WhatisElectricity?

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GettingStarted
Electricityisallarounduspoweringtechnologylikeourcellphones,computers,lights,solderingirons,andair
conditioners.Itstoughtoescapeitinourmodernworld.Evenwhenyoutrytoescapeelectricity,itsstillatwork
throughoutnature,fromthelightninginathunderstormtothesynapsesinsideourbody.Butwhatexactlyis
electricity?Thisisaverycomplicatedquestion,andasyoudigdeeperandaskmorequestions,therereallyis
notadefinitiveanswer,onlyabstractrepresentationsofhowelectricityinteractswithoursurroundings.

Electricityisanaturalphenomenonthatoccursthroughoutnatureandtakesmanydifferentforms.Inthistutorial
wellfocusoncurrentelectricity:thestuffthatpowersourelectronicgadgets.Ourgoalistounderstandhow
electricityflowsfromapowersourcethroughwires,lightingupLEDs,spinningmotors,andpoweringour
communicationdevices.
Electricityisbrieflydefinedastheflowofelectriccharge,buttheressomuchbehindthatsimplestatement.
Wheredothechargescomefrom?Howdowemovethem?Wheredotheymoveto?Howdoesanelectric
chargecausemechanicalmotionormakethingslightup?Somanyquestions!Tobegintoexplainwhat
electricityisweneedtozoomwayin,beyondthematterandmolecules,totheatomsthatmakeupeverything
weinteractwithinlife.
Thistutorialbuildsonsomebasicunderstandingofphysics,force,energy,atoms,andfieldsinparticular.Well
glossoverthebasicsofeachofthosephysicsconcepts,butitmayhelptoconsultothersourcesaswell.

GoingAtomic
Tounderstandthefundamentalsofelectricity,weneedtobeginbyfocusinginonatoms,oneofthebasic
buildingblocksoflifeandmatter.Atomsexistinoverahundreddifferentformsaschemicalelementslike
hydrogen,carbon,oxygen,andcopper.Atomsofmanytypescancombinetomakemolecules,whichbuildthe
matterwecanphysicallyseeandtouch.

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Atomsaretiny,stretchingatamaxtoabout300picometerslong(thats3x1010or0.0000000003meters).A
copperpenny(ifitactuallyweremadeof100%copper)wouldhave3.2x1022atoms
(32,000,000,000,000,000,000,000atoms)ofcopperinsideit.
Eventheatomisntsmallenoughtoexplaintheworkingsofelectricity.Weneedtodivedownonemorelevel
andlookinonthebuildingblocksofatoms:protons,neutrons,andelectrons.

BuildingBlocksofAtoms
Anatomisbuiltwithacombinationofthreedistinctparticles:electrons,protons,andneutrons.Eachatomhasa
centernucleus,wheretheprotonsandneutronsaredenselypackedtogether.Surroundingthenucleusarea
groupoforbitingelectrons.

Averysimpleatommodel.Itsnottoscalebuthelpfulforunderstandinghowanatomisbuilt.Acorenucleusof
protonsandneutronsissurroundedbyorbitingelectrons.
Everyatommusthaveatleastoneprotoninit.Thenumberofprotonsinanatomisimportant,becauseit
defineswhatchemicalelementtheatomrepresents.Forexample,anatomwithjustoneprotonishydrogen,an
atomwith29protonsiscopper,andanatomwith94protonsisplutonium.Thiscountofprotonsiscalledthe
atomsatomicnumber.
Theprotonsnucleuspartner,neutrons,serveanimportantpurposetheykeeptheprotonsinthenucleusand
determinetheisotopeofanatom.Theyrenotcriticaltoourunderstandingofelectricity,soletsnotworryabout
themforthistutorial.
Electronsarecriticaltotheworkingsofelectricity(noticeacommonthemeintheirnames?)Initsmoststable,
balancedstate,anatomwillhavethesamenumberofelectronsasprotons.AsintheBohratommodelbelow,a
nucleuswith29protons(makingitacopperatom)issurroundedbyanequalnumberofelectrons.

Asourunderstandingofatomshasevolved,sotoohasourmethodformodelingthem.TheBohrmodelisa
veryusefulatommodelasweexploreelectricity.
Theatomselectronsarentallforeverboundtotheatom.Theelectronsontheouterorbitoftheatomare
calledvalenceelectrons.Withenoughoutsideforce,avalenceelectroncanescapeorbitoftheatomand
becomefree.Freeelectronsallowustomovecharge,whichiswhatelectricityisallabout.Speakingof
charge

FlowingCharges
Aswementionedatthebeginningofthistutorial,electricityisdefinedastheflowofelectriccharge.Chargeisa
propertyofmatterjustlikemass,volume,ordensity.Itismeasurable.Justasyoucanquantifyhowmuchmass
somethinghas,youcanmeasurehowmuchchargeithas.Thekeyconceptwithchargeisthatitcancomein
twotypes:positive(+)ornegative().
Inordertomovechargeweneedchargecarriers,andthatswhereourknowledgeofatomicparticles
specificallyelectronsandprotonscomesinhandy.Electronsalwayscarryanegativecharge,whileprotonsare
alwayspositivelycharged.Neutrons(truetotheirname)areneutral,theyhavenocharge.Bothelectronsand
protonscarrythesameamountofcharge,justadifferenttype.

Alithiumatom(3protons)modelwiththechargeslabeled.
Thechargeofelectronsandprotonsisimportant,becauseitprovidesusthemeanstoexertaforceonthem.
Electrostaticforce!

ElectrostaticForce
Electrostaticforce(alsocalledCoulombslaw)isaforcethatoperatesbetweencharges.Itstatesthatcharges
ofthesametyperepeleachother,whilechargesofoppositetypesareattractedtogether.Oppositesattract,
andlikesrepel.

Theamountofforceactingontwochargesdependsonhowfartheyarefromeachother.Theclosertwo
chargesget,thegreatertheforce(eitherpushingtogether,orpullingaway)becomes.
Thankstoelectrostaticforce,electronswillpushawayotherelectronsandbeattractedtoprotons.Thisforceis
partofthegluethatholdsatomstogether,butitsalsothetoolweneedtomakeelectrons(andcharges)flow!

MakingChargesFlow
Wenowhaveallthetoolstomakechargesflow.Electronsinatomscanactasourchargecarrier,because
everyelectroncarriesanegativecharge.Ifwecanfreeanelectronfromanatomandforceittomove,wecan
createelectricity.
Considertheatomicmodelofacopperatom,oneofthepreferredelementalsourcesforchargeflow.Inits
balancedstate,copperhas29protonsinitsnucleusandanequalnumberofelectronsorbitingaroundit.
Electronsorbitatvaryingdistancesfromthenucleusoftheatom.Electronsclosertothenucleusfeelamuch
strongerattractiontothecenterthanthoseindistantorbits.Theoutermostelectronsofanatomarecalledthe
valenceelectrons,theserequiretheleastamountofforcetobefreedfromanatom.

Thisisacopperatomdiagram:29protonsinthenucleus,surroundedbybandsofcirclingelectrons.Electrons
closertothenucleusarehardtoremovewhilethevalence(outerring)electronrequiresrelativelylittleenergyto
beejectedfromtheatom.

Usingenoughelectrostaticforceonthevalenceelectroneitherpushingitwithanothernegativechargeor
attractingitwithapositivechargewecanejecttheelectronfromorbitaroundtheatomcreatingafreeelectron.
Nowconsideracopperwire:matterfilledwithcountlesscopperatoms.Asourfreeelectronisfloatingina
spacebetweenatoms,itspulledandproddedbysurroundingchargesinthatspace.Inthischaosthefree
electroneventuallyfindsanewatomtolatchontoindoingso,thenegativechargeofthatelectronejects
anothervalenceelectronfromtheatom.Nowanewelectronisdriftingthroughfreespacelookingtodothe
samething.Thischaineffectcancontinueonandontocreateaflowofelectronscalledelectriccurrent.

Averysimplifiedmodelofchargesflowingthroughatomstomakecurrent.

Conductivity
Someelementaltypesofatomsarebetterthanothersatreleasingtheirelectrons.Togetthebestpossible
electronflowwewanttouseatomswhichdontholdverytightlytotheirvalenceelectrons.Anelements
conductivitymeasureshowtightlyboundanelectronistoanatom.
Elementswithhighconductivity,whichhaveverymobileelectrons,arecalledconductors.Thesearethetypes
ofmaterialswewanttousetomakewiresandothercomponentswhichaidinelectronflow.Metalslikecopper,
silver,andgoldareusuallyourtopchoicesforgoodconductors.
Elementswithlowconductivityarecalledinsulators.Insulatorsserveaveryimportantpurpose:theyprevent
theflowofelectrons.Popularinsulatorsincludeglass,rubber,plastic,andair.

StaticorCurrentElectricity
Beforewegetmuchfurther,letsdiscussthetwoformselectricitycantake:staticorcurrent.Inworkingwith
electronics,currentelectricitywillbemuchmorecommon,butstaticelectricityisimportanttounderstandas
well.

StaticElectricity
Staticelectricityexistswhenthereisabuildupofoppositechargesonobjectsseparatedbyaninsulator.Static
(asinatrest)electricityexistsuntilthetwogroupsofoppositechargescanfindapathbetweeneachotherto
balancethesystemout.

Whenthechargesdofindameansofequalizing,astaticdischargeoccurs.Theattractionofthecharges
becomessogreatthattheycanflowthrougheventhebestofinsulators(air,glass,plastic,rubber,etc.).Static
dischargescanbeharmfuldependingonwhatmediumthechargestravelthroughandtowhatsurfacesthe
chargesaretransferring.Chargesequalizingthroughanairgapcanresultinavisibleshockasthetraveling
electronscollidewithelectronsintheair,whichbecomeexcitedandreleaseenergyintheformoflight.

Sparkgapignitersareusedtocreateacontrolledstaticdischarge.Oppositechargesbuilduponeachofthe
conductorsuntiltheirattractionissogreatchargescanflowthroughtheair.
Oneofthemostdramaticexamplesofstaticdischargeislightning.Whenacloudsystemgathersenough
chargerelativetoeitheranothergroupofcloudsortheearthsground,thechargeswilltrytoequalize.Asthe
clouddischarges,massivequantitiesofpositive(orsometimesnegative)chargesrunthroughtheairfrom
groundtocloudcausingthevisibleeffectwereallfamiliarwith.
Staticelectricityalsofamiliarlyexistswhenwerubballoonsonourheadtomakeourhairstandup,orwhenwe
shuffleonthefloorwithfuzzyslippersandshockthefamilycat(accidentally,ofcourse).Ineachcase,friction
fromrubbingdifferenttypesofmaterialstransferselectrons.Theobjectlosingelectronsbecomespositively
charged,whiletheobjectgainingelectronsbecomesnegativelycharged.Thetwoobjectsbecomeattractedto
eachotheruntiltheycanfindawaytoequalize.
Workingwithelectronics,wegenerallydonthavetodealwithstaticelectricity.Whenwedo,wereusuallytrying
toprotectoursensitiveelectroniccomponentsfrombeingsubjectedtoastaticdischarge.Preventative
measuresagainststaticelectricityincludewearingESD(electrostaticdischarge)wriststraps,oraddingspecial
componentsincircuitstoprotectagainstveryhighspikesofcharge.

CurrentElectricity
Currentelectricityistheformofelectricitywhichmakesallofourelectronicgizmospossible.Thisformof
electricityexistswhenchargesareabletoconstantlyflow.Asopposedtostaticelectricitywherecharges
gatherandremainatrest,currentelectricityisdynamic,chargesarealwaysonthemove.Wellbefocusingon
thisformofelectricitythroughouttherestofthetutorial.

Circuits
Inordertoflow,currentelectricityrequiresacircuit:aclosed,neverendingloopofconductivematerial.Acircuit
couldbeassimpleasaconductivewireconnectedendtoend,butusefulcircuitsusuallycontainamixofwire
andothercomponentswhichcontroltheflowofelectricity.Theonlyrulewhenitcomestomakingcircuitsisthey
canthaveanyinsulatinggapsinthem.
Ifyouhaveawirefullofcopperatomsandwanttoinduceaflowofelectronsthroughit,allfreeelectronsneed
somewheretoflowinthesamegeneraldirection.Copperisagreatconductor,perfectformakingchargesflow.
Ifacircuitofcopperwireisbroken,thechargescantflowthroughtheair,whichwillalsopreventanyofthe
chargestowardthemiddlefromgoinganywhere.
Ontheotherhand,ifthewirewereconnectedendtoend,theelectronsallhaveaneighboringatomandcanall
flowinthesamegeneraldirection.

Wenowunderstandhowelectronscanflow,buthowdowegetthemflowinginthefirstplace?Then,oncethe
electronsareflowing,howdotheyproducetheenergyrequiredtoilluminatelightbulbsorspinmotors?For
that,weneedtounderstandelectricfields.

ElectricFields
Wehaveahandleonhowelectronsflowthroughmattertocreateelectricity.Thatsallthereistoelectricity.Well,
almostall.Nowweneedasourcetoinducetheflowofelectrons.Mostoftenthatsourceofelectronflowwill
comefromanelectricfield.

WhatsaField?
Afieldisatoolweusetomodelphysicalinteractionswhichdontinvolveanyobservablecontact.Fields
cantbeseenastheydonthaveaphysicalappearance,buttheeffecttheyhaveisveryreal.
Wereallsubconsciouslyfamiliarwithonefieldinparticular:Earthsgravitationalfield,theeffectofamassive
bodyattractingotherbodies.Earthsgravitationalfieldcanbemodeledwithasetofvectorsallpointingintothe
centeroftheplanetregardlessofwhereyouareonthesurface,youllfeeltheforcepushingyoutowardsit.

Thestrengthorintensityoffieldsisntuniformatallpointsinthefield.Thefurtheryouarefromthesourceofthe
fieldthelesseffectthefieldhas.ThemagnitudeofEarthsgravitationalfielddecreasesasyougetfurtheraway
fromthecenteroftheplanet.
AswegoontoexploreelectricfieldsinparticularrememberhowEarthsgravitationalfieldworks,bothfields
sharemanysimilarities.Gravitationalfieldsexertaforceonobjectsofmass,andelectricfieldsexertaforceon
objectsofcharge.

ElectricFields
Electricfields(efields)areanimportanttoolinunderstandinghowelectricitybeginsandcontinuestoflow.
Electricfieldsdescribethepullingorpushingforceinaspacebetweencharges.ComparedtoEarths
gravitationalfield,electricfieldshaveonemajordifference:whileEarthsfieldgenerallyonlyattractsother
objectsofmass(sinceeverythingissosignificantlylessmassive),electricfieldspushchargesawayjustasoften
astheattractthem.
Thedirectionofelectricfieldsisalwaysdefinedasthedirectionapositivetestchargewouldmoveifitwas
droppedinthefield.Thetestchargehastobeinfinitelysmall,tokeepitschargefrominfluencingthefield.

Wecanbeginbyconstructingelectricfieldsforsolitarypositiveandnegativecharges.Ifyoudroppedapositive
testchargenearanegativecharge,thetestchargewouldbeattractedtowardsthenegativecharge.So,fora
single,negativechargewedrawourelectricfieldarrowspointinginwardatalldirections.Thatsametest
chargedroppednearanotherpositivechargewouldresultinanoutwardrepulsion,whichmeanswedraw
arrowsgoingoutofthepositivecharge.

Theelectricfieldsofsinglecharges.Anegativechargehasaninwardelectricfieldbecauseitattractspositive
charges.Thepositivechargehasanoutwardelectricfield,pushingawaylikecharges.
Groupsofelectricchargescanbecombinedtomakemorecompleteelectricfields.

Theuniformefieldabovepointsawayfromthepositivecharges,towardsthenegatives.Imagineatinypositive
testchargedroppedintheefielditshouldfollowthedirectionofthearrows.Asweveseen,electricityusually
involvestheflowofelectronsnegativechargeswhichflowagainstelectricfields.
Electricfieldsprovideuswiththepushingforceweneedtoinducecurrentflow.Anelectricfieldinacircuitislike
anelectronpump:alargesourceofnegativechargesthatcanpropelelectrons,whichwillflowthroughthe
circuittowardsthepositivelumpofcharges.

ElectricPotential(Energy)
Whenweharnesselectricitytopowerourcircuits,gizmos,andgadgets,werereallytransformingenergy.
Electroniccircuitsmustbeabletostoreenergyandtransferittootherformslikeheat,light,ormotion.The
storedenergyofacircuitiscalledelectricpotentialenergy.

Energy?PotentialEnergy?
Tounderstandpotentialenergyweneedtounderstandenergyingeneral.Energyisdefinedastheabilityofan
objecttodoworkonanotherobject,whichmeansmovingthatobjectsomedistance.Energycomesinmany
forms,somewecansee(likemechanical)andotherswecant(likechemicalorelectrical).Regardlessofwhat
formitsin,energyexistsinoneoftwostates:kineticorpotential.

Anobjecthaskineticenergywhenitsinmotion.Theamountofkineticenergyanobjecthasdependsonits
massandspeed.Potentialenergy,ontheotherhand,isastoredenergywhenanobjectisatrest.It
describeshowmuchworktheobjectcoulddoifsetintomotion.Itsanenergywecangenerallycontrol.When
anobjectissetintomotion,itspotentialenergytransformsintokineticenergy.

Letsgobacktousinggravityasanexample.AbowlingballsittingmotionlessatthetopofKhalifatowerhasa
lotofpotential(stored)energy.Oncedropped,theballpulledbythegravitationalfieldacceleratestowardsthe
ground.Astheballaccelerates,potentialenergyisconvertedintokineticenergy(theenergyfrommotion).
Eventuallyalloftheballsenergyisconvertedfrompotentialtokinetic,andthenpassedontowhateverithits.
Whentheballisontheground,ithasaverylowpotentialenergy.

ElectricPotentialEnergy
Justlikemassinagravitationalfieldhasgravitationalpotentialenergy,chargesinanelectricfieldhavean
electricpotentialenergy.Achargeselectricpotentialenergydescribeshowmuchstoredenergyithas,when
setintomotionbyanelectrostaticforce,thatenergycanbecomekinetic,andthechargecandowork.
Likeabowlingballsittingatthetopofatower,apositivechargeincloseproximitytoanotherpositivecharge
hasahighpotentialenergyleftfreetomove,thechargewouldberepelledawayfromthelikecharge.A
positivetestchargeplacednearanegativechargewouldhavelowpotentialenergy,analogoustothebowling
ballontheground.

Toinstillanythingwithpotentialenergy,wehavetodoworkbymovingitoveradistance.Inthecaseofthe
bowlingball,theworkcomesfromcarryingitup163floors,againstthefieldofgravity.Similarly,workmustbe
donetopushapositivechargeagainstthearrowsofanelectricfield(eithertowardsanotherpositivecharge,or
awayfromanegativecharge).Thefurtherupthefieldthechargegoes,themoreworkyouhavetodo.
Likewise,ifyoutrytopullanegativechargeawayfromapositivechargeagainstanelectricfieldyouhaveto
dowork.
Foranychargelocatedinanelectricfielditselectricpotentialenergydependsonthetype(positiveornegative),
amountofcharge,anditspositioninthefield.Electricpotentialenergyismeasuredinunitsofjoules(J).

ElectricPotential
Electricpotentialbuildsuponelectricpotentialenergytohelpdefinehowmuchenergyisstoredinelectric
fields.Itsanotherconceptwhichhelpsusmodelthebehaviorofelectricfields.Electricpotentialisnotthesame
thingaselectricpotentialenergy!
Atanypointinanelectricfieldtheelectricpotentialistheamountofelectricpotentialenergydividedbythe
amountofchargeatthatpoint.Ittakesthechargequantityoutoftheequationandleavesuswithanideaof
howmuchpotentialenergyspecificareasoftheelectricfieldmayprovide.Electricpotentialcomesinunitsof
joulespercoulomb(J/C),whichwedefineasavolt(V).
Inanyelectricfieldtherearetwopointsofelectricpotentialthatareofsignificantinteresttous.Theresapoint
ofhighpotential,whereapositivechargewouldhavethehighestpossiblepotentialenergy,andtheresapoint
oflowpotential,whereachargewouldhavethelowestpossiblepotentialenergy.
Oneofthemostcommontermswediscussinevaluatingelectricityisvoltage.Avoltageisthedifferencein
potentialbetweentwopointsinanelectricfield.Voltagegivesusanideaofjusthowmuchpushingforcean
electricfieldhas.

Withpotentialandpotentialenergyunderourbeltwehavealloftheingredientsnecessarytomakecurrent
electricity.Letsdoit!

ElectricityinAction!
Afterstudyingparticlephysics,fieldtheory,andpotentialenergy,wenowknowenoughtomakeelectricityflow.
Letsmakeacircuit!
Firstwewillreviewtheingredientsweneedtomakeelectricity:
Thedefinitionofelectricityistheflowofcharge.Usuallyourchargeswillbecarriedbyfreeflowing
electrons.
Negativelychargedelectronsarelooselyheldtoatomsofconductivematerials.Withalittlepushwecan
freeelectronsfromatomsandgetthemtoflowinagenerallyuniformdirection.
Aclosedcircuitofconductivematerialprovidesapathforelectronstocontinuouslyflow.
Thechargesarepropelledbyanelectricfield.Weneedasourceofelectricpotential(voltage),which
pusheselectronsfromapointoflowpotentialenergytohigherpotentialenergy.

AShortCircuit
Batteriesarecommonenergysourceswhichconvertchemicalenergytoelectricalenergy.Theyhavetwo
terminals,whichconnecttotherestofthecircuit.Ononeterminalthereareanexcessofnegativecharges,
whileallofthepositivechargescoalesceontheother.Thisisanelectricpotentialdifferencejustwaitingtoact!

Ifweconnectedourwirefullofconductivecopperatomstothebattery,thatelectricfieldwillinfluencethe
negativelychargedfreeelectronsinthecopperatoms.Simultaneouslypushedbythenegativeterminaland
pulledbythepositiveterminal,theelectronsinthecopperwillmovefromatomtoatomcreatingtheflowof
chargeweknowaselectricity.

Afterasecondofthecurrentflow,theelectronshaveactuallymovedverylittlefractionsofacentimeter.
However,theenergyproducedbythecurrentflowishuge,especiallysincetheresnothinginthiscircuittoslow
downthefloworconsumetheenergy.Connectingapureconductordirectlyacrossanenergysourceisabad
idea.Energymovesveryquicklythroughthesystemandistransformedintoheatinthewire,whichmayquickly
turnintomeltingwireorfire.

IlluminatingaLightBulb
Insteadofwastingallthatenergy,nottomentiondestroyingthebatteryandwire,letsbuildacircuitthatdoes
somethinguseful!Generallyanelectriccircuitwilltransferelectricenergyintosomeotherformlight,heat,
motion,etc.Ifweconnectalightbulbtothebatterywithwiresinbetween,wehaveasimple,functionalcircuit.

Schematic:Abattery(left)connectingtoalightbulb(right),thecircuitiscompletedwhentheswitch(top)closes.
Withthecircuitclosed,electronscanflow,pushedfromthenegativeterminalofthebatterythroughthe
lightbulb,tothepositiveterminal.
Whiletheelectronsmoveatasnailspace,theelectricfieldaffectstheentirecircuitalmostinstantly(were
talkingspeedoflightfast).Electronsthroughoutthecircuit,whetheratthelowestpotential,highestpotential,or
rightnexttothelightbulb,areinfluencedbytheelectricfield.Whentheswitchclosesandtheelectronsare
subjectedtotheelectricfield,allelectronsinthecircuitstartflowingatseeminglythesametime.Thosecharges
nearestthelightbulbwilltakeonestepthroughthecircuitandstarttransformingenergyfromelectricaltolight
(orheat).

GoingFurther
Inthistutorialweveuncoveredjustatinyportionofthetipoftheproverbialiceberg.Theresstillatonof
conceptsleftuncovered.FromherewedrecommendyousteprightonovertoourVoltage,Current,
Resistance,andOhmsLawtutorial.Nowthatyouknowallaboutelectricfields(voltage)andflowingelectrons
(current),yourewellonyourwaytounderstandingthelawthatgovernstheirinteraction.
Formoreinformationandvisualizationsexplainingelectricity,visitthissite.
Herearesomeotherbeginnerlevelconcepttutorialswedrecommendreadingthrough:
WhatisaCircuit?
ElectricPower
SeriesandParallelCircuits
Or,maybeyoudliketolearnsomethingpractical?Inthatcase,checkoutsomeofthesebasiclevelskill
tutorials:
HowtoUseaMultimeter
WorkingWithWire
SewingWithConductiveThread