
For a bar shaped part, the effective overall distance that can be
inspected is 6 to 9 inches on either side of the coil opening. In
testing longer parts, either the part must be moved at regular
intervals through the coil or the coil must be moved along the
length of the part.
When the cross sectional area of the coil is 10 or more times
the cross sectional area of the test part, the required magnetizing
current, for object positioned near the inside wall of the coil is,
I = 45000 D / N L
For parts positioned at the center of the coil [ larger parts ],
I = 43000 R / N {( 6 L / D ) - 5 }
If the cross sectional area of the coil is less than twice the cross
sectional area [ including hollow portions ] of the test part,
I = 35000 / N {( L / D ) + 2 }
Where : L = length of the test part
D = diameter of the test part
N = number of turns in the coil
R = radius of the coil
These equations hold only if the L / D ratio is between 3 and 15.
The ease with which a part can be longitudinally magnetized in
a coil is significantly related to the length to diameter [ L / D ] ratio
of the part. This is due to the demagnetizing effect of the
magnetic poles setup at the ends of the part. This demagnetizing
effect is very significant for L / D ratios of 3 or less. In such
cases, pole pieces of similar cross-sectional area can be attached
to both the ends to increase the length of the part and thus
improve the L / D ratio.
Artificial discontinuity standards [ such as QQI ] shall be used to
ensure proper current levels along the entire axis of the test
length.
For complex shapes, alternating current is recommended. When
testing tubes in conjunction with alternating current, only the outside
surface is magnetized. When testing flange-type parts, the magnetic
field lines at the plane surfaces enter the material at right
angles so that the sensitivity to circular cracks on the flange sides
is reduced.

Electromagnetic Yoke contd :

When the poles are placed in contact with the test surface and
the yoke is energized, the magnetic flux pass through the surface
and near surface region of the material in a direct connection line
between the poles to complete a local longitudinal magnetic field.
Strongest indications are produced with the yoke technique by
discontinuities whose length are at right angles or nearly right
angles to an imaginary line connecting the two yoke poles.
The strength of the magnetizing field produced by an
electromagnetic yoke is dependent on the magnetic properties of the
core, number of ampere turns, and the distance between the yoke
poles.
In yoke technique, magnetic flux pass from the yoke to the test
part through surface contact between the flat ends of the yoke
poles and the examination surface. If contact is partial, the flux lines
entering the test part are weakened by the high reluctance of the
air gap and may be too weak to indicate smaller discontinuities.
In use, the magnetizing force of a yoke shall be tested by
determining its lifting power on a steel plate at maximum pole
spacing at which it is being used for the examination. The minimum
weight which a yoke must be able to lift at the examination pole
spacing is,
4.5 Kgs for AC yoke.
18.1 Kgs for DC yoke.
If a tangetial field meter is used to measure the field strength, the
sensor should be positioned midway between the poles and the
reading should be between 30 to 60 gauss.
Magnetic flux pass through both magnetic and non magnetic
material. Mill scale or thin paint coating [ .001 magnetic and
.003 non magnetic ] permits examinations by yoke method.
During examination, the yoke is to be positioned on the test part
with current off condition and with full pole faces to test surface
contact. When adjustable yoke is used, the examination pole spacing
should be between 3 to 8 inches. A pole spacing of 6 inches is
generally recommended. In general, discontinuities to be detected
should be centrally located in the area between the pole pieces and
oriented perpendicular to an imaginary line connecting them.
The magnetizing field must be applied twice for a complete
examination of an area. The fields shall be applied approximately
perpendicular to each other. For welds, to detect longitudinal and
transverse defects, the magnetic field should be once along the
direction of the weld and again across the weld. The weld surface
must be ground sufficiently smooth for good contact when the yoke
poles are placed in - line on top of the weld material. For as welded
surface condition the poles are placed along the same side of the
weld and as close as possible to the weld edges.
With yoke magnetization, burning of the test part is avoided
because only the magnetic field is transmitted into it, no current
enters the test part.

Prod Contacts :
For inspection of large parts, which cannot be tested in a
stationary machine and for outdoor examination, magnetization is
often done by prod contacts to pass the current directly through
the part or through a local portion of it.
Prod units consist of two hand held electrodes, separate or
mounted in a frame and connected to a source of low voltage,
high amperage current transformer. When the two electrodes are in
contact with the surface of the material and they are energized the
current passes through the material to complete the circuit and
creates a local distorted circular magnetic field in the material.
Prods are used in testing weldments on bridges, railroads, pipeline,
pressure vessels, tubing, bar stock, forgings, castings, aircraft, ships for
detection of cracks.
This method requires that all mill scale, rust, paint be removed in
areas where the prod tips must make electrical contact.
When using prods, the tips must be placed on the examination
surface while the current is off and with a spacing between
3 to 8 inches. 6 inches spacing is generally recommended. Prod
spacing, equal to that of the length of the prod is ideal.
Field strength depends on current, distance between the prods
and the section thickness of the part.
The magnetizing current is selected as follows.
Direct or rectified current used, shall be 90 - 110 amperes per
inch of prod spacing for sections below 3/4 inch thick and
100 - 125 amperes per inch of prod spacing for section thickness
above 3/4 inch. Suitable magnetic fields exist only between and
near the prod contact points. The width of the examination zone is
1/4 of prod spacing.
In order to detect longitudinal and transverse defects in an area
or a weld seam, the section must be magnetized in two separate
directions at right angles to each other. For longitudinal defects in
welds, the prods must be placed adjacent to and on opposite sides
of the weld bead on each side of the weld seam so that the
current direction to the seam makes an angle of about 20 - 30.
When moving to the next area to be examined the applied
magnetic field must overlap the previous examined area by at least
10% so that 100% coverage is assured.
In prod contact method of examination, the flow of current directly
from the prod tips to the test material can cause arcing on the
examination surface. Prolonged energizing cycles cause undesirable
overheating below the contact points.
Great care must be taken to avoid burning of the part under the
contact points. Burning may be caused by dirty contacts, insufficient
contact pressure, or excessive currents. Precautions shall be taken
to ensure that the electrical current is not flowing while the prod
contacts are applied or removed. Prod tips must be kept clean and
dressed to smooth round. If the open circuit voltage of the current
source is greater than 25 V, lead, steel, or aluminum tipped prods
are recommended to avoid copper deposit on the test surface.
Sensitivity to defects lying wholly below the surface is greater with
this method of magnetization than with any other, especially when
half wave rectified current is used in conjunction with dry powder
and the continuous method of magnetization.
The arcing problem, surface preparation for electrical contact, high
electrical consumption, heavy weight of the power unit and weight
of long prod cables are the disadvantages of this method.

Prod placement for ground

and un-ground weld.

Longitudinal magnetization by Yokes :

There are two basic types of yokes commonly used for magnetizing
purposes. Permanent magnet and Electromagnetic yokes. Both are
hand held, compact, light weight and quite mobile. They are used to
produce longitudinal magnetization in the test part.
Permanent Magnet Yoke :
Permanent magnet is a body which possesses a large amount of
magnetic field and exhibits the property of magnetism at all times with
little or no loss of strength.
Permanent magnet yokes usually consists of two individual strong
permanent magnets made of highly retentive material such as
neodymium iron boron. The two magnets are suitably arranged in
hinged arms so that the magnetizing poles at ends are of opposite
polarity. The strength of the magnetizing field produced by the
permanent magnet yoke is dependent on the initial magnetic charge,
magnetic retention properties of the magnets and the distance
between the two magnetizing poles. The strength of the field that can
be induced in the part is relatively low.
The yoke and the test part surface form a closed magnetic circuit.
The magnetic flux flow in the test part in a direct connection line
between the poles thus enabling detection of discontinuities whose
linear directions are oriented perpendicular to this line.
Permanent magnets are used for examinations where a source of
electric power is not available or in inflammable and explosive areas
where electrical arcing is not permissible. Apart from this, permanent
magnets have little to offer as a magnetizing method.
Permanent magnets can be used as single poles for generating
radial field or as pairs to generate a longitudinal field. Inspection area
is generally limited to the central region between the poles. The flux
is stronger nearer the poles than in the center of the gap.
Examination for indications near the points of contact is not possible
due to the confusing mass of particles that gather at the poles.
Permanent magnets generate static field and wet particles should be
used because dry particles require changing or alternating field to
impart mobility.
When using permanent magnets, the pole pieces need to be in
good contact with the test surface and flexible pole pieces are often
used to achieve this. Pole spacing should not be less than 3 inches
and more than 6 inches.
The magnetizing force of a permanent magnet yoke shall be tested
daily prior to use by determining its lifting power on a steel plate at
maximum pole spacing at which it is being used for the examination.
The yoke must be able to lift at least 18.1 kg at the examination pole
spacing.
Limitations to use of permanent magnets include the following :
Large areas or masses cannot be magnetized with enough
strength to produce satisfactory crack indications.
The inability to vary the field strength at will.
Removal of the magnet from the part is difficult if the magnet is
very strong.
Particles may cling to the magnets, possibly obscuring indications
and it is difficult to remove the clinged particles from the legs.
Electromagnetic Yoke :
Electromagnets are types of temporary magnets used to produce a
temporary magnetic field. They have little or no ability to retain
magnetism so that they return to an unmagnetized state when the
supply current is switched off.
Electromagnetic Yokes for magnetic particle examination consist
of an U shaped soft iron laminated core with flat ends, in which
a coil system generates the magnetic flux when current is flowing.
Yokes normally have articulated legs which can be moved to
accommodate various shapes of test part and ensure good magnetic
contact.
The magnetic flux pass through the soft iron core producing
magnetic poles at each end of the core and complete their travel
path through the air between these poles. Alternating current yokes
provide effective means of part magnetization for detection of surface
discontinuities. Half wave rectified current yokes are capable of
disclosing surface and sub surface discontinuities.

Magnetic Particles :
Magnetic particles are finely divided ferromagnetic [ Iron ] material.
They must have,
High Permeability, easily attracted to weak leakage fields.
Low retentivity, not attract each other outside magnetic field.
Non Toxic, relatively harmless to the user.
Fine particles are sensitive for surface breaking defects. Coarse
particles are superior for sub surface defects. Particles do not act
as single unit but clump together to form the indications when
magnetized. The particle size should be smaller than the width of
opening for detecting surface breaking cracks.
The two basic types of magnetic particles are,
Dry Particles, fine or coarse, applied as dry powder.
Wet particles, fine particles applied as suspended in a liquid.
Dry Particles : Dry particles are coarse and larger than wet
particles. The particles have a range of sizes and shapes and are
available in many colors such as yellow, gray, black, brown, red.
Fluorescent dry particles are also available, but are not in general
use mainly because of economic considerations. The color of the
particles used for testing is determined by the color of the surface
being examined and is selected for maximum contrast.
Dry particles are superior for detecting flaws lying wholly below the
surface because of its higher permeability and irregular shapes.
Large heavy particles are not likely to be arrested and held by a
weak leakage field when they are moving on the part surface.
Very fine dry particles behave like dust and easily adhere to any
damp or slightly oily surface to produce heavy dusty background.
Finer particles add mobility and sensitivity for fine surface cracks
while larger particles add sensitivity for detection of sub surface
defects and counteract the tendency of the finer ones to leave a
dusty back ground. Dry particles which are a mixture of coarse
and fine particles are mostly preferred.
Dry powder are primarily used on rough surfaces, such as unground welds and castings, threaded parts and for detection of
defects below the surface. It does not have the tendency to drift
into the roughness of the surface as a wet suspension does. Dry
particles with half wave direct current and prods is the best
approach when inspecting lack of penetration in thinner welds and
hot tears and cracks in castings.
When used outdoors, breezes can cause the dry powders to blow
around. Dry particles are not affected by cold and can be used at
low temperatures. They are also heat resistant, and many powders
0
are usable at temperatures up to 600 F.
Reclamation and reuse of dry particles is not recommended.
Application : Air is used to carry the particles to the examination
surface. Dry powder should be applied such that the particles
approach the examination surface in a uniform cloud with minimum
of motion. In this way the particles reach the leakage field while
suspended in air and have three dimensional mobility. This
condition can be best achieved when the magnetized surface is
vertical or overhead. When particles are applied to a horizontal or
sloping surface, they settle directly to the surface and do not have
the same degree of mobility. Half wave rectified direct current is
recommended with dry particle inspection to impart the required
mobility. The magnetizing current must be initiated before the
application of the particles to the test surface and shall be
terminated after the excess particles have been blown off.
For Dry particle examination, the test surface must be dry, free
from grease and other adhering deposits. The particles themselves
must be free from moisture.
The relative merits of dry particles depend on the skill in
application. Dry powder can be applied by small rubber spray bulb,
squeeze bottles or specially designed powder blowers. The air
stream of these blowers is of low velocity so that a cloud of
powder is applied to the test area. These blowers can also deliver
a light stream of air for gentle removal of excess powder from the
examination surface. Excess dry particles around an indication, can
be removed by a regulated air supply, air bulb or gentle blowing
while the magnetizing field is present. The air stream should be of
sufficient force to remove the excess particles without disturbing
those particles that are evidence of indications.
Precautions shall be taken to prevent inhaling of dry particles.

Powder blower

Magnetic Particles :
Wet particles are finer in size [ avg 6 and up to 25 microns ] and
are sensitive for detection of surface flaws such as fatigue cracks
and other close to surface defects. The particles are applied with a
liquid carrier. Particle sizes more than 20 microns settle out of
suspension rather rapidly and are left behind as the suspension
liquid drains off. Stranded particles often line up and produce false
indications. In the case of finer particles, the stranding due to
draining away of the liquid occurs much later, giving the particles
mobility long enough to reach the leakage fields and accumulate to
form the indications.
Wet particles are commonly used in stationery horizontal units
where a recycled bath can be used until contaminated and
discarded. They are also used in field operations with portable
magnetizing equipments. Care must be taken to agitate the bath
constantly to keep the particles suspended.
The particles are available in colors such as black, brown, dark
red, green etc. Black particles are more sensitive. Fluorescent
particles are also available where the particles are bonded to a
fluorescent chemical which fluoresce brilliant yellow - green or
orange - red under ultraviolet illumination. These particles have
excellent visibility when illuminated by Ultraviolet light.
The particles are supplied in the form of a paste, concentrates or
powders, that is to be suspended in liquids to produce the coating
bath. The liquid is usually a light oil, such as kerosene, or it can
be water. Water uses conditioners such as wetting agent and
corrosion inhibitors. These conditioners are usually incorporated in
the pastes and concentrates. Proper wetting of the test surface
shall be determined by a water break test.
The bath shall be applied either by gently spraying or flowing the
suspension over the area to be tested. It is important to apply the
suspension liberally and to allow it to flow slowly across the area
of examination so that the particles can migrate to the leakage
fields freely. The application of suspension must stop before the
magnetizing current is switched off, otherwise the indications may
be washed away. Weakly held indications on highly finished parts
are readily washed away and care must be taken to prevent high
velocity of the bath flow over critical areas.
Some technical experience is needed in applying the suspension
properly, but more errors are made by not using correct particle
concentration and state of cleanliness in the suspension.
Settling Test : Mixing wet particles should be as specified in the
test procedure or as recommended by the manufacturer. The
particle concentration for newly made mixture can be checked in
the pear shaped ASTM centrifuge tube. 100 ml of fully agitated
suspension is poured into the centrifuge tube and allowed to settle
for 30 minutes under undisturbed condition. The amount of powder
settled can then be read on the graduated cylindrical part of the
tube. The recommended settling volume is from 1.2 to 2.4 ml per
100 ml liquid for non fluorescent and from 0.1 to 0.5 ml in a 100
ml bath sample for fluorescent particles, unless otherwise specified
by the manufacturer. For re - circulated suspension, dirt in the bath
will also settle and usually shows as a separate layer on top of
the particles. If a fluorescent bath is under test, the liquid above
the precipitate may fluoresce because of oily contamination or
release of the fluorescent coating, and the bath must be discarded.
For re - circulating type test system, the use of centrifuge settling
test for checking the concentration after a number of testing cycles
is not reliable because of the contamination of the bath by rust,
fine scale, dust particles etc left out by test part, will cause false
volume reading. An MTU 3 [ magnetized ring with residual field ] can
be used to check the efficiency of the used suspension.
White Contrast Paint : For non fluorescent particles, an easily
removable and quick drying white paint [ .001 to .003 thickness
max ] should be applied to the test surface so that a high
contrast is obtained between the indications and the background.
Contrast paint is best applied by spraying, as this results in a thin,
even layer.
Fluorescent particles provide the highest contrast and visibility and
do not require contrast medium.

Field Indicators :
The applied magnetizing field shall have sufficient strength to
produce satisfactory discontinuity indications.
A reference standard may be used for procedure development and
system check. The standard may be an actual test object with known
When it is necessary to verify the adequacy of magnetizing field
strength, it can be verified by using one or more of the following
three methods.
Pie - shaped field indicator : These are artificial flaws used as a
convenient rough check of the adequacy and direction of part
magnetization; It is not, however intended as a quantitative indicator
of field strength or distribution.
These indicators are made from low retentivity carbon steel pie
sections that are brazed together to form a series of crossing
artificial flaws lines as shown.
In use, the field indicator is positioned on the surface to be
examined, such that the copper plated side is opposite to the
examination surface.
A suitable field strength is indicated when a clearly defined line
or lines of magnetic particles form across the copper face of the
indicator when the magnetic particles are applied simultaneously with
the magnetizing force.
When a clearly defined line of particles is not formed, or not formed
in the desired direction, the magnetizing technique should be changed
or adjusted.
These indicators are best used with dry particle procedures.
Artificial flaw shims / QQI : The shim shall be securely attached to
the surface to be examined, such that the artificial flaw side of the
shim is towards the examination surface.
A suitable field strength is indicated when a clearly defined line
( or lines ) of magnetic particles form (s) across the shim face of the
indicator when the magnetic particles are applied simultaneously with
the magnetizing force.
When a clearly defined line of particles is not formed, or not formed
in the desired direction, the magnetizing technique should be changed
or adjusted.
Shim - type indicators are best used with wet particle procedures.
Tangential field strength Gaussmeters : Hall effect tangential field
probe should be used for measuring the peak value of a tangential
field. A suitable field strength is indicated when the measured field is
within the range of 30 to 60 Gauss [ 2400 to 4800 Amp / meter ]
while the magnetizing field is applied. These meters are not suitable
for measuring field strength for encircling coil magnetization methods.
The active area of the hall effect probe should not be larger than 5
by 5 mm and the center of the detector should be within 5 mm from
the test part surface. The plane of the probe must be approximately
perpendicular to the surface of the test part at the location of
measurement.
The meter must be calibrated at least once a year or whenever it
has been subjected to a major repair, periodic overhaul or damage.

.05 mm brass and .1 mm iron foil

Interpretation of indications :
Discontinuities on or near the surface are indicated by retention of
the particle patterns. Localized surface irregularities due to machining
marks, grinding marks, weld ripples or other surface conditions may
produce non relevant or false indications. Broad areas of particle
accumulation, which might mask indications from discontinuities, are
prohibited, and such areas shall be cleaned and re-examined.
Measuring light intensity : For color contrast particles, the examination
must be performed under adequate visible light and the intensity shall
be at least 500 Lux on the examination surface when measured with a
suitable calibrated Lux meter.
Fluorescent indications shall be viewed in a darkened area using
ultraviolet light, called black light. The black light shall be allowed to
warm up for a minimum of 5 minutes before the light intensity is
measured with a calibrated black light meter. A minimum of 1000 W /
2
cm illumination is required on the examination surface. The distance of
measurement between the lamp and the detector shall be minimum
6 inches. The background white light illumination shall not exceed
20 Lux.
Dark adaptation : When using florescent materials, the examiner shall
be in the darkened area for at least 5 minutes to enable his eyes to
adapt to dark viewing. The examiners shall not wear photo sensitive
lenses during examination.

Examination under UV light

Fluorescent

Black ink

UV light meter.

Interpretation of indications 2 :
Evaluation : The evaluation for indications shall be performed with the
current off condition, unless the patterns of the indications do not
change due to overhead or vertical position of the examination surface.
All indications shall be evaluated according to the acceptance criteria
specified in the written procedure.
The shape, sharpness of outline, width and the height of particle buildup
are the principle features by which discontinuities can be identified and
distinguished from one another.
Surface discontinuities produce indications that are sharp and well
defined. Sub surface discontinuities produce indications that are broad
and fuzzy. The deeper the discontinuity the lesser the definition of the
indication.
When unusual indications are produced, it may be necessary to
establish identity by correlating the results with other examination
methods.
Surface cracks : powder indications are elongated, sharply defined, tightly
held and usually built up heavily with powder.
Seams : are closed tight, shallow longitudinal cracks, produce lighter
indications.
Sub surface cracks : indications are elongated, the deeper the crack the
wider and fuzzier the built up of the indication
Crater Cracks : These are recognized by their patterns which are small
and occur at the terminal point of the weld. They may be a single line in
almost any direction multiple or star shaped.
Undercut : An indication produced at weld edges, adheres less strongly
than the indications obtained by lack of fusion. Undercut can be detected
by visual examination
Incomplete fusion near the surface : Accumulation of powder will
generally be pronounced and the edge of the weld will be seen.
The nearer the discontinuity is to the surface the sharper the pattern will
be.
Inclusion and Pore at surface : Forms light elongated or round indication.
False indications : are the indications in which the particles are held by
gravity or surface roughness. No magnetic or leakage field is involved in
formation of these indications. Magnetic particles can settle in shallow
grooves, scratches, and give the appearance of a crack.
Non Relevant indications : these are true indications produced by leakage
fields. However, the conditions causing them are present by design or
accident or other features and have no relation to a discontinuity that is
considered to be a defect.
If the magnetization is too high, magnetic particle build up can occur at
edges or notches. If a magnetized specimen surface is rubbed with a
sharp corner of another magnetized material, a track can be formed which
attracts magnetic particles. The indications are fuzzy or intermittent and
broad caused by loosely held particles and will not appear after
demagnetization. This is known as magnetic writing and is usually the
result of accidental abrasion.
Non relevant indications can be caused by, excessive magnetizing
current, abrupt change in section thickness, flow lines in forgings, corners,
permeability or hardness difference, brazed joint in magnetic material,
magnetic to non magnetic material weld, drilled holes, keyways, slots near
the surface.
Acceptance standard for welds : ASME Sec VIII Appendix a. relevant indications : indications with major dimensions greater than
1 / 16 in. [ 1.6 mm ].
b. linear indications : an indication having a length greater than three
times the width.
c. rounded indications : an indication of circular or elliptical shape with
the length equal to or less than three times the
width.
An indication in excess of the limits specified below is not acceptable :
a. Relevant linear indications;
b. Relevant rounded indications greater than 3 / 16 in. [ 4.8 mm ]
c. Four or more relevant rounded indications in a line separated by
1 / 16 in. (1.6 mm) or less [ edge to edge ].

Demagnetization :
After the magnetic particle test, there may be some residual magnetism
remaining in the part. The amount of this residual magnetism depends
upon the retentivity and the level of the applied magnetizing field strength
for the purpose of examination. It is necessary to demagnetize the
component if residual magnetism is detected. Residual magnetic field can:
* Affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to the surface.
* Interfare with nearby magnetic and electric equipments such as a
magnetic compass.
* Can create a condition known as arc blow in the welding process. Arc
blow may cause the weld arc to wander or filler metal to be repelled from
the weld. This condition is especially a problem when an automatic welding
machine is used.
* Magnetism in engine and rotating parts can attract metal particles into
bearings and increase wear.
Removal of residual field may be accomplished in many ways. When steel
is heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic [ non
magnetic state ] and loose its magnetic properties. The curie temperature
0
for a low carbon steel is 770 C.
It is often inconvenient to heat a material above its curie temperature to
demagnetize, so other methods that returns the material to a nearly
demagnetized state is commonly used.
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing continuous
magnetic field, will effectively demagnetize the part.
The most common method of demagnetization uses an energized AC coil
through which the part is passed. On large parts, the coil is moved away
from the part while the power is still on or the part remains in the coil
while the current is gradually reduced to zero. The reducing current can be
passed directly through the part on relatively large parts.
DC that is reversed in polarity by special switching devices and by
diminishing the applied current in each reversal, demagnetization can be
achieved more thoroughly. This multiple step down reversing and
decreasing DC demagnetizer works similarly to the AC step down system.
Because of the difficulty in reverse switching of DC, the equipment is
much more complicated than for AC and therefore, more expensive. A
commonly used frequency is one reversal per second. The reversing DC
provides deeper penetration than does AC and thus has advantage in
application on thicker parts that are difficult to demagnetize. The reversing
DC may use a coil or the current can be passed directly through the part.
It is desirable to start demagnetization using a stronger field than that
was used to magnetize the part during the examination.
Yokes can be used in the AC mode to reduce the magnetism from
surface of large components. More than one yokes can be used
together to strengthen the demagnetizing field.
Magnetic particle Inspection with AC has the advantage of not leaving a
strong residual field in the part so that, in a sense, it is self demagnetizing.
Many stationary horizontal inspection units provides demagnetization feature
that slowly reduce the alternating field in a coil in which the component is
placed.
A calibrated field meter, known as Gaussmeter, is often used to verify
that the residual field has been removed from the component. When using,
it is only necessary to touch the lower edge of the meter to the part and
read the pointer position on the dial. These center zero meters are
available in many ranges, +/- 10 gauss range is the one most often used
for machine shop and tool room work. Since magnetic leakage fields are
strongest at an edge or corner of a part, this is the best place to
measure the residual field. Industry standards usually require that the
residual magnetic field be reduced to less than 3 gauss after completing
the inspection. 10 gauss field is less likely to cause problem in welding.
Demagnetization techniques :
50 cycle AC coil -- small parts up to 2 inch dia.
50 cycle AC, current flow -- relatively large size and retentive parts.
Reversing DC coil -- suitable for small parts.
Reversing DC, current flow -- best for large parts.
Wrapping cable, full length -- long parts. [ pipes, bars etc. ]
AC yoke -- small parts, local near surface area of large parts.
Prod, reversing DC -- local area of large parts by reversing prod
position, and reducing current in each step by 20 to 40 amps.

Residual
Field
Meter.