AN INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Concept and Meaning

A disaster is a consequence of a sudden disastrous event which seriously disrupts the normal function of the
society or the community to the extent that it cannot subsist without outside help.
A disaster is not just the occurrence of an event such as an earthquake, flood, conflict, health epidemic or an
industrial accident; a disaster occurs if that event/process negatively impacts human populations.
Disasters combine two elements: hazard, and the vulnerability of affected people. "A disaster occurs when a
hazard exposes the vulnerability of individuals and communities in such a way that their lives are directly
threatened or sufficient harm has been done to their community's economic and social structure to undermine
their ability to survive.
A disaster can be defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic
accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that disasters can cause damage to life, property and destroy
the economic, social and cultural life of people.
Disaster is the exposure of a group of people to a hazard, leading to a serious disruption of the functioning of a
society and causing human, material, economic environmental
losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope. A disaster results from a
combination of hazards and vulnerability that exceeds the capacity of
a society to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.
Hazard is an extreme event, natural or man-made, with a destructive potential to social, economic and human
assets. These may include future threats, and may be natural
(geological, hydro meteorological and biological) or man-made (Conflict, environmental degradation and
technological hazards).
Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of
vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential
negative consequences. Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on
human physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of
services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.
A disaster is a calamitous, distressing, or ruinous effect of a disastrous event which seriously affects or disrupts
(or threaten to disrupt) the critical functions of a community, society or system, for a period long enough to
significantly harm it or cause its failure. It is beyond the capababilty of the local community to overcome it.
The stricken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside help or international aid.
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It is a situation resulting from an environmental phenomenon or armed conflict that produce stress, personal
injury, physical damage, and economic disruption of great magnitude.

Definition:
The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines Disaster as "any occurrence that causes damage, ecological
disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an
extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area."

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS
Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As per severity, disasters are
classified as minor or major (in impact). However, such classifications are more academic than real as major
disasters could simply be events that received relatively more media coverage (Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan,
2005).
High Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999 under the chairmanship of J.C. Pant. The
mandate of the HPC was to prepare comprehensive model plans for disaster management at the national, state
and district levels. This was the first attempt in India towards a systematic comprehensive and holistic look at
all disasters. Thirty odd disasters have been identified by the HPC, which were grouped into the following five
categories, based on generic considerations:

1) Water and Climate:

Floods
Cyclones
Tornadoes and hurricanes (cyclones)
Hailstorms
Cloudburst
Heat wave and cold wave
Snow avalanches
Droughts
Sea erosion
Thunder/ lightning

2) Geological
Landslides and mudflows
Earthquakes
Large fires
Dam failures and dam bursts
Mine fires3)
3) Biological
Epidemics
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 Pest attacks
Cattle epidemics
Food poisoning
4) Chemical, industrial and nuclear

Chemical and Industrial disasters

Nuclear

5) Accidental

Forest fires
Urban fires
Mine flooding
Oil spill
Major building collapse
Serial bomb blasts
Festival related disaster
Electrical disasters and fire
Air, road, and rail accident
Boat capsizing
Village fire

Types of disasters
Disasters are broadly divided into two types:
1) Natural
2) Man made disasters.

Natural disasters
Natural disasters occur as the result of action of the natural forces and tend to be accepted as unfortunate, but
inevitable. They include:

Famines
Droughts
Tornadoes,
Hurricanes,
Floods / Sea Surges / Tsunamis
Volcanoes
Snow storms,
Earthquakes,

Famines may be defined as a persistent failure in food supplies over a prolonged period. It is a phenomenon in
which a large percentage of the populations of a region or country are so undernourished and that death by
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starvation becomes increasingly common. A famine weakens body resistance and leads to increases in
infectious diseases, especially cholera, dysentery, malaria, and smallpox. Famine is associated with naturallyoccurring crop failure due to draught and pestilence and artificially with war and genocide.
Drought is lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period of months or years when a region notes a
deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average
precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region.
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land, producing measurable property damage or forcing
evacuation of people and vital resources. Floods are caused due to heavy rainfall and the inadequate capacity of
rivers to carry the high flood discharge. Floods develop slowly as rivers swell during an extended period of
rain. A flood occurs when water overflows or inundates land that is normally dry. Mostly it happens when rivers
or streams overflow their banks.
Cyclones are strong winds that are formed over the oceans. The term "cyclone" refers to all classes of storms
with low atmospheric pressure at the centre, are formed when an organized system of revolving winds,
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, develops over tropical
waters.
A hurricane is a huge storm. It is a powerful, spiralling storm that begins over a warm sea, near the equator and
accompanied by fierce winds, flash floods, mudslides and huge waves. It is a low pressure, large scale weather
system which derives its energy from the latent heat of condensation of water vapour over warm tropical seas.
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling of the ground crust caused by the collision of tectonic plates
resulting in the abrupt displacement of rock masses. Earthquakes result from the movement of one rock mass
past another in response to tectonic forces underneath the earths surface.
Volcanoes result when magma rises, pushes through a weakness in the Earths crust, and spills out onto the
surface, devastating anything in its path. The superheated rock is not the only danger, however. Far below the
earths surface, volcanic gasses are dissolved in the magma. As the magma rises, it begins to cool down, and
gas bubbles begin to form. This makes the magma less dense than the surroundings, causing it to rise faster.
A third threat is a pyroclastic flow. This high speed ejection of hot gasses and debris can travel in excess of 80
kilometres per hour and usually averages between 200 and 700 degrees Celsius. Not only does the pyroclastic
flow travel too fast to be outran, but it will incinerate everything in its path. Pyroclastic

Man made disasters

explosions,
fires,
release of toxic chemicals or radioactive materials(industrial accidents),
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 dam failures
nuclear reactor accidents
wars

GLOBAL DIMENSIONS OF DISASTERS

Disaster losses have shown an increasing trend, globally, due to urbanisation and increasing population.
According to the United Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters of medium to high intensity caused at least
25,000 deaths around the world, more than double the previous year and caused economic losses world- wide
of over $36 billion. The data excludes the many small-scale events that have affected local economies
adversely, and disturbed the life pattern for perhaps always. Some of the major events were, the Earthquakes
that ravaged Gujarat, El Salvador and Peru, floods that ravaged countries in Asia, Africa and elsewhere,
droughts that affected regions in Central Asia; Afghanistan, Asia and Central America, Cyclones in Madagascar
and Orissa, and floods in Bolivia. Global disaster statistics for 1996-2000 revealed staggering economic costs
estimated at US$ 235 billion and 425,000 lives lost (CRED International Disaster Database)
80 per cent of the total affected populations, 40 per cent of the total deaths, and 46 per cent of the total
economic losses (CRED statistics for 1997-2001).Disasters have international ramifications in terms of direct
and indirect impact (s). Hence is explained the need for concerted action on the part of the international
community to tackle regional vulnerabilities. Developing countries have suffered more from disaster events
since system capacity to cope with events of such large magnitude is considerably lower as compared to
developed countries, and the vulnerability quotient on account of physical social and economic
vulnerability of the multitudes, significantly higher. Since1991, two- thirds of the victims have been from
developing countries and just 2 per cent from the developed countries. Asia is particularly vulnerable to disaster
strikes. Between 1991-2000, 5,54,439 people died in Asia compared to 1, 1159 casualties in rest of the world.
Within Asia, 24 percent of the casualties occurred in India owing to its size, population and vulnerability.
Floods and High Winds account for most deaths in India (Tenth Plan, 2002-07).Between 1994 and 2003,
disasters, both natural and technological, claimed 68,671Indian lives, affected an average of 68 million
people every year, and cost US$1.9 billion annually in direct economic damage. This toll is worse than for the
previous decade, so the task of supporting the resilience of Indian communities to disasters has never been more
urgent (World Disasters Report, 2004).

OVERVIEW OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN INDIA

Indias Key Vulnerabilities as articulated in the Tenth Plan, (2002-07) are as follows:

Coastal States, particularly on the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones.
4 crore hectare landmass is vulnerable to floods
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68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to droughts

55 per cent of total area is in seismic zones III- V, hence vulnerable to earthquakes
Sub- Himalayan sector and Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides.

The succeeding text analyses in brief vulnerabilities to specific natural hazards in India (Menon and Kalmadi).
A) Floods
Seventy five per cent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June -September) as a result of
which almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The problems of sediment deposition,
drainage congestion and synchronisation of river floods compound the flood hazard with sea tides in the coastal
plains. Brahmaputra and the Gangetic Basin are the most flood-prone areas. The other flood-prone areas are the
northwest region of the west flowing rivers like Narmada and Tapti, Central India and the Deccan region with
major east flowing rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery. While the area liable to floods is 40 million
hectares, the average area affected by floods annually is about 8 million hectares.
B) Droughts
India has a largely monsoon dependant irrigation network. An erratic pattern, both low(less than 750 mm) and
medium (750 - 1125 mm) makes 68 per cent of the total area vulnerable to periodic droughts. A 100-year
analysis reveals that the frequency of occurrence of below normal rainfall in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid
areas is 54-57 per cent. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-arid zones every 8-9 years. The semiarid and arid climatic zones are subject to about 50 per cent of severe droughts that cover generally 76 percent
of the area. In this region, rare droughts of most severe intensity occurred on an average once in 32 years and
almost every third year was a drought year.
C) Cyclones
India has a long coastline. There are two distinct cyclone seasons: pre-monsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon
(October-November). The impact of these cyclones is confined to the coastal districts, the maximum
destruction being within 100 Km. from the centre of the cyclones and on either side of the storm track. Most
casualties are caused by coastal inundation by tidal waves, storm surges and torrential rains.
D) Earthquakes
The Himalayan mountain ranges are considered to be the worlds youngest fold mountain ranges. The
subterranean Himalayas are geologically very active. In a span of 53 years, four earthquakes exceeding
magnitude 8 on the Richter scale have occurred in this region. The peninsular part of India comprises stable
continental crust. Although these regions were considered seismically least active, an earthquake that occurred
in Latur in Maharashtra on September 30, 1993 of magnitude 6.4 on the Richter scale caused substantial loss
of life and damage to infrastructure.
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E) Landslides and Avalanches

The Himalayan, the northeast hill ranges and the Western Ghats experience considerable landslide activity of
varying intensities. River erosions, seismic movements and heavy rainfalls cause considerable activity. Heavy
monsoon rainfall often in association with cyclonic disturbances results in considerable landslide activity on the
slopes of the Western Ghats.Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Parts
of the Himalayas receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports are in abundance in such locations.
Severe snow avalanches occur in
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Hills of Western Uttar Pradesh. The population of about 20,000
in Nubra and Shyok valleys and mountaineers and trekkers face avalanche hazard on account of steep fall. The
following map gives the multi- hazard vulnerability of the Indian landmass.

OVERVIEW OF MAN-MADE DISASTERS

Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous occurrences that can be sudden or longer term. Sudden manmade disasters include structural collapses, such as building and mine collapse, when this occurs independently
without any outside force. In addition, air disasters, land disasters and sea disasters are all man-made
(International Red Cross).
The countries in Asia region are densely populated and are low-income economies. Recurrent disasters,
specifically, road and rail accidents, fire outbreaks, deaths of pavement dwellers due to heat and cold wave
conditions etc., cause serious setback to the developmental process; in fact disasters and development have a
chicken and egg relationship in that one is in fact the primary cause of the other. For example, disasters
exacerbate poverty conditions in affected regions; and the poor are the worst sufferers in disasters. The fast pace
of growth and expansion without comprehensive understanding or preparedness in urban planning, for
instance, has brought forth a range of issues that seek urgent attention at all levels. Local administrative
weaknesses have allowed the situation to get out of hand. Institutional weaknesses have created system
vulnerabilities over time. In the absence of mitigation measures, growing numbers in our population are at risk
of prospective hazards, such as air accidents, boat capsizing, building collapse, electric fires, festival related
disasters, forest fires, mine flooding, oil spills, rail accidents, road accidents, serial bomb blasts, and fires. The
safeguards within existing systems are limited and the risks involved high. The situation with regard to road
accidents is particularly acute.
A comprehensive document prepared by the Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Programme
(TRIPP) brings out the magnitude of the problem in India and abroad. It gave the first official data of accidents
in 2002, recording 80,118 deaths and 342,200 injuries on Indian roads but conceded at the same time that many
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cases went unreported and that 1200,000 required hospitalisation. Of the worldwide annual average of 700,000
road accidents, 10 per cent occur in India. The latest annual statistics indicate that over
80,000 people are killed on Indian roads. These figures do not reflect the human suffering and social problems
caused by accidents. Nearly three lakhs per year sustain injuries.
Financial losses are staggering. A decades worth of saving the Rs. 50,000 million estimated loss in traffic
accidents every year could finance building 7,000 km long, six lane national highway at todays rates. The
figures are always on the increase, which corresponds to the tremendous increase in the production and sale of
motor vehicles (Moorthy and Karnick,2005).
Deliberate international terrorism or accidental secondary fallouts can be fatal. There has been considerable
agitation in India of late over advanced countries dumping hazardous waste in India. This falls within the realm
of international relations. Rapid and effective response as also mitigation policy needs intensive research and
laboratory support in this regard to frame convincing legislation, which can ensure internal security without
jeopardising external relations with foreign countries. Globalisation would have to be effectively managed
through legislation regulating Multi-national and Transnational corporation activity, especially with regard to
safety precautions for hazardous facilities. EIAs or environment impact assessments are already underway in
India.
Acknowledging the need,Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally
managed clearing house of environmentalinformation that can be used by MOEF, project proponents,
consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India.
EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating organised environmental data for various developmental
initiatives all over the country. Regarding oil spills, experts opine that satellite imagery should be used to mark
out vulnerable areas and mitigation measures put in place, as for example, restricting habitation in the areas. In
India, the man- made disaster category also includes communal riots, which affect parts of India periodically, as
in the wake of the Babri Masjid demolition or unabated violence against Dalits, the sub-ethnic North-East
tangle, and others. Vulnerability studies in this regard would require empirical unearthing of facts with regard to
the socio- economic profile of the regions with a view to pinpointing the exact cause (s) of recurrent violence in
the area (s). In this regard, generation of awareness among communities, strengthening/generating positive
social capital proactively, through measures like mustering opinion in support of measures to ameliorate the
situation, lending active state support to social workers involved in movements towards the same would be
some of the desirable activities. Health is a major factor in disaster management efforts.
In states where such linkages obtain for historical reasons, or as aresult of deliberate effort in this regard on the
part of the government, results in health improvement are significantly better than other states. Hence, emphasis
in the tenth plan was on improved logistics with regard to drug supply and diagnostics and exploring systems of
health care financing so that essential health care is available to all at affordable cost (Tenth Plan).As per the
Red Cross, long-term man-made disasters refer to civil strife, civil war and international war, which are equally
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pertinent policy concerns. On a national level, this involves war-like encounters between armed groups from the
same country, which take place within the borders. Such outbreaks of war, besides threatening national
security, may pose large-scale medical problems such as epidemics, lack of water, accumulation of rubbish,
displaced persons, refugees, food shortage, hunger etc.
Tensions with neighbouring states have been persistent. As solution has evaded attempts in this regard, the
emphasis in diplomacy has currently shifted to management of the problem with a view to normalising
relations on other counts such as commerce instead of insisting on solving persistent political issues, for
instance, the Kashmir issue with Pakistan, first. Scenario with regard to preparedness, with respect to both
internal and external problems, however, need not be too pessimistic, since, theoretically, transport accidents,
terrorism have hitherto not been considered, disasters on account of increasing losses from such events
however, the term Disaster today is more inclusive in that the above enumerated are being counted disasters,
leading to mitigation policy in this regard and urgency with which they need to be reviewed. This is significant
from the point of view of Risk Perception in the sense of resource allocation and prioritisation in
development planning.
The country also earned praise from a global study for its immediate response to the tsunami disaster. India is
among the five countries in South Asia that meet many of the criteria for disaster-preparedness and have a legal
framework in place for the purpose, says the World Health Organisation (WHO).The other four countries
categorised by the WHO as having adequate levels of disaster-readiness are Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka
and Thailand. India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand also have a legal framework in place.

VULNERABILITY PROFILE OF INDIA

The concept of vulnerability therefore implies a measure of risk combined with the level of social and
economic ability to cope with the resulting event in order to resist major disruption or loss. This susceptibility
and vulnerability to each type of threat will depend on their respective differing characteristics. The 1993
Marathwada earthquake in India left over 10,000 dead and destroyed houses and other properties of 200,000
households.
Physical Vulnerability:
Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of people, their proximity to the hazard zone and
standards of safety maintained to counter the effects.
People are only vulnerable to a flood because they live in a floodprone area. Physical vulnerability also relates
to the technical strength of buildings and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event.
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The Indian subcontinent can be primarily divided into three geophysical regions with regard to vulnerability,
broadly, as, the Himalayas, the Plains and the Coastal areas. The topographic and climatic characteristics of
each region make them susceptible to different type of disasters
Socio-economic Vulnerability:
The degree to which a population is affected by a calamity will not purely lie in the physical components
of vulnerability but in contextual, relating to the prevailing social and economic conditions and its
consequential effects on human activities within a given society. Disparate capacities of people are exposed
during disasters, which explains differential vulnerability/losses, which are explained in disaster literature as
socio-economic vulnerabilities. Disaster effects are seen to be directly proportionate to the poverty gap and
poverty intensity in the society/location as it is the poor that normally live in high concentration in marginal
areas (unstable slopes, flood plains) with little infrastructure and fewer resources to cope. Research in areas
affected by earthquakes indicates that single parent families, women, handicapped people, children and the aged
are the particularly vulnerable social groups.
Bad land use planning in seismic and flood prone zones; unplanned and inadequate developmental activity in
high- risk areas is a cause for increased losses during disasters. One million houses are damaged annually in
India apart from high human, social and other losses. Urban growth and concentration of limited resources are
realities of our times, while the rural sector faces lack of access. This compounds the problems of
disaster vulnerability, especially during earthquakes. Informal settlements that house most of the urban and
rural poor give way easily to physical stress, during earthquakes and floods, causing large scale fatalities during
disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Single scale event fast turns into a compound phenomenon as the
infrastructure gives way, leading to fire breaks, deaths due to electrocution, besides making response ever more
difficult.
Following steps are imperative for the vulnerability assessment and preparedness in high-risk zones:

Identification of various hazard prone areas. Preparation of detailed vulnerability profiles, mapping

food insecurity, aviation hazard, landslide hazard etc.

Vulnerability and risk assessment of buildings
Developing disaster damage scenarios
Developing technical guidelines for hazard resistant constructions
Upgrading of hazard resistance of existing housing stock Retrofitting and
Crafting techno-legal regime to be adopted for infrastructure development

DISASTER RISK/THREATS
The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a
particular community or a society over some specified future time period. Traditional disaster threats:
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Most of the old disaster threats still exist like earthquakes, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires,
floods, landslides, and drought so do the man-made ones like fire, explosions and other major accidents which
cause heavy human casualties, economic and social losses. These same traditional threats have increased as
increase in population has force people to settle in disaster prone areas which increase the impact of disasters.
Modern disaster threats:
These consist of manmade events like hijacking, terrorism, civil unrest, terrorism and conflict with
conventional arms as well as chemical, biological, nuclear, or radiological weapons. Increased social violence
has drastically affected many nations and communities.

Hazard
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
Hazards are conditions that have the potential to harm to a community or environment

Geological Hazards
Geological process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
These disasters include landmass related disasters like earthquakes, mudslides, volcanoes etc,
Water and climatic Hazards (Hydro meteorological hazards)
These include storms, cyclones, floods etc.

Chemical Hazards
By their nature, the manufacture, storage, and transport of chemicals are accidents waiting to happen.
Chemicals can be corrosive, toxic, and they may react, often explosively. The impacts of chemical accidents
can be deadly, for both human beings and the environment.

Industrial/ Technological hazards

A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including accidents, dangerous procedures,
infrastructure failures or specific human activities, that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.
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These include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory
explosions, fires, and chemical spills.

Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the health
of living organisms, primarily that of humans. This can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism,
virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can affect human health. It can also include substances harmful to
animals. Examples: anthrax, smallpox, plague, tularemia, brucellosis and botulinism toxin, bird flu.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Definition and concept.
Disaster management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measureswhich can be taken up
before, during and after a disaster with the purpose of avoiding, reducing the impact or recovering from its
losses.
According to Kelly (1996),"Disaster management" can be defined as the range of activities designed to
maintain control over disaster and emergency situations and to provide a framework for helping those who are
at risk to avoid or recover from the impact of the disaster.
Disaster management means managing resources and various responsibilities to deal with all humanitarian
aspects of emergencies. This may include preparedness before disaster, response and recovery i.e. rebuilding
and supporting society. The purpose of this is to lessen the impact of disasters.
Disaster management can be defined as the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order
to lessen the impact of disasters.
The various aspects of disaster management:

Disaster Prevention
Disaster preparedness
Disaster response
Disaster mitigation
Rehabilitation
Reconstruction

CHARACTERISTICS OF DISASTERS
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Generally the following are the characteristics of most of the disasters:

1. Borderless:
Certain natural disasters are not bound by borders of a nation or state. The disaster affect humans and
other living beings across the globe. For instance, earthquakes, cyclones, floods, droughts, etc can take
place in any country irrespective of social and economic development. At times a single disaster may
affect several countries at a time. The Tsunami of 26th December 2004 devastated the shores of India,
Indonesia, Sri lanka, Thailand and other countries.
2. Loss:
Certain disasters results in death of several people. For instance, the Gujarat earthquake in 2001 resulted
in deaths of over 20,000 people. The Orissa cyclone in 1999 killed 10,000 people. The Tsunami disaster
in 2004 tool away lives of 2.3 lakh people across 14 countries (Bangladesh, Burma, India, Indonesia,
Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Thailand). Apart from
loss of human lives, the disaster results in loss of livestock, destruction of houses, offices, factories and
other valuable assets.
3. Unusual Event:
Disasters, by their nature, are distinct from emergencies because they do not happen all the time.
Unsual, but not unexpected.
4. Communications Failure:
This is one of the defining characteristics that separate an emergency (communications still work) and a
disaster. The problem is that there are different ways that communications fail. The communication
failure may be due to:
Frequency overuse- Listening to dozens of firemen calling Mayday!Mayday!Mayday! all at
once during 9/11/2001 clearly illustrates that nobodys Mayday was being understood. Very little

information aside from Mayday got over the radios.

Battery failure- Batteries get used up at an incredibly fast rate during disasters.
Incorrect information- passing of incorrect information or partially correct information.
Misunderstanding the information presented or not acting properly upon it.

5. The extent is uncertain:

With unsual events occurring compounded by communications failure, it is no surprise that disaster
invariably result in nobody knowing the full extent of how bad things are. The worst hit areas are the
last to be responded to. Areas slightly affected scream the loudest because they still have phones
working or alternate forms of communications. The worst hit areas lose all forms of communications
and simply forgotten due to the noise from elsewhere.
6. Lack of information:
Due to the widespread scope of disaster, everything is affected. As a result, there is a tremendous need
to find out what roads are out and what roads are intact, what vital services are destroyed and which

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ones can easily be repaired, where the greatest number of casualties and ecacuees are to be found and
what buildings are intact for recovery use or have been destroyed.
7. Misinformation:
It is very easy for information to be misconstrued and rumours to be stated as facts when dealing with a
disasters. When massive amount of information are required, it is easy for wrong information to slip in.
Disasters are full of examples of Wrong Information.
8. Emergency services are affected:
Fire halls are destroyed by tornados. City halls are flooded out. When the fire truck is crushed and the
water mains are broken, the arrival of the firefighters has no effect on the disaster and the situation
continues to deteriorate.
Hospitals are equally affected by the disaster. Whether the disaster damages the building itself , the
content of the buildings are disrupted (few hospitals are earthquake proofed), or staff is enable to get to
or from the hospital, the hospitals are first to feel the effects.
9. Things get better or they get worse:
Disaster never stay exactly the same. This means your response environment will constantly be
changing and the situation an hour ago may be completely different from the latest one. Situation may
deteriorate for the worst or it may be improved for the better.
10. Things will last much longer:
Things may last much longer than one experts. There is a tendency for everyone to think that after an
earthquake or a hurricane or a disaster that things will be cleaned up in a week or two. Months later, as
society continues to struggle with rebuilding, they realize that the recovery may take months or even
years.

IMPORTANCE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

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Disaster management is vital for the following purposes that proves it's importance.
1.To avert a disaster: Disaster management teams can help to avert a disaster before it occurs. The Disaster management team may
examine the possible causes of disaster, and may take appropriate measures to avert a disaster. For instance,
forest fires, or even terrorists bombings can be averted through effective planning and pre-emptive action.
2. To undertake rescue operations: Disaster management personnel can undertake rescue operations effectively. Trained disaster
management personnel can rescue people effectively at the time of floods, major fires, building collapses, and
so on.
3.To provide relief measures: Disaster management team is responsible to provide relief measures to the victims. For instance, the team
can make arrangement for food, clothing, and relief camps, medicines and so on. Such measures would reduce
the misery of the disaster victims.
4. To undertake rehabilitation programmes: Disaster management team can work effectively to undertake rehabilitation programmes in the affected areas.
For instance, in the earthquake affected areas, rehabilitation programmes include:
a. Construction of dwellings
b. Schools and other infrastructure.
5. To undertake liaison work: The disaster management team undertakes liaison work relating to the disaster. The liaison work is required
with various agencies-private and government (including hospitals) in order to obtain funds and donations, and
other resources or services so as to manage and overcome the disaster.
6. To reduce trauma and tension:
The Disaster management team can help to reduce the trauma and tension before and after the disaster. For
instance, before a disaster, the team can properly guide the people to face or handle the disaster such as floods.
Also, after the disaster, the team can provide not only material or financial support, but also psychological
support to overcome the traumatic effect of disaster.
7. To protect the Environment: Disaster management team can help to protect and preserve the environment. For example, a disaster
15

management team can plan pre-emptive action to avert forest fires. Etc.
8. To minimize losses: Disaster management teams can help to minimize loss of life and property. This is because; the Disaster
management team can take pre-emptive actions to avert a disaster.
9. To discipline People:
Disaster management is required to discipline people, especially at the time of disasters. Normally to people
tend to spread rumours relating to the disaster. People exaggerate the gravity of the situation. Disaster
management team can make the members of the public to ignore rumours by providing correct information
about the disaster. The information can be transmitted through media like T.V, radio and newspapers. Public can
also be created through sms service on the cell phones.

IMPORTANCE AND

RELEVANCE

OF DISASTER

MANAGEMENT IN

THE

PRESENT

ENVIRONMENTAL SCENARIO
Over the past 20 years disasters have affected 4.4 billion people, caused $2 trillion of damage and killed 1.3
million people. These losses have outstripped the total value of official development assistance in the same
period. Natural disasters disproportionately affect people living in developing countries and the most vulnerable
communities within those countries. Over 95 per cent of people killed by natural disasters are from developing
countries (Extreme Weather and Natural Disasters, 2012).
In developing countries, the incidence of natural disasters, the impact of climate changes and the management
of the natural environment strongly influence the rate of development progress
In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million people were
affected by disasters every year. The loss in terms of private, community and public assets has been
astronomical.
At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as s scientific and material
progress is made, the loss of lives and property due to disasters has not decision. In fact, the human toll and
economic losses have mounted.
It was in this background that the Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the decade 1990-2000 as the
International Natural Disaster Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict
economic damage through concerted international action, especially in developing countries.

16

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions.
Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been recurrent phenomena.
About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to
floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought about a paradigm shift in approach to
disaster management. The new approach proceeds from the conviction that develop cannot be sustainable
unless disaster mitigation is built into the development process.
Another stone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary spanning across all sectors. The
new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in mitigation are much cost effective than
expenditure on relief and rehabilitation.
Disaster management occupies an important place in this country's policy framework as it is poor and the
under-privileged who are worst affected on account of calamities/disasters.
The steps being taken by the Government emanate from the approach outlined above. The app: has been
translated into a National Disaster Framework [a roadmap] covering institutional mechanic; disaster prevention
strategy, early warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness and response human resource development.
The expected inputs, areas of intervention and agencies to be in at the National, State and district levels have
been identified and listed in the roadmap. This road has been shared with all the State Governments and Union
Territory Administrations.
Ministries Departments of Government of India, and the State Governments/UT Administrations have been to
develop their respective roadmaps taking the national roadmap as a broad guideline. There is, therefore: now a
common strategy underpinning the action being taken by the entire participating organisation' stakeholders.
The approach is being put into effect through:
(a) Institutional changes
(b) Enunciation of policy
(c) Legal and techno-legal framework
(d) Mainstreaming Mitigation into Development process
(e) Funding mechanism
(f) Specific schemes addressing mitigation
(g) Preparedness measures
17

(h) Community participation and capacity building

In India, the role of emergency management falls to National Disaster Management of India, a government
agency subordinate to the Ministry of Home Affairs. In recent years, there has been a shift in emphasis, from
response and recovery to strategic risk management and reduction, and from a government-centered approach
to decentralized community participation.
Funding mechanisms
Bilateral-Aid i.e. foreign and local, national funding is being used to deal with disasters especially the post
disaster phase
Community based disaster management:
The role of community participation in disaster management is very important. When the community becomes
a part of the decision making system it ensures the ownership and accountability. It is very important for the
medical staff and doctors to know the local language for treating the disaster victims. The local people have to
be trained to manage the disasters. One of the most effective mechanisms for a country to prepare for a disaster
is by conducting education and public awareness programmes at the local community level, educating,
preparing and supporting local populations and communities in their everyday efforts to reduce risks and
prepare their own local response mechanisms to address disaster emergency situations.
Community based approach in disaster management is a process of educating and empowering the population
through sharing knowledge and information about the various types of disasters and their potential risks as
widely as possible so that people act appropriately when a disaster happens. Members of a community are the
immediate victims of adverse effects of a disaster. They have the best knowledge about their local surrounding
in terms of the most disaster-prone areas, the demography of their community and their social and traditional
organisation. Community leaders can create Community Based Action Plans specific to their needs. This action
plan incorporates the hazard map, mock exercises and other important methods, skills and information needed
in preparation for a disaster.
Basic concepts of Emergency Management- The basic concept suggests that the same management strategies
can be applied to all emergencies. Emergencies do not just appear one day, rather they exist throughout time
and have a life-cycle of occurrence, and hence the management strategy should match the phases of an
emergency in order to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover from its effect. There are four phases in
Emergency Management: Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and Recovery. The four phases are visualized as
having a circular relationship to each other (Emergency Management Cycle). The activities in one phase may
overlap those in the previous one.

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Emergency Management Cycle

1. Mitigation:
It refers to activities which actually eliminate or reduce the vulnerability or chance of occurrence or
the effects of a disaster. Mitigation phase begins with conducting hazard identification and
vulnerability analysis which are essential to the planning of all other phases. Hazard identification
and vulnerability analysis is a two step process. First the hazard is identified which has the potential
of affecting the population. Secondly, how people, property and structures will be affected by the
disastrous event.
2. Preparedness:
It is a state of being ready to react promptly and effectively in the event of an emergency. Being
prepared means that a plan of action exists for an emergency so that it is clear as to what to do
before the emergency occurs. Preparedness measures to be undertaken depends upon the analysis of
hazard severity and vulnerability, which is also the basis for deciding mitigation strategy. In some
cases, such as a flood or hurricane, an early warning gives several hours to act. However, often no
prior warning of an impending emergency, such as with earthquakes, tornadoes, explosions, or
major fires is possible. Preparedness for any emergency, especially those, which strike without
notice, requires a plan. It is essential to identify the resources available, and ways to utilize them. It
must also be reasonably certain that the plan will work in an emergency situation.
Preparedness Plan - The purpose of a plan is to provide a systematic way of responding to an
emergency situation. The following aspects should be taken into consideration in the development
of Emergency Preparedness Plan.
Identification of possible emergency situations which may occur in an area
Deployment of officer in charge in case of emergency
Developing a strategy for activities likely to be undertaken and resources which could be of

use
Identifying government bodies responsible to respond in case of emergency
Establishment of Emergency Operation Center (EOC) or Control Room to carry on

emergency operations.
3. Response:
Its activities occur during and immediately following a disaster. They are designed to provide
emergency assistance to victims of the event and reduce the likelihood of secondary damage. The
five basic stages of response to an emergency or disaster are
(i)
Notification/ Warning,
(ii)
(ii) Immediate Public Safety,
(iii)
(iii) Property Security,
(iv)
(iv) Public Welfare, and
(v)
(v) Restoration The length of each stage depends upon the emergency situation.
Notification/ Warning- is the first stage of response. Warning should be issued to two specific
groups:
19

(a) The general public; and

(b) Departments, individuals, or agencies who must respond to the emergency.
In most emergency situations, the general public can be informed through radio and television; however, those
in the immediate danger area should be informed by more direct means using public address systems. Those
departments, individuals or agencies, which must be alerted should be informed according to the emergency
preparedness plan. The alert could be done by two-way radio, telephone, messenger or local television and
radio bulletins. The people who are expected to respond must be given enough information so that they know
what to do. Practically no warning can be given for an earthquake as there exists no scientific method to predict
its occurrence. However, some of the conventional ways of earthquake prediction have been practised since
ancient times, the most relevant being the erratic behavior of animals just before an earthquake and it can be
considered as an indicator of earthquake.

Immediate Public Safety - deals primarily with providing emergency medical services, search &
rescue and evacuation from the disaster area. The primary concern is for safety of the people and treatment of
those who are injured.

Property Security - This stage deals primarily with the protection of property in the community.
Primarily local police carry out the actions in this stage. The police should see that property is safe and looting
or vandalism does not occur. The fire department aids in prevention of further damage to surrounding property.
The Public Works/ Highways Department/ local urban or rural bodies may also play an important part by
providing manpower, removing debris or providing street barricades.

Public Welfare - consists of two main operations- caring for the people after the emergency and
assessing damage. This stage is where it is most important that all the service agencies work closely. During the
public welfare stage the prime concern is about mass care for injured, shelter for the homeless, food and
clothing for those in need. During this stage assessment of the damage is necessary in order to obtain State or
National support. Restoration involves actions that repair the necessities of life, which means restoring utility
service and the removal of debris from the disaster scene.

Recovery - is the final phase of the emergency management cycle. Recovery continues until all systems
return to normal, or near normal. Short term recovery returns vital life support systems to minimum operating
standards. It grows out of the response effort. During the response phase, emergency repairs to buildings are
made as protective measures against further damage or injury. Short-term recovery is the restoration of vital
services and facilities to minimum standards of operation and safety. Severely damaged buildings are scheduled
to be replaced or removed, water and sewer repairs are made, electricity and telephone services returned to
normal.

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Long-term recovery may continue for a number of years, as the community slowly returns to preemergency or better conditions. Long-term recovery may include the complete redevelopment of damaged
areas. During short-term recovery, buildings are repaired and peoples immediate needs are taken care of and
assistance programmes are put into effect. There is no clear-cut distinction when long-term recovery begins.
They are not two distinctly different phases of recovery. Long-term recovery is simply those recovery efforts,
which are still in operation long after the disaster and includes everything from complete redevelopment of the
disaster area to mitigation efforts to prevent a similar disaster on an on-going basis for years after the
emergency. The recovery phase of emergency management is just as vital as the mitigation, preparedness, and
response phases. A key element in the recovery phase is to develop and implement ways to reduce community's
vulnerability to a repeat of a similar emergency and also continued liaison with the State Headquarters and the
Central Government for assistance.

Redevelopment as mitigation - After a major disaster, certain areas may be completely levelled and
new buildings must be designed to take their place. Redevelopment refers to the complete replacement of
structures, and not just structure repair. Redevelopment provides the opportunity to reduce the chances that
similar structural damage will occur again. The redevelopment officials (public and private) must think of ways
to rebuild the damaged structures so that the next time the same hazard strikes, the impact is greatly reduced.
Engineers should evaluate if the building codes respond to particular hazard. Planners should evaluate whether
the damaged area should be rezoned for lower density uses. Residents of a disaster-affected area should be
asked for their preference for resettlement in the same area or other. 17. Disaster Management 891 The loss of
human life and property from a disaster can be substantially reduced by timely issue of warning to the
community likely to be affected from the disaster. Similarly, providing a quick response immediately after the
disaster can substantially reduce the suffering of the affected people.

EFFECTS OF DISASTER
Every year, millions of people are affected by both human-caused and natural disasters. Disasters may
be explosions, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornados or fires. In disaster you face the danger of death or
21

physical injury. You may also lose your home, possessions and community. Such stressors place you at risk for
emotional and physical health problems.
The effects are briefly explained as follows:

1. PHYSICAL EFFECTS
The disaster can have adverse physical effects on humans. The physical effects include:
1. Death: Disasters such as earthquakes, floods etc, can result in death of several people. For instance, the
Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 resulted in death of 2.3 lakh people across 14 countries including India.
In India alone over 10,000 people died in that Tsunami. The highest number of deaths was in Indonesia
to the extent of over 40,000. In India, the highest ever death toll was recorded in 1770 Bengal Famine to
the tune of 10 million people followed by the West Bengal Cyclone of 1970 where 5 lakh people lost
their lives.
2. Physical Injury: Apart from death toll, several people get injured. For instance, in the Gujarat
earthquake of 2001 about 1.7 Lakh people were injured. In the Latur (Maharashtra) earthquake in 1993
over 30,000 people were injured. The physical injury to humans results in mental agony and trauma on
the victims. At times, it takes years together to recover from physical injury and sometimes, the injury is
life-long.
3. Outbreak of Disease: Disasters may also lead to outbreak of disease. Some of the disaster related
disease include:
Waterborne diseases: Waterborne disease are generally spread through consuming contaminated water
but also transmitted by skin and mucous membranes coming in contact with water, mud and damp
vegetation contaminated by rodents in search of higher ground.
Diseases associated with crowding: Due to overcrowding in relief camps or such other places,
especially children are subject to various forms of communicable diseases like measles, meningitis and
acute respiratory infections.
Vector-borne diseases: Vector borne diseases are transmitted by insect and animal bites, most
commonly by mosquitoes. After a natural disaster, public health may become vulnerable to vector borne
diseases due to increased exposure to mosquitoes and animals.
Diseases due to lack of Nutrition: Lack of nutrition due to loss of agriculture and forest based livelihood
leads to the general decline in health of people, especially the scheduled tribes. The tribals generally use
traditional home remedies. But the herbal remedies and plants get destroyed due to earthquakes or other
disaster.

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
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Psychiatrists who have studied the mental health effects of disasters have noticed an apparent pattern. The first
experience is shock and terror. Then there is a feeling of euphoria that you have survived. Soon after, this
feeling melts away into depression and anxiety and the realization of what has happened and what could have
happened.
Disaster warnings such as Tsunami warnings provoke anticipatory anxiety and emotional distress given the
uncertainty as to when it will strike. Often a contagion effect of fear and anxiety spreads as famines and the
community prepare for the disaster. Community members may frantically shop for food, water, flashlights,
batteries, generators and other materials. Acute shortage of supplies commonly takes place.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs in several surviving people. In a study conducted regarding the
effects of earthquake of Armenia 1988 (which killed 45000 people and rendered over 5 lakh homeless)
indicates that children exposed to the catastrophe displayed increased rates of PTSD five years after exposure.
Some people appear to be un affected by the natural disaster until symptoms starts to merge months later.
Changes in behaviour can include depression, guilt, insomnia, anger and withdrawal from family and friends.

Stress Related Symptoms:

Disaster can lead to severe stress related symptoms. The stress may be unmanageable for certain individuals.
The symptoms of unmanageable stress can be divided into three groups:
a) Physiological symptoms which include:

Headaches
Blood pressure
Ulcers
Digestive problems
Sleep disorders

b) Psychological Symptoms which include:

Burnout
Emotional Instability
Depression
Moodiness
Nervousness and tension
Chronic worry

c) Behavioural Symptoms which include:

Abuse of Alcohol or drugs

Aggression
Absenteeism from work
23

Performance problems
Excessive smoking
Safety problems

Stress Related Risk Factors:

A number of factors make it more likely that someone will have more severe or longer lasting stress reactions
after disaster.
a) Security of Exposure:
The amount of exposure to the disaster is highly related to risk of future mental problems. At highest
risk are those that go through the disaster themselves. Next are these in close contact with victims.
Injury and life threat are the factors that lead most often to mental health problems. Several studies
indicate that at least half of the survivors of major disasters suffer from distress or mental health
problems that need clinical care.
b) Gender and Family:
Women or girls suffer more negative effects then the men or boys. Disaster recovery is more stressful
when children are present in home. Having a family member in the home who is extremely distressed is
related to more stress for everyone. Also, conflicts between family members or lack of support in the
home make it harder to recover from disaster.
c) Age:
Adults who are in the group of 30 to 60 are likely to be more distressed after disasters. Persons in the
age group of 30 to 60 have more demands from job and family. In general children show more severe
distress after disaster than the adults.
A study undertaken in USA indicates that there are stronger psychological effects on school-age children
than other age groups:
Fear, Anxiety
Increased Hostility with siblings
Physical complaints
Sleep disorders
School problems
Social withdrawal
Apathy
Post traumatic stress disorder and
Decreased interest in peers, hobbies, school.

d) Bureaucratic Hurdles:
Compensation and rehabilitation packages and claims for death and damages necessitates regular
interface with the Govt. officials or bureaucracy. Generally the bureaucracy is ridden with red-tape and
delays, and this continues at the same pace and style even in the post disaster period. This would
certainly aggravate the trauma of the victims who were already trying to cope with injury, death of
family members and loss of property.
24

e) Other Factors:
There are several other factors that indicate negative psychological effects on account of disasters:
Bereavement or death of some close.
Injury to self or another family member.
Life threat
Panic horror or feelings like that during the disaster
Being separated from family (especially among children and youth)
Great loss of property
Displacement (being forced to leave home on account of damage / destructions)

3. ECONOMIC EFFECTS
Disaster can lead to adverse economic effects on humans. The economic effects are:
a) Economic Loss due to Unemployment:
Disaster result in economic loss to survivors on account of unemployment. The unemployment may be
short term or long term. In term, people may remain unemployed due to destruction of infrastructure, or
damage to factories, fields, vehicles etc. In the long term, people may remain unemployed due to
physical injuries which may not permit individuals to work. For instance, loss of limbs, hands, eyesight
and so on may make the injured persons less employable or not employable at all.
During the disasters, the most affected are the people who work in the unorganised sectors such as
fields, self-employed people like auto rickshaw, drivers, people whose livelihood depends on livestock,
etc. People who work in organised sector may not be affected as they may be adequately compensated
even if they may not work during the disaster period.
b) Economic Loss due to Loss of Assets:
People suffer economic loss on account of loss of property. Disaster such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
Hurricanes etc. hurricanes etc. results in the loss of property, which may be difficult to recover. For
instance, the soil fertility may get adversely affected on account of earthquakes hurricanes etc. and
therefore the fertile land may become useless for cultivation. Also due to disasters people may lose their
valuables such as gold, cash and other assets.
c) Economic Loss due to Injury:
People may suffer economic loss due to physical injury. Lot of money may be spent on recovery. The
Govt. compensation may be limited and at times may not be received at all. For instance over 5 lakh
victims of Bhopal Gas Tragedy are left out of the compensation announced by Govt. of India in 2010 (as
stated by Madhya Pradesh relief and rehab minister on 4th December 2010).
d) Economic Loss due to Death of Earning Family Member:
Surviving member may suffer economic loss on account of death of earning family member. In several
cases the surviving members are left without any earning members in the family. Therefore, surviving
members may be under severe stress and strain to survive in the post disaster period.
25

e) Economic Losses due to disruption of Infrastructure:

Economic losses also take place due to damage and disruption of infrastructure. The income generating
opportunities get hampered on account of disruption of economic infrastructure such as electricity
supplies, damage to roads, bridges, telecommunications etc. Therefore, business firms are adversely
affected as the production get hampered . As mentioned earlier Toyota lost US $ 1.2 billion (US $ 1200
million) in 2011 Japanese earthquake on account of shortage of parts to manufacture cars. Not only
production firms get affected, but also there is direct effect on employment.
f) Effect on Poverty Alleviation Projects:
There is adverse effect on Poverty alleviation projects on account of disaster. Funds or resources
allocated for poverty alleviation projects may be diverted by government authorities for reconstruction
rather spending on poverty alleviation projects. Disaster therefore induced poverty, by making median
households poorer and the poor households destitute due to their vulnerability and in ability to mitigate
the losses.
g) Effect on GDP of affected Nations:
Major disaster lower economic growth of the affected nations. Lots of funds and resources are diverted
for relief and reconstructions efforts, which otherwise would have been utilised for productive purposes
such as infrastructures. Lack of infrastructure development demotivates industrial investments which in
term leads to lower production. Therefore disaster have an adverse effect on GDP growth of affected
nations, at least in the short run.

4. SOCIAL EFFECTS:
Disaster may also lead to social effects on the victims. The social effects are:
a) Caste and Communal Discrimination:
In the post disaster period the survivors may have to face caste and communal discrimination. For
instance, in the post Gujarat earthquake of 2001, it was observed that there was caste and communal
discrimination in the distribution of relief. According to the observation of NGO called Behavioural
Science Centre (BSC), the Dalits, The Kolis and Muslims were discriminated in the distribution of
relief. It was observed that the compensation package (which included land and cash) which was
announced by the Govt. was distributed discriminately.
b) Problem of Social Networking:
Disaster may affect social networking of the survivors. In certain cases, survivors may lose their friends,
neighbours, work mates, school / college mates on account of death caused by disasters. This may affect
social networking of survivors which may induced stress related symptoms.
c) Caste and Communal Disturbances:
Manmade disaster may lead to caste and communal disturbances. For instance the Godhra train burning
in February 2002 lead to communal riots between Hindus and Muslims. This incident triggered
26

communal Hindus-Muslims riots and widespread violence in Gujarat resulting in the deaths of 790
Muslims and 254 Hindus (total 1044 official deaths but unofficial estimates put the death toll to over
2000) as well as widespread loss of property and homelessness.
d) Social Evils:
Post disaster may result in social evils such as robberies, murders etc. Disaster may result in economic
woes. People may resort to unethical means such as robberies to tide over economic hardships. The
displaced People may move to urban areas in search of employment. Quite often it becomes difficult to
get employment in the short term. Therefore the unemployed persons may commit murders, robberies
etc. for their livelihood.
Also disaster may lead to increased rate of gambling and drinking of liquor. The head of the family
(generally male) may get disaster related compensation from Govt. and NGOs . The money received by
way of compensation may be wastes on gambling and drinking of liquor rather than supporting to the
family members.
e) Adverse Social Effects on Women:
Manmade disaster like civil disturbances, war or battles may also lead to adverse social effects on
women. Male hooligans go on rampage during the riots and targeting women and young girls. The
women and young girls are molested, and raped by male hooligans especially during the riots.
f) Social Problems of Scheduled Tribes:
The tribal community may suffer from the problem of loss of identity. Tribal life is community based.
The tribals are simple people who have a traditional lifestyle of their own. Displacement on account of
disaster can have a negative impact on their culture and spiritual existence.

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FACTORS OF DISASTERThe magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for a given developing country increases
with the increased marginalization of the population. This is caused by a high birth rate, problems of land
tenure and economic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of recourse to meet the basic human needs of an
expanding population.

Poverty:
The most important single influence on the impact of a disaster. All other factors could be lessened if the
affected population were not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster studies show that the
wealthiest of the population either survive the disaster unaffected or are able to recover quickly. Across
the broad spectrum of disaster, poverty generally makes people vulnerable to the impact of hazards.
Poverty explains why people in urban areas are www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com 2 forced to live on
hills that are prone to landslides, or why people settle near volcanoes or rivers that invariably flood their
banks. Poverty explains why droughts claim poor peasant farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and
why famines more other than not are the result of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather than an
absence of food.

Population Growth:
There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster and the increase in
population. If there are more people and structures where a disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be
more of an impact. The growth of population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more
people will be affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas.
Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources (such as, employment
opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict.

Rapid Urbanization:
Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of rapid urbanization.
This process is also accelerated in developing countries. It is characterized by the rural poor or civilians
in an area of conflict moving to metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security.
These massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availability of safe and
desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for scare resources, an inevitable
consequence, can lead to human made disaster.

Transitions in cultural practices:

Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase in the societies,
vulnerability to disaster. Obviously, societies are constantly changing and in a continual state of
transition. These transitions are often extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping
28

mechanisms and technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that become sedentary rural
people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban people who move from one economic level
to another. More broadly, these examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing
societies.

Environmental degradation:
Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. Deforestation leads to
rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast
lines ability to resist tropical winds and storm surges.

Lack of awareness and information:

Disaster can also happen because people vulnerable to them simply didnt know how to get out of
harms way or to take protective measures. This ignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty,
but a lack of awareness of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe locations. Perhaps
some people did not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures. Other population may not know
where to turn for assistance in times for www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com 3 acute distress.
Nevertheless; this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring the coping mechanisms of the
majority of people affected by disaster. In most disaster prone societies, there is wealth of understanding
about disaster threats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into any efforts to
provide external assistance.

War and civil strife:

In this text war and civil strife are regarded as hazards that are extreme events that produce disaster. War
and civil strife often results in displaced people, a target population of this training programme.The
causal factors of war and civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic
intolerance, and ideological differences. Many of these are also by products of the preceding six causal
factors of disaster.

DISRUPTION OF DEVELOPMENT BY DISASTERS

Renewed interest in the political and economic aspects of disasters triggered by natural phenomena is part of a
wider acceptance that development has failed in many parts of the world and that it is development failures that
have led to an accumulation of disaster risks.
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Disasters wipe out the hard-won results of decades of development in a very short time. Natural disasters are on
the increase - floods, storms and droughts have doubled in number since 1996. Many are recurrent, or
predictable. In the year 2005-06, approximately 256 million people were affected by disasters. Affected - that
means that they have lost homes, livelihoods, providers - that they have become more vulnerable. The root
causes are known: Environmental degradation, Global warming, Marginalization, Poverty. Poorer countries are
more prone to disasters. 98% of last year's disaster victims live in countries of low or medium human
development. True disaster recovery takes a long time. The interval between disasters is often too short to build
resilience and to reinforce coping mechanisms.
There is a need to discuss the importance of considering the likely potential, risks and consequences of disasters
as part of development program planning. One can prevent damage and disruption that arise, when disaster
considerations are integrated into project planning for development. This discussion will increase our
understanding if development/disaster linkages, broaden our view of intervention possibilities, and provide
examples of how development planners can assess the costs and benefits of these types of programs.
Disasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, including:
Loss of resources
Interruption of programs
Impact on investment climate
Impact on the non-formal sector
Social and Political implications

Loss of Resources
Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of previous investment. The primary
loss of development resources occurs from damage to capital stock and inventory. This is initially the most
visible effect of sudden impact disasters. Tropical storms can destroy factories, fishing ports, power systems
and telecommunications. Earthquakes damage and destroy buildings, transport, and public utilities. Disasters
have a particularly destructive economic impact in areas where there are very few alternatives for assets, which
are destroyed, or in areas where those assets are particularly critical.
There is a further loss of development resources from reduction in the production of goods and provision of
services. This results from direct disruption by the disaster and its immediate local effects and, subsequently,
disaster can disrupt development potential from the increased cost of goods and services, which then result.
Income losses resulting from lost production have a particularly depressing impact on consumer ability to
purchase goods and services. Lost productivity may also result in loss of export markets, for example, a coconut
30

plantation in India lost to cyclone damage will take five years to regenerate during which time other coconut
producing countries can increase market share.

The disasters affect development through:

Impact on capital stock and inventory
Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increased cost of goods and services
The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of payment problems, increase in fiscal
expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves
Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a country's debt position could be that as the debt service
burden increases, the country has less resources available to invest in productive enterprises
The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth, delays to development programs,
cancellation of programmes, and disincentives to new investment
There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility recovery activity-a diversion from
long-term to short-term needs.

Interruption of Programs
Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally planned uses. Interrupting ongoing
programs to allow a shift in resources from long term programs to highly visible short-term recovery and
emergency response programs can also negatively impact development activity.
The secondary effects of a major disaster also disrupt the development process. These secondary effects of
direct economic impact include inflation, balance of payment problems, increase in fiscal expenditures and
decreases in monetary reserves. An increase in the countrys debt means that as the debt service burden
increases, countries have fewer resources available to invest in productive enterprises. The outcome is usually
the lowering of economic growth, delays to development programs, cancellation of programs and disincentives
to new investment.

Impact on Investment Climate

Repeated disasters, in particular, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. A climate of
stability and certainty is needed to encourage investors. At the individual level, repeated losses from hazardous
31

events can discourage creative investment. Under conditions of uncertainty, both foreign and domestic investors
will generally be very cautious about supporting entrepreneurial activity.
Developing countries in the Asian region are now being challenged to improve their investment climate, boost
efforts to innovate and build skills, and protect those vulnerable to devastating shocks like health crises, job
losses, and natural disasters. The threat of avian flu also presents a major uncertainty. Countries across the
region are taking steps to manage possible outbreaks. Although avian flu has severely affected those connected
to poultry farming, the impact has not spilled into the overall economy.

Impact on Non-Formal Sector

Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector. The costs of disasters are often
underestimated because disruption in this part of the economy is not usually taken into account. In many
societies the non-formal economy, while not usually included in national economic statistics, can involve a
substantial portion of the total population. The non-formal sector is especially vulnerable to housing damage
because houses often serve as sites of business activity. Once local business is disrupted, there will be indirect
costs from lost employment and income. Small business in this sector may be especially sensitive to price
increases.

Social and Political Implications

Throughout many parts of the world one type of hazard can trigger a domino effect of disasters. For example, a
drought may lead to a famine, which in turn leads to civil conflict resulting in a mass displacement of the
population. Another example includes flooding which may force people to seek refuge across international
borders upsetting the balance of needs and resources and weakening the ability of the government to receive the
added population growth. This in turn may lead to civil strife and disorder.
Such compound hazards and disasters need not occur sequentially; they can occur simultaneously. Thus, people
may become caught between contending forces in a civil war and also suffer from a major drought with limited
means to grow food or to receive outside assistance.
In a growing number of countries, complex disasters are also becoming more evident. Essentially a complex
disaster is a form of human-made emergency in which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to
victims are bound by intense levels of political considerations. The single most prevalent political condition of a
complex emergency is civil conflict, resulting in a collapse of political authority. In such cases, at least one of
three situations arise:
The government's ability to assist their disaster-afflicted becomes severely constrained.

32

 The government becomes extremely suspicious of or uninterested in afflicted people who have fled from nongovernment to government held areas.
The government or opposition groups actually create or compound a disaster through actions that generate
refugees and the mass displacement of people.
In fact, many affected people live in areas outside of government control. These are often the people in the most
need and yet, the most difficult to reach.
The disaster becomes "complex" because either the collapse or diffusion of political control makes assistance
highly problematic. Solutions ultimately depend upon agreements with all parties involved in the conflict to
permit assistance to be provided to recognized civilian non combatants. These solutions may include
agreements that are seen essentially as compromising fundamental aspects of sovereignty in exchange for
humanitarian assistance. UN sponsored safe havens on corridors of tranquillity are examples.

Displaced Persons And Refugees

One of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies is the creation of populations of
displaced persons. The term "displaced person" applies in several contexts. These include people who are:
Forced to leave their homes as a result of drought, famine, or other disaster, usually in search of food, water
and shelter.
Non-combatant individuals and families forced to leave their homes because of the direct or indirect
consequences of conflict but who remain inside their country.
Forcibly resettled by their government if the resettlement is ethnically, tribal or racially motivated.
Expelled from a country, forced out for economic or political reasons especially as an ethnic or national
group.

Consequences and effects

The variety of possible situations generating displaced people makes generalizations difficult, but the following
maybe experienced in varying degrees:
Loss of means of livelihood.
Communities becoming separated from services previously provided.
Loss of normal sources of food.
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 Lack of shelter and household necessities.

Lack of fuel for cooking.
Lack of potable water.
Communicable diseases and over-crowding.
Additional burdens for women, especially as heads of households.
Large numbers of unaccompanied children separated from family.
Loss of land and tenure.
Possible communication and logistics problems.
Insecurity due to tensions and military activities.
Not to be forgotten is the population that remains at home and, even though they are not "trapped in conflict
areas," they may be in places that are hard to reach because of political, logistical and/or security reasons. This
population group may end up suffering from many of the same problems as those affected by isolation from a
national support structure or access to international humanitarian relief assistance.

Political Implications
Socio-political and cultural dynamics put into motion at the time of catastrophic natural disasters create the
conditions for potential political change - often at the hands of a discontented civil society. A states incapacity
to respond adequately to a disaster can create a temporary power vacuum, and potentially a watershed moment
in historical trajectories. This generates a window of opportunity for novel socio-political action at local and
national levels. Interventions may include man euvers to entrench or destabilize current power-holders, change
power-sharing relationships within recognized sectors, or to legitimise or delegitimise new sectors.
Disasters triggered by environmental phenomena do not cause political change, rather they act as catalysts that
put into motion potentially provocative social processes at multiple social levels. The character of political
change is influenced by the nature of the pre-disaster socio-political and cultural milieu, and the actions and
reactions of popular and institutional actors involved in disaster response and reconstruction.
By analysing large natural disaster events from 1899 to 2005, seven premises regarding disasters and political
change have been identified:
1. Disasters often hit politically peripheral regions hardest catalysing regional political tension.

34

2. Disasters are a product of development policies and can open to scrutiny dominant political and institutional
systems.
3. Existing inequalities can be exacerbated by post-disaster governmental manipulation.
4. The way in which the state and other sectors act in response and recovery is largely predicated on the kind of
political relationships that existed between sectors before the crisis.
5. Regimes are likely to interpret spontaneous collective actions by nongovernment sectors in the aftermath of a
disaster as a threat and respond with repression.
6. In the aftermath of disaster, political leaders may regain or even enhance their popular legitimacy.
7. The repositioning of political actors in the aftermath of a disaster unfolds at multiples scales.

TRENDS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Preparedness:
One of the many lessons learnt by victims of various natural disasters is that the aftermath of the disaster can be
worse than the disaster event itself. Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the need for preparedness towards
disaster reduction. However, people are often surprised by the concept of reducing disasters. How, itis often
asked, can a natural disaster such as an earthquake or a cyclone be reduced or prevented?
Unfortunately, due to rapid population growth and development of human settlements in disaster prone areas,
more and more people and their assets are vulnerable to natural hazards. The number of disasters was three
times higher worldwide in the past ten years than in the 1960s, economic losses were eight times higher,
exceeding US$ 60 billion a year! Natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc. simply
cannot be avoided altogether; they are a part of the environment we live in. What can be done, however, is to
take preventive measures at various levels of society in order to minimise the impact of such natural hazards as
much as possible for the people. The impact of a natural hazard can be reduced its worst effects can
be prevented
A natural hazard turns into a disaster when it hits a community and disrupts its normal functioning and causes
economic damage. Natural disasters hit all, rich and poor alike. But it is the poor who will be hurt most.. What
is important is to introduce a culture of prevention in all communities, at all levels: action to save lives must be
taken before the disaster strikes.

35

Principles of Mitigation and Preparedness

Disaster mitigation and preparedness activities need to be carried out well in advance of any emergency, and are
driven by the following principles:
Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster reduction policies
Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need of disaster relief
Disaster Prevention and preparedness should be considered integral part of the developmental policy
and planning at national, regional, bilateral, multilateral and international stage.
Early warning of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using telecommunication are the
key factors to successful prevention and preparedness
Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels, from the local
community to national level to the regional and international level.
Vulnerability
can
be
reduced
by
the
application

of

proper

design

and patterns of development focused on target groups through appropriate education and training
The international community accepts the need to share necessary technology to prevent, reduce and
mitigate disasters, which should be made freely available and done in a timely manner as an integral
part of technical cooperation. Each country bears the primary responsibility of protecting its people,
infrastructure and other national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The international
community should demonstrate strong political determination required to mobilise adequate and make
efficient use of existing resources, including financial, scientific and technological means.

Preventive Planning
Long-term planning and preparedness for disaster mitigation is gradually being made part of the process
of development planning in India. Science & technology inputs constitute its basic thrust, manifested in
development of forecasting and warning systems, disaster resistant construction technologies and appropriate
cropping systems. A number of special programs are in operation over many years for mitigating the impact of
natural disasters. As the country has been facing natural hazards over centuries, the local communities have
developed their own indigenous coping mechanisms.
The rich storehouse of this knowledge is our country's proud inheritance. In times of emergencies, spontaneous
mobilisation of community action supported by non-government organisations adds strength to national
capability towards disaster management. Areas, involvement of private sector, and strengthening of institutional
mechanism and international co-operation. In recent years, the role of the community and of the voluntary
sector comprising NGOs has gained significance. It is realised that the best and quickest response to disasters
comes from the people on the ground, that is the community and the community based
organisations. Preparation and mitigation efforts can, for the same reasons, also work best at community
levels. It is for this reason that Community Based Disaster Management is emerging as the most appropriate
way of responding to disasters and for preparing for and mitigating the same. Mitigation, prevention and
preparedness shall be discussed in detail in subsequent Units.
36

INTERNATIONAL APPROACH TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
Recognising the rapidly rising world-wide toll of human and economic losses due to natural disasters, the UN
General Assembly in 1989 took a decision to launch a far reaching global undertaking during the nineties to
save human lives and reduce the impacts of natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was
declared as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The objective of the IDNDR was to reduce, through concerted international action, with focus on developing
countries, the loss of life, property damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters such
as earthquakes, floods, cyclones, landslides, locust infestations, drought and desertification and other calamities
of natural origin.
The aim of IDNDR was that all countries should have:
a) Comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these assessments taking into
account their impact on developmental plans,
b) Mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, involving long term prevention and preparedness

and community awareness, and

c) Ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems and wide spread dissemination of such
warnings. A major conference of the IDNDR programme was held in Yokohama (Japan) in May1994, where a
plan of action for disaster reduction called the Yokohama Strategy was evolved.
The Yokohama Strategy gave guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation, shifting
the focus and emphasis from disaster management to disaster prevention and preparedness. The Yokohama
Conference, based on the assessment of the progress accomplished during the first half of the decade,
formulated a strategy for disaster reduction centred on the objective of saving human lives and protecting
property. The strategy called for an accelerated implementation of a Plan of Action to be based on certain
variables such as development of a global culture of prevention as an essential component of an integrated
approach to disaster reduction, policy of self-reliance in each vulnerable country and community comprising
capacity building as well as allocation and efficient use of resources, community participation in the disaster
reduction process, improved risk assessment, broader monitoring and communication of forecasts and early
warnings.
Disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness were given emphasis. At the end of IDNDR (1990-2000), the
programme continues in the form of International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).

PLANNING FOR DISASTER PREVENTION

37

There is increasing understanding of the fact that disasters may not be unforeseen events, as has been assumed
until now. Advancements in technology now enable authorities to identify the hazards that threaten a
community and to estimate the areas and the settlements that will be affected. One can then take steps to
prevent the disaster or prepare for the disaster and substantially reduce, or mitigate, its
impact. These actions are known as pre-disaster planning. As read in Lesson 1 of the University of Wisconsin
course on Disaster Prevention, Frederick Krims gold pioneered the early conceptualization of pre-disaster
planning, which he describes as follows: Planning may be defined as the process of preparing a set of
decisions for action in the future directed at achieving goals by optimal means. The stated goals of disaster
relief are the reduction of human suffering, the improvement of material well- being, and the increase of
personal security. It goes without saying that these goals are best served if disaster, in the first place, can be
avoided

or reduced.

Thus,

the

primary

goal

of

pre-

disaster

planning

may

be

seen

as

the prevention or mitigation of disaster. If we refer to the definition of disaster interms of the need for outside
help, we may describe the goal of pre- disaster planning as the creation of self-sufficiency in dealing
with natural phenomena. In those cases where prevention is not possible, the goal must be to plan for the
effective application of aid

Forecasting, forewarning of disaster threat and providing the institutional and organisational setup and

logistics, personnel, inventory, finances, etc., to achieve desired level of preparedness.

Mobilisation of resources from internal and external sources.
Taking organisational and administrative steps, including disaster action plans, regular and periodic
updating of plans and projects securing institutional wherewithal to implement it, providing for a
horizontal and vertical coordination through a network of official and non official agencies involved viz.
government departments, civil defence military and paramilitary organisations running through the

central, state and field levels.

Placing on ground, well equipped modern forecasting and warning system and reliable fast

communication system.
Generating capabilities for prompt and rapid rescue, relief and rehabilitation work on the other.
Proper planning for medical assistance and health cover would be acritical requirement.
Providing for other miscellaneous needs like stocking and distribution, food, medicines, shelter,
clothing, evacuation, transportation and long term resettlement and rehabilitation of affected

communities.
Securing water management practices since provision of clean water is often a problem and a necessity,

post disasters.
Government initiatives implying long term measures identified by the central government, instituting
intensive Training
programmes,building data based on documentation of disasters and lessons to belearnt there from, and,

dissemination of information.
Integration of disaster management with overall development planning.
Improving public awareness.
38

Investment in R&D, use of modern technology, particularly information and remote sensing
technologies

CONCLUSION
Disasters have been increasing in their frequency and intensity in recent years. The primary reason for this is
the fact that human settlements and activities are interfering with natural systems, and populations are being
increasingly exposed to hazards. This can be seen clearly in the Himalayan, riverine and coastal regions of the
country, where most of the disasters strike. The disaster management system in India is anchored at the Central
Government level, with implementation mechanisms at state, district and local levels. Besides the government,
the role of non-governmental organisations, community based organisations and the community are
increasingly being recognised as very important.

39