Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

10/9/2016
GalileoGalileiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
GalileoGalilei
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
GalileoGalilei(Italianpronunciation:[aliloalili]15
February1564[3]8January1642)wasanItalian
astronomer,physicist,engineer,philosopher,and
mathematicianwhoplayedamajorroleinthescientific
revolutionoftheseventeenthcentury.
GalileoGalilei
Hehasbeencalledthe"fatherofobservational
astronomy",[4]the"fatherofmodernphysics",[5][6]the
"fatherofscientificmethod",[7]andthe"fatherof
science".[8][9]
Hiscontributionstoobservationalastronomyincludethe
telescopicconfirmationofthephasesofVenus,thediscovery
ofthefourlargestsatellitesofJupiter(namedtheGalilean
moonsinhishonour),andtheobservationandanalysisof
sunspots.Galileoalsoworkedinappliedscienceand
technology,inventinganimprovedmilitarycompassand
otherinstruments.
Galileo'schampioningofheliocentrismandCopernicanism
wascontroversialduringhislifetime,whenmostsubscribed
toeithergeocentrismortheTychonicsystem.[10]Hemetwith
oppositionfromastronomers,whodoubtedheliocentrism
becauseoftheabsenceofanobservedstellarparallax.[10]
ThematterwasinvestigatedbytheRomanInquisitionin
1615,whichconcludedthatheliocentrismwas"foolishand
absurdinphilosophy,andformallyhereticalsinceit
explicitlycontradictsinmanyplacesthesenseofHoly
Scripture."[10][11][12]Galileolaterdefendedhisviewsin
DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,which
appearedtoattackPopeUrbanVIIIandthusalienatedhim
andtheJesuits,whohadbothsupportedGalileoupuntilthis
point.[10]HewastriedbytheInquisition,found"vehemently
suspectofheresy",andforcedtorecant.Hespenttherestof
hislifeunderhousearrest.[13][14]Whileunderhousearrest,
hewroteoneofhisbestknownworks,TwoNewSciences,in
whichhesummarizedworkhehaddonesomefortyyears
earlieronthetwosciencesnowcalledkinematicsand
strengthofmaterials.[15][16]
Contents
1 Earlylifeandfamily
1.1 Name
1.2 Children
2 Careerasascientist
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
PortraitbyGiustoSustermans
Born
15February1564
Pisa,DuchyofFlorence,Italy
Died
8January1642(aged77)
Arcetri,GrandDuchyofTuscany,
Italy
Residence
GrandDuchyofTuscany,Italy
Nationality Italian
Fields
Astronomy,physics,engineering,
naturalphilosophy,mathematics
Institutions UniversityofPisa
UniversityofPadua
Patrons
CardinaldelMonte
FraPaoloSarpi
PrinceFedericoCesi
CosimoIIdeMedici
FerdinandoIIdeMedici
MaffeoBarberini
Almamater UniversityofPisa(nodegree)
Academic
advisors
OstilioRicci[1]
Notable
students
BenedettoCastelli
MarioGuiducci
VincenzoViviani[2]
Knownfor Kinematics
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2 Careerasascientist
2.1 Galileo,Keplerandtheoriesoftides
2.2 ControversyovercometsandTheAssayer
2.3 Controversyoverheliocentrism
3 Death
4 Scientificmethods
5 Astronomy
5.1 Kepler'ssupernova
5.2 Jupiter'smoons
5.3 Venus,Saturn,andNeptune
5.4 Sunspots
5.5 Moon
5.6 MilkyWayandstars
6 Engineering
7 Physics
7.1 Fallingbodies
8 Mathematics
9 Writings
9.1 Publishedwrittenworks
10 Legacy
10.1 LaterChurchreassessments
10.2 Impactonmodernscience
10.3 Inartisticandpopularmedia
11 Timeline
12 Seealso
13 Notes
14 References
15 Externallinks
15.1 ByGalileo
15.2 OnGalileo
15.2.1 Biography
15.2.2 GalileoandtheChurch
Dynamics
Telescopicobservationalastronomy
Heliocentrism
Signature
Notes
HisfatherwasthemusicianVincenzoGalilei.
GalileoGalilei'smistressMarinaGamba(157021
August1612?)borehimtwodaughters,(Maria
Celeste(Virginia,16001634)andLivia(1601
1659),bothofwhombecamenuns),andason,
Vincenzo(16061649),alutenist.
Earlylifeandfamily
GalileowasborninPisa(thenpartoftheDuchyofFlorence),Italy,in1564,[17]thefirstofsixchildrenof
VincenzoGalilei,afamouslutenist,composer,andmusictheorist,andGiuliaAmmannati.Galileobecamean
accomplishedlutenisthimselfandwouldhavelearnedearlyfromhisfatherascepticismforestablished
authority,[18]thevalueofwellmeasuredorquantifiedexperimentation,anappreciationforaperiodicor
musicalmeasureoftimeorrhythm,aswellastheresultsexpectedfromacombinationofmathematicsand
experiment.
ThreeofGalileo'sfivesiblingssurvivedinfancy.Theyoungest,Michelangelo(orMichelagnolo),alsobecamea
notedlutenistandcomposeralthoughhecontributedtofinancialburdensduringGalileo'syoungadulthood.
Michelangelowasunabletocontributehisfairshareoftheirfather'spromiseddowriestotheirbrothersinlaw,
whowouldlaterattempttoseeklegalremediesforpaymentsdue.Michelangelowouldalsooccasionallyhave
toborrowfundsfromGalileotosupporthismusicalendeavoursandexcursions.Thesefinancialburdensmay
havecontributedtoGalileo'searlyfiretodevelopinventionsthatwouldbringhimadditionalincome.
WhenGalileoGalileiwaseight,hisfamilymovedtoFlorence,buthewasleftwithJacopoBorghinifortwo
years.[17]HethenwaseducatedintheCamaldoleseMonasteryatVallombrosa,35kmsoutheastofFlorence.[17]
Name
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ThesurnameGalileiderivesfromthegivennameofanancestor,GalileoBonaiuti,aphysician,university
teacherandpoliticianwholivedinFlorencefrom1370to1450hisdescendentshadchangedtheirfamilyname
fromBonaiuti(orBuonaiuti)toGalileiinhishonorinthelate14thcentury.[19]GalileoBonaiutiwasburiedin
thesamechurch,theBasilicaofSantaCroceinFlorence,whereabout200yearslaterhismorefamous
descendantGalileoGalileiwasalsoburied.
ItwascommonformidsixteenthcenturyTuscanfamiliestonametheeldestsonaftertheparents'surname[20]
hence,GalileoGalileiwasnotnecessarilynamedafterhisancestorGalileoBonaiuti.TheItalianmalegiven
name"Galileo"(andthencethesurname"Galilei")derivesfromtheLatin"Galilaeus",meaning"ofGalilee",a
biblicallysignificantregioninNorthernIsrael.[21][22]
ThebiblicalrootsofGalileo'snameandsurnameweretobecomethesubjectofafamouspun.[23]In1614,
duringtheGalileoaffair,oneofGalileo'sopponents,theDominicanpriestTommasoCaccini,deliveredagainst
Galileoacontroversialandinfluentialsermon.InithemadeapointofquotingActs1:11,"YeMenofGalilee,
whystandyougazingupinheaven?".[24]
Children
DespitebeingagenuinelypiousRomanCatholic,[25]Galileofatheredthree
childrenoutofwedlockwithMarinaGamba.Theyhadtwodaughters,Virginia
(bornin1600)andLivia(bornin1601),andason,Vincenzo(bornin1606).[26]
Becauseoftheirillegitimatebirth,theirfatherconsideredthegirls
unmarriageable,ifnotposingproblemsofprohibitivelyexpensivesupportor
dowries,whichwouldhavebeensimilartoGalileo'spreviousextensive
financialproblemswithtwoofhissisters.[27]Theironlyworthyalternativewas
thereligiouslife.BothgirlswereacceptedbytheconventofSanMatteoin
Arcetriandremainedtherefortherestoftheirlives.[28]Virginiatookthename
MariaCelesteuponenteringtheconvent.Shediedon2April1634,andis
buriedwithGalileoattheBasilicaofSantaCroce,Florence.Liviatookthe
nameSisterArcangelaandwasillformostofherlife.Vincenzowaslater
legitimisedasthelegalheirofGalileoandmarriedSestiliaBocchineri.[29]
Careerasascientist
Galileo'sbelovedelder
daughter,Virginia(Sister
MariaCeleste),was
particularlydevotedtoher
father.Sheisburiedwith
himinhistombinthe
BasilicaofSantaCroce,
Florence.
AlthoughGalileoseriouslyconsideredthepriesthoodasayoungman,athis
father'surgingheinsteadenrolledattheUniversityofPisaforamedical
degree.[30]In1581,whenhewasstudyingmedicine,henoticedaswinging
chandelier,whichaircurrentsshiftedabouttoswinginlargerandsmallerarcs.
Tohimitseemed,bycomparisonwithhisheartbeat,thatthechandeliertookthesameamountoftimetoswing
backandforth,nomatterhowfaritwasswinging.Whenhereturnedhome,hesetuptwopendulumsofequal
lengthandswungonewithalargesweepandtheotherwithasmallsweepandfoundthattheykepttime
together.ItwasnotuntiltheworkofChristiaanHuygens,almostonehundredyearslater,thatthetautochrone
natureofaswingingpendulumwasusedtocreateanaccuratetimepiece.[31]Uptothispoint,Galileohad
deliberatelybeenkeptawayfrommathematics,sinceaphysicianearnedahigherincomethanamathematician.
However,afteraccidentallyattendingalectureongeometry,hetalkedhisreluctantfatherintolettinghimstudy
mathematicsandnaturalphilosophyinsteadofmedicine.[31]Hecreatedathermoscope,aforerunnerofthe
thermometer,andin1586publishedasmallbookonthedesignofahydrostaticbalancehehadinvented(which
firstbroughthimtotheattentionofthescholarlyworld).Galileoalsostudieddisegno,atermencompassing
fineart,andin1588obtainedthepositionofinstructorintheAccademiadelleArtidelDisegnoinFlorence,
teachingperspectiveandchiaroscuro.Beinginspiredbytheartistictraditionofthecityandtheworksofthe
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Renaissanceartists,Galileoacquiredanaestheticmentality.WhileayoungteacherattheAccademia,hebegan
alifelongfriendshipwiththeFlorentinepainterCigoli,whoincludedGalileo'slunarobservationsinoneofhis
paintings.[32][33]
In1589,hewasappointedtothechairofmathematicsinPisa.In1591,hisfatherdied,andhewasentrusted
withthecareofhisyoungerbrotherMichelagnolo.In1592,hemovedtotheUniversityofPaduawherehe
taughtgeometry,mechanics,andastronomyuntil1610.[34]Duringthisperiod,Galileomadesignificant
discoveriesinbothpurefundamentalscience(forexample,kinematicsofmotionandastronomy)aswellas
practicalappliedscience(forexample,strengthofmaterialsandpioneeringthetelescope).Hismultiple
interestsincludedthestudyofastrology,whichatthetimewasadisciplinetiedtothestudiesofmathematics
andastronomy.[35]
Galileo,Keplerandtheoriesoftides
CardinalBellarminehadwrittenin1615thattheCopernicansystemcouldnot
bedefendedwithout"atruephysicaldemonstrationthatthesundoesnotcircle
theearthbuttheearthcirclesthesun".[36]Galileoconsideredhistheoryofthe
tidestoprovidetherequiredphysicalproofofthemotionoftheearth.This
theorywassoimportanttohimthatheoriginallyintendedtoentitlehis
DialogueontheTwoChiefWorldSystemstheDialogueontheEbbandFlowof
theSea.[37]Thereferencetotideswasremovedfromthetitlebyorderofthe
Inquisition.
ForGalileo,thetideswerecausedbythesloshingbackandforthofwaterinthe
seasasapointontheEarth'ssurfacespedupandsloweddownbecauseofthe
Earth'srotationonitsaxisandrevolutionaroundtheSun.Hecirculatedhisfirst
accountofthetidesin1616,addressedtoCardinalOrsini.[38]Histheorygave
thefirstinsightintotheimportanceoftheshapesofoceanbasinsinthesizeand
timingoftideshecorrectlyaccounted,forinstance,forthenegligibletides
halfwayalongtheAdriaticSeacomparedtothoseattheends.Asageneral
accountofthecauseoftides,however,histheorywasafailure.
GalileoGalilei.Portraitby
Leoni
Ifthistheorywerecorrect,therewouldbeonlyonehightideperday.Galileoandhiscontemporarieswere
awareofthisinadequacybecausetherearetwodailyhightidesatVeniceinsteadofone,abouttwelvehours
apart.Galileodismissedthisanomalyastheresultofseveralsecondarycausesincludingtheshapeofthesea,
itsdepth,andotherfactors.[39]AgainsttheassertionthatGalileowasdeceptiveinmakingthesearguments,
AlbertEinsteinexpressedtheopinionthatGalileodevelopedhis"fascinatingarguments"andacceptedthem
uncriticallyoutofadesireforphysicalproofofthemotionoftheEarth.[40]Galileodismissedtheidea,heldby
hiscontemporaryJohannesKepler,thatthemooncausedthetides.[41](GalileoalsotooknointerestinKepler's
ellipticalorbitsoftheplanets.)[42][43]
ControversyovercometsandTheAssayer
In1619,GalileobecameembroiledinacontroversywithFatherOrazioGrassi,professorofmathematicsatthe
JesuitCollegioRomano.Itbeganasadisputeoverthenatureofcomets,butbythetimeGalileohadpublished
TheAssayer(IlSaggiatore)in1623,hislastsalvointhedispute,ithadbecomeamuchwidercontroversyover
theverynatureofscienceitself.ThetitlepageofthebookdescribesGalileoasphilosopherand"Matematico
Primario"oftheGrandDukeofTuscany.
BecauseTheAssayercontainssuchawealthofGalileo'sideasonhowscienceshouldbepractised,ithasbeen
referredtoashisscientificmanifesto.[44]Earlyin1619,FatherGrassihadanonymouslypublishedapamphlet,
AnAstronomicalDisputationontheThreeCometsoftheYear1618,[45]whichdiscussedthenatureofacomet
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thathadappearedlateinNovemberofthepreviousyear.Grassiconcludedthatthecometwasafierybody
whichhadmovedalongasegmentofagreatcircleataconstantdistancefromtheearth,[46]andsinceitmoved
intheskymoreslowlythanthemoon,itmustbefartherawaythanthemoon.
Grassi'sargumentsandconclusionswerecriticisedinasubsequentarticle,DiscourseontheComets,[47]
publishedunderthenameofoneofGalileo'sdisciples,aFlorentinelawyernamedMarioGuiducci,althoughit
hadbeenlargelywrittenbyGalileohimself.[48]GalileoandGuiducciofferednodefinitivetheoryoftheirown
onthenatureofcomets[49]althoughtheydidpresentsometentativeconjecturesthatarenowknowntobe
mistaken.Initsopeningpassage,GalileoandGuiducci'sDiscoursegratuitouslyinsultedtheJesuitChristopher
Scheiner,[50]andvariousuncomplimentaryremarksabouttheprofessorsoftheCollegioRomanowerescattered
throughoutthework.[51]TheJesuitswereoffended,[52]andGrassisoonrepliedwithapolemicaltractofhis
own,TheAstronomicalandPhilosophicalBalance,[53]underthepseudonymLotharioSarsioSigensano,[54]
purportingtobeoneofhisownpupils.
TheAssayerwasGalileo'sdevastatingreplytotheAstronomicalBalance.[55]Ithasbeenwidelyrecognizedasa
masterpieceofpolemicalliterature,[56]inwhich"Sarsi's"argumentsaresubjectedtowitheringscorn.[57]Itwas
greetedwithwideacclaim,andparticularlypleasedthenewpope,UrbanVIII,towhomithadbeen
dedicated.[58]InRome,inthepreviousdecade,Barberini,thefutureUrbanVIII,hadcomedownonthesideof
GalileoandtheLinceanAcademy.[59]
Galileo'sdisputewithGrassipermanentlyalienatedmanyoftheJesuitswhohadpreviouslybeensympathetic
tohisideas,[60]andGalileoandhisfriendswereconvincedthattheseJesuitswereresponsibleforbringing
abouthislatercondemnation.[61]Theevidenceforthisisatbestequivocal,however.[62]
Controversyoverheliocentrism
IntheChristianworldpriortoGalileo'sconflictwiththeChurch,the
majorityofeducatedpeoplesubscribedeithertotheAristotelian
geocentricviewthattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverseandthatall
heavenlybodiesrevolvedaroundtheEarth,[63]ortheTychonicsystem
thatblendedgeocentrismwithheliocentrism.[64]Nevertheless,following
thedeathofCopernicusandbeforeGalileo,heliocentrismwasrelatively
uncontroversial[64]Copernicus'sworkwasusedbyPopeGregoryXIII
toreformthecalendarin1582.[65]
OppositiontoheliocentrismandGalileo'swritingscombinedreligious
CristianoBanti's1857painting
andscientificobjectionsandwerefueledbypoliticalevents.Scientific
GalileofacingtheRomanInquisition
oppositioncamefromTychoBraheandothers,andarosefromthefact
that,ifheliocentrismweretrue,anannualstellarparallaxshouldbe
observed,thoughnonewas.Copernicushadcorrectlypostulatedthatparallaxwasnegligiblebecausethestars
weresodistant.However,Brahehadcounteredthat,sincestarsappearedtohavemeasurablesize,ifthestars
werethatdistant,theywouldbegigantic,andinfactfarlargerthantheSunoranyothercelestialbody.In
Brahe'ssystem,bycontrast,thestarswerealittlemoredistantthanSaturn,andtheSunandstarswere
comparableinsize.[66]
ReligiousoppositiontoheliocentrismarosefromBiblicalreferencessuchasPsalm93:1(http://tools.wmflabs.o
rg/bibleversefinder/?book=Psalm&verse=93:1&src=KJV),96:10(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?bo
ok=Psalm&verse=96:10&src=KJV),and1Chronicles16:30(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=
1%20Chronicles&verse=16:30&src=KJV)whichincludetextstatingthat"theworldisfirmlyestablished,it
cannotbemoved."Inthesamemanner,Psalm104:5(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder2/?book=Psalm
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&verse=104:5&src=NIV)says,"theLordsettheearthonitsfoundationsitcanneverbemoved."Further,
Ecclesiastes1:5(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Ecclesiastes&verse=1:5&src=1000)states
that"Andthesunrisesandsetsandreturnstoitsplace."[67]
Galileodefendedheliocentrismbasedonhisastronomicalobservationsof1609(SidereusNuncius1610).In
December1613theGrandDuchessChristinaofFlorenceconfrontedoneofGalileo'sfriendsandfollowers,
BenedettoCastelli,withbiblicalobjectionstothemotionoftheearth.AccordingtoMauriceFinocchiarothis
wasdoneinafriendlyandgraciousmanner,outofcuriosity.Promptedbythisincident,Galileowrotealetterto
Castelliinwhichhearguedthatheliocentrismwasactuallynotcontrarytobiblicaltexts,andthatthebiblewas
anauthorityonfaithandmorals,notonscience.Thisletterwasnotpublished,butcirculatedwidely.[68]
By1615Galileo'swritingsonheliocentrismhadbeensubmittedtotheRomanInquisitionbyFatherNiccolo
Lorini,whoclaimedthatGalileoandhisfollowerswereattemptingtoreinterprettheBible,whichwasseenasa
violationoftheCouncilofTrentandlookeddangerouslylikeProtestantism.[69]Lorinispecificallycited
Galileo'slettertoCastelli.[70]GalileowenttoRometodefendhimselfandhisCopernicanandbiblicalideas.At
thestartof1616,MonsignorFrancescoIngoliinitiatedadebatewithGalileo,sendinghimanessaydisputing
theCopernicansystem.Galileolaterstatedthathebelievedthisessaytohavebeeninstrumentalintheaction
againstCopernicanismthatfollowed.[71]AccordingtoMauriceFinocchiaro,Ingolihadprobablybeen
commissionedbytheInquisitiontowriteanexpertopiniononthecontroversy,andtheessayprovidedthe
"chiefdirectbasis"fortheInquisition'sactions.[72]Theessayfocusedoneighteenphysicalandmathematical
argumentsagainstheliocentrism.ItborrowedprimarilyfromtheargumentsofTychoBrahe,anditnotedly
mentionedBrahe'sargumentthatheliocentrismrequiredthestarstobemuchlargerthantheSun.Ingoliwrote
thatthegreatdistancetothestarsintheheliocentrictheory"clearlyproves...thefixedstarstobeofsuchsize,
astheymaysurpassorequalthesizeoftheorbitcircleoftheEarthitself."[73]Theessayalsoincludedfour
theologicalarguments,butIngolisuggestedGalileofocusonthephysicalandmathematicalarguments,andhe
didnotmentionGalileo'sbiblicalideas.[74]InFebruary1616,anInquisitorialcommissiondeclared
heliocentrismtobe"foolishandabsurdinphilosophy,andformallyhereticalsinceitexplicitlycontradictsin
manyplacesthesenseofHolyScripture."TheInquisitionfoundthattheideaoftheEarth'smovement"receives
thesamejudgementinphilosophyand...inregardtotheologicaltruthitisatleasterroneousinfaith".[75](The
originaldocument(http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1402/1402.6168.pdf)fromtheInquisitorialcommissionwas
madewidelyavailablein2014.[76])
PopePaulVinstructedCardinalBellarminetodeliverthisfindingtoGalileo,andtoorderhimtoabandonthe
opinionthatheliocentrismwasphysicallytrue.On26February,GalileowascalledtoBellarmine'sresidence
andordered:
...toabandoncompletely...theopinionthatthesunstandsstillatthecenteroftheworldandthe
earthmoves,andhenceforthnottohold,teach,ordefenditinanywaywhatever,eitherorallyorin
writing.[77]
ThedecreeoftheCongregationoftheIndexbannedCopernicus'sDeRevolutionibusandotherheliocentric
worksuntilcorrection.[77]Bellarmine'sinstructionsdidnotprohibitGalileofromdiscussingheliocentrismasa
mathematicalandphilosophicidea,solongashedidnotadvocateforitsphysicaltruth.[10][78]
Forthenextdecade,Galileostayedwellawayfromthecontroversy.Herevivedhisprojectofwritingabookon
thesubject,encouragedbytheelectionofCardinalMaffeoBarberiniasPopeUrbanVIIIin1623.Barberini
wasafriendandadmirerofGalileo,andhadopposedthecondemnationofGalileoin1616.Galileo'sresulting
book,DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,waspublishedin1632,withformalauthorization
fromtheInquisitionandpapalpermission.[79]
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Earlier,PopeUrbanVIIIhadpersonallyaskedGalileotogiveargumentsforandagainstheliocentrisminthe
book,andtobecarefulnottoadvocateheliocentrism.Hemadeanotherrequest,thathisownviewsonthe
matterbeincludedinGalileo'sbook.OnlythelatterofthoserequestswasfulfilledbyGalileo.
Whetherunknowinglyordeliberately,Simplicio,thedefenderoftheAristoteliangeocentricviewinDialogue
ConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,wasoftencaughtinhisownerrorsandsometimescameacrossasa
fool.Indeed,althoughGalileostatesintheprefaceofhisbookthatthecharacterisnamedafterafamous
Aristotelianphilosopher(SimpliciusinLatin,"Simplicio"inItalian),thename"Simplicio"inItalianalsohas
theconnotationof"simpleton".[80]ThisportrayalofSimpliciomadeDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorld
Systemsappearasanadvocacybook:anattackonAristoteliangeocentrismanddefenceoftheCopernican
theory.UnfortunatelyforhisrelationshipwiththePope,GalileoputthewordsofUrbanVIIIintothemouthof
Simplicio.
MosthistoriansagreeGalileodidnotactoutofmaliceandfeltblindsidedbythereactiontohisbook.[81]
However,thePopedidnottakethesuspectedpublicridiculelightly,northeCopernicanadvocacy.
Galileohadalienatedoneofhisbiggestandmostpowerfulsupporters,thePope,andwascalledtoRometo
defendhiswritings[82]inSeptember1632.HefinallyarrivedinFebruary1633andwasbroughtbefore
inquisitorVincenzoMaculanitobecharged.ThroughouthistrialGalileosteadfastlymaintainedthatsince1616
hehadfaithfullykepthispromisenottoholdanyofthecondemnedopinions,andinitiallyhedeniedeven
defendingthem.However,hewaseventuallypersuadedtoadmitthat,contrarytohistrueintention,areaderof
hisDialoguecouldwellhaveobtainedtheimpressionthatitwasintendedtobeadefenceofCopernicanism.In
viewofGalileo'sratherimplausibledenialthathehadeverheldCopernicanideasafter1616oreverintendedto
defendthemintheDialogue,hisfinalinterrogation,inJuly1633,concludedwithhisbeingthreatenedwith
tortureifhedidnottellthetruth,buthemaintainedhisdenialdespitethethreat.[83]
ThesentenceoftheInquisitionwasdeliveredon22June.Itwasinthreeessentialparts:
Galileowasfound"vehementlysuspectofheresy",namelyofhavingheldtheopinionsthattheSunlies
motionlessatthecentreoftheuniverse,thattheEarthisnotatitscentreandmoves,andthatonemay
holdanddefendanopinionasprobableafterithasbeendeclaredcontrarytoHolyScripture.Hewas
requiredto"abjure,curseanddetest"thoseopinions.[84]
HewassentencedtoformalimprisonmentatthepleasureoftheInquisition.[85]Onthefollowingdaythis
wascommutedtohousearrest,whichheremainedunderfortherestofhislife.
HisoffendingDialoguewasbannedandinanactionnotannouncedatthetrial,publicationofanyofhis
workswasforbidden,includinganyhemightwriteinthefuture.[86]
Accordingtopopularlegend,afterrecantinghistheorythattheEarthmovedaroundtheSun,Galileoallegedly
mutteredtherebelliousphraseAndyetitmoves.A1640spaintingbytheSpanishpainterBartolomEsteban
Murillooranartistofhisschool,inwhichthewordswerehiddenuntilrestorationworkin1911,depictsan
imprisonedGalileoapparentlygazingatthewords"Epursimuove"writtenonthewallofhisdungeon.The
earliestknownwrittenaccountofthelegenddatestoacenturyafterhisdeath,butStillmanDrakewrites"there
isnodoubtnowthatthefamouswordswerealreadyattributedtoGalileobeforehisdeath".[87]
AfteraperiodwiththefriendlyAscanioPiccolomini(theArchbishopofSiena),Galileowasallowedtoreturn
tohisvillaatArcetrinearFlorencein1634,wherehespenttheremainderofhislifeunderhousearrest.Galileo
wasorderedtoreadthesevenpenitentialpsalmsonceaweekforthenextthreeyears.However,hisdaughter
MariaCelesterelievedhimoftheburdenaftersecuringecclesiasticalpermissiontotakeituponherself.[88]
ItwaswhileGalileowasunderhousearrestthathededicatedhistimetooneofhisfinestworks,TwoNew
Sciences.Herehesummarisedworkhehaddonesomefortyyearsearlier,onthetwosciencesnowcalled
kinematicsandstrengthofmaterials,publishedinHollandtoavoidthecensor.Thisbookhasreceivedhigh
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praisefromAlbertEinstein.[89]Asaresultofthiswork,Galileoisoften
calledthe"fatherofmodernphysics".Hewentcompletelyblindin1638
andwassufferingfromapainfulherniaandinsomnia,sohewas
permittedtotraveltoFlorenceformedicaladvice.[15][16]
DavaSobelarguesthatpriortoGalileo's1633trialandjudgementfor
heresy,PopeUrbanVIIIhadbecomepreoccupiedwithcourtintrigue
andproblemsofstate,andbegantofearpersecutionorthreatstohis
ownlife.Inthiscontext,SobelarguesthattheproblemofGalileowas
presentedtothepopebycourtinsidersandenemiesofGalileo.Having
beenaccusedofweaknessindefendingthechurch,Urbanreacted
againstGalileooutofangerandfear.[90]
Death
Galileocontinuedtoreceivevisitorsuntil1642,when,aftersuffering
feverandheartpalpitations,hediedon8January1642,aged77.[15][91]
TheGrandDukeofTuscany,FerdinandoII,wishedtoburyhiminthe
mainbodyoftheBasilicaofSantaCroce,nexttothetombsofhisfather
andotherancestors,andtoerectamarblemausoleuminhishonour.[92]
Theseplansweredropped,however,afterPopeUrbanVIIIandhis
nephew,CardinalFrancescoBarberini,protested,[93]becauseGalileo
hadbeencondemnedbytheCatholicChurchfor"vehementsuspicionof
heresy".[94]Hewasinsteadburiedinasmallroomnexttothenovices'
chapelattheendofacorridorfromthesoutherntranseptofthebasilica
tothesacristy.[95]Hewasreburiedinthemainbodyofthebasilicain
1737afteramonumenthadbeenerectedthereinhishonour[96]during
thismove,threefingersandatoothwereremovedfromhisremains.[97]
Oneofthesefingers,themiddlefingerfromGalileo'srighthand,is
currentlyonexhibitionattheMuseoGalileoinFlorence,Italy.[98]
Portrait,attributedtoMurillo,of
Galileogazingatthewords"Epursi
muove"(Andyetitmoves)(not
legibleinthisimage)scratchedonthe
wallofhisprisoncell
TombofGalileoGalilei,SantaCroce
Scientificmethods
Galileomadeoriginalcontributionstothescienceofmotionthroughaninnovativecombinationofexperiment
andmathematics.[99]MoretypicalofscienceatthetimewerethequalitativestudiesofWilliamGilbert,on
magnetismandelectricity.Galileo'sfather,VincenzoGalilei,alutenistandmusictheorist,hadperformed
experimentsestablishingperhapstheoldestknownnonlinearrelationinphysics:forastretchedstring,the
pitchvariesasthesquarerootofthetension.[100]Theseobservationslaywithintheframeworkofthe
Pythagoreantraditionofmusic,wellknowntoinstrumentmakers,whichincludedthefactthatsubdividinga
stringbyawholenumberproducesaharmoniousscale.Thus,alimitedamountofmathematicshadlongrelated
musicandphysicalscience,andyoungGalileocouldseehisownfather'sobservationsexpandonthat
tradition.[101]
Galileowasoneofthefirstmodernthinkerstoclearlystatethatthelawsofnaturearemathematical.InThe
Assayerhewrote"Philosophyiswritteninthisgrandbook,theuniverse...Itiswritteninthelanguageof
mathematics,anditscharactersaretriangles,circles,andothergeometricfigures...."[102]Hismathematical
analysesareafurtherdevelopmentofatraditionemployedbylatescholasticnaturalphilosophers,which
Galileolearnedwhenhestudiedphilosophy.[103]Hisworkmarkedanothersteptowardstheeventualseparation
ofsciencefrombothphilosophyandreligionamajordevelopmentinhumanthought.Hewasoftenwillingto
changehisviewsinaccordancewithobservation.Inordertoperformhisexperiments,Galileohadtosetup
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standardsoflengthandtime,sothatmeasurementsmadeondifferentdaysandindifferentlaboratoriescould
becomparedinareproduciblefashion.Thisprovidedareliablefoundationonwhichtoconfirmmathematical
lawsusinginductivereasoning.
Galileoshowedamodernappreciationfortheproperrelationshipbetweenmathematics,theoreticalphysics,
andexperimentalphysics.Heunderstoodtheparabola,bothintermsofconicsectionsandintermsofthe
ordinate(y)varyingasthesquareoftheabscissa(x).Galileifurtherassertedthattheparabolawasthe
theoreticallyidealtrajectoryofauniformlyacceleratedprojectileintheabsenceofairresistanceorother
disturbances.Heconcededthattherearelimitstothevalidityofthistheory,notingontheoreticalgroundsthata
projectiletrajectoryofasizecomparabletothatoftheEarthcouldnotpossiblybeaparabola,[104]buthe
neverthelessmaintainedthatfordistancesuptotherangeoftheartilleryofhisday,thedeviationofa
projectile'strajectoryfromaparabolawouldbeonlyveryslight.[105]
Astronomy
Basedonlyonuncertaindescriptionsofthefirstpracticaltelescope
whichHansLippersheytriedtopatentintheNetherlandsin1608,[106]
Galileo,inthefollowingyear,madeatelescopewithabout3x
magnification.Helatermadeimprovedversionswithuptoabout30x
magnification.[107]WithaGalileantelescope,theobservercouldsee
magnified,uprightimagesontheearthitwaswhatiscommonly
knownasaterrestrialtelescopeoraspyglass.Hecouldalsouseitto
observetheskyforatimehewasoneofthosewhocouldconstruct
telescopesgoodenoughforthatpurpose.On25August1609,he
demonstratedoneofhisearlytelescopes,withamagnificationofabout
8or9,toVenetianlawmakers.Histelescopeswerealsoaprofitable
sidelineforGalileo,whosoldthemtomerchantswhofoundthemuseful
bothatseaandasitemsoftrade.Hepublishedhisinitialtelescopic
astronomicalobservationsinMarch1610inabrieftreatiseentitled
SidereusNuncius(StarryMessenger).[108]
GalileoshowedtheDogeofVenice
howtousethetelescope(Frescoby
GiuseppeBertini)
Kepler'ssupernova
Tychoandothershadobservedthesupernovaof1572.OttavioBrenzoni'sletterof15January1605toGalileo
broughtthe1572supernovaandthelessbrightnovaof1601toGalileo'snotice.Galileoobservedanddiscussed
Kepler'ssupernovain1604.Sincethesenewstarsdisplayednodetectablediurnalparallax,Galileoconcluded
thattheyweredistantstars,andthereforedisprovedtheAristotelianbeliefintheimmutabilityofthe
heavens.[109]
Jupiter'smoons
On7January1610,Galileoobservedwithhistelescopewhathedescribedatthetimeas"threefixedstars,
totallyinvisible[110]bytheirsmallness",allclosetoJupiter,andlyingonastraightlinethroughit.[111]
Observationsonsubsequentnightsshowedthatthepositionsofthese"stars"relativetoJupiterwerechanging
inawaythatwouldhavebeeninexplicableiftheyhadreallybeenfixedstars.On10January,Galileonotedthat
oneofthemhaddisappeared,anobservationwhichheattributedtoitsbeinghiddenbehindJupiter.Withina
fewdays,heconcludedthattheywereorbitingJupiter:[112]hehaddiscoveredthreeofJupiter'sfourlargest
moons.Hediscoveredthefourthon13January.GalileonamedthegroupoffourtheMediceanstars,inhonour
ofhisfuturepatron,CosimoIIde'Medici,GrandDukeofTuscany,andCosimo'sthreebrothers.[113]Later
astronomers,however,renamedthemGalileansatellitesinhonouroftheirdiscoverer.Thesesatellitesarenow
calledIo,Europa,Ganymede,andCallisto.
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HisobservationsofthesatellitesofJupitercausedarevolutionin
astronomy:aplanetwithsmallerplanetsorbitingitdidnotconformto
theprinciplesofAristoteliancosmology,whichheldthatallheavenly
bodiesshouldcircletheEarth,[114]andmanyastronomersand
philosophersinitiallyrefusedtobelievethatGalileocouldhave
discoveredsuchathing.[115]Hisobservationswereconfirmedbythe
observatoryofChristopherClaviusandhereceivedahero'swelcome
whenhevisitedRomein1611.[116]Galileocontinuedtoobservethe
satellitesoverthenexteighteenmonths,andbymid1611,hehad
obtainedremarkablyaccurateestimatesfortheirperiodsafeatwhich
Keplerhadbelievedimpossible.[117]
Venus,Saturn,andNeptune
FromSeptember1610,GalileoobservedthatVenusexhibitedafullset
ofphasessimilartothatoftheMoon.Theheliocentricmodelofthe
solarsystemdevelopedbyNicolausCopernicuspredictedthatallphases
wouldbevisiblesincetheorbitofVenusaroundtheSunwouldcauseits
illuminatedhemispheretofacetheEarthwhenitwasontheopposite
sideoftheSunandtofaceawayfromtheEarthwhenitwasonthe
EarthsideoftheSun.Ontheotherhand,inPtolemy'sgeocentricmodel
itwasimpossibleforanyoftheplanets'orbitstointersectthespherical
shellcarryingtheSun.TraditionallytheorbitofVenuswasplaced
entirelyonthenearsideoftheSun,whereitcouldexhibitonlycrescent
andnewphases.Itwas,however,alsopossibletoplaceitentirelyonthe
farsideoftheSun,whereitcouldexhibitonlygibbousandfullphases.
AfterGalileo'stelescopicobservationsofthecrescent,gibbousandfull
phasesofVenus,therefore,thisPtolemaicmodelbecameuntenable.
Thusintheearly17thcenturyasaresultofhisdiscoverythegreat
majorityofastronomersconvertedtooneofthevariousgeoheliocentric
planetarymodels,[118]suchastheTychonic,CapellanandExtended
Capellanmodels,[119]eacheitherwithorwithoutadailyrotatingEarth.
TheseallhadthevirtueofexplainingthephasesofVenuswithoutthe
viceofthe'refutation'offullheliocentrism'spredictionofstellar
parallax.Galileo'sdiscoveryofthephasesofVenuswasthusarguably
hismostempiricallypracticallyinfluentialcontributiontothetwostage
transitionfromfullgeocentrismtofullheliocentrismviageo
heliocentrism.
ItwasonthispagethatGalileofirst
notedanobservationofthemoonsof
Jupiter.Thisobservationupsetthe
notionthatallcelestialbodiesmust
revolvearoundtheEarth.Galileo
publishedafulldescriptionin
SidereusNunciusinMarch1610
ThephasesofVenus,observedby
Galileoin1610
GalileoobservedtheplanetSaturn,andatfirstmistookitsringsforplanets,thinkingitwasathreebodied
system.Whenheobservedtheplanetlater,Saturn'sringsweredirectlyorientedatEarth,causinghimtothink
thattwoofthebodieshaddisappeared.Theringsreappearedwhenheobservedtheplanetin1616,further
confusinghim.[120]
GalileoalsoobservedtheplanetNeptunein1612.Itappearsinhisnotebooksasoneofmanyunremarkabledim
stars.Hedidnotrealisethatitwasaplanet,buthedidnoteitsmotionrelativetothestarsbeforelosingtrackof
it.[121]
Sunspots
GalileowasoneofthefirstEuropeanstoobservesunspots,althoughKeplerhadunwittinglyobservedonein
1607,butmistookitforatransitofMercury.Healsoreinterpretedasunspotobservationfromthetimeof
Charlemagne,whichformerlyhadbeenattributed(impossibly)toatransitofMercury.Theveryexistenceof
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sunspotsshowedanotherdifficultywiththeunchangingperfectionoftheheavensaspositedinorthodox
Aristoteliancelestialphysics.Andtheannualvariationsinsunspots'motions,discoveredbyFrancescoSizzi
andothersin16121613,[122]providedapowerfulargumentagainstboththePtolemaicsystemandthe
geoheliocentricsystemofTychoBrahe.[123]Adisputeoverpriorityinthediscoveryofsunspots,andintheir
interpretation,ledGalileotoalongandbitterfeudwiththeJesuitChristophScheiner.
Infact,thereislittledoubtthatbothofthemwerebeatenbyDavidFabriciusandhissonJohannes.Scheiner
quicklyadoptedKepler's1615proposalofthemoderntelescopedesign,whichgavelargermagnificationatthe
costofinvertedimagesGalileoapparentlyneverchangedtoKepler'sdesign.
Moon
PriortoGalileo'sconstructionofhisversionofatelescope,ThomasHarriot,anEnglishmathematicianand
explorer,hadalreadyusedwhathedubbeda"perspectivetube"toobservethemoon.Reportinghis
observations,Harriotnotedonly"strangespottednesse"inthewaningofthecrescent,butwasignoranttothe
cause.Galileo,dueinparttohisartistictraining[33]andtheknowledgeofchiaroscuro,[32]hadunderstoodthe
patternsoflightandshadowwereinfacttopographicalmarkers.Whilenotbeingtheonlyonetoobservethe
moonthroughatelescope,Galileowasthefirsttodeducethecauseoftheunevenwaningaslightocclusion
fromlunarmountainsandcraters.Inhisstudyhealsomadetopographicalcharts,estimatingtheheightsofthe
mountains.Themoonwasnotwhatwaslongthoughttohavebeenatranslucentandperfectsphere,asAristotle
claimed,andhardlythefirst"planet",an"eternalpearltomagnificentlyascendintotheheavenlyempyrian",as
putforthbyDante.
MilkyWayandstars
GalileoobservedtheMilkyWay,previouslybelievedtobenebulous,andfoundittobeamultitudeofstars
packedsodenselythattheyappearedfromEarthtobeclouds.Helocatedmanyotherstarstoodistanttobe
visiblewiththenakedeye.HeobservedthedoublestarMizarinUrsaMajorin1617.[124]
IntheStarryMessenger,Galileoreportedthatstarsappearedasmereblazesoflight,essentiallyunalteredin
appearancebythetelescope,andcontrastedthemtoplanets,whichthetelescoperevealedtobediscs.But
shortlythereafter,inhislettersonsunspots,hereportedthatthetelescoperevealedtheshapesofbothstarsand
planetstobe"quiteround".Fromthatpointforward,hecontinuedtoreportthattelescopesshowedthe
roundnessofstars,andthatstarsseenthroughthetelescopemeasuredafewsecondsofarcindiameter.[125]He
alsodevisedamethodformeasuringtheapparentsizeofastarwithoutatelescope.Asdescribedinhis
DialogueConcerningthetwoChiefWorldSystems,hismethodwastohangathinropeinhislineofsighttothe
starandmeasurethemaximumdistancefromwhichitwouldwhollyobscurethestar.Fromhismeasurements
ofthisdistanceandofthewidthoftherope,hecouldcalculatetheanglesubtendedbythestarathisviewing
point.[126]InhisDialogue,hereportedthathehadfoundtheapparentdiameterofastaroffirstmagnitudetobe
nomorethan5arcseconds,andthatofoneofsixthmagnitudetobeabout5/6arcseconds.Likemost
astronomersofhisday,Galileodidnotrecognisethattheapparentsizesofstarsthathemeasuredwere
spurious,causedbydiffractionandatmosphericdistortion(seeseeingdiskorAirydisk),anddidnotrepresent
thetruesizesofstars.However,Galileo'svaluesweremuchsmallerthanpreviousestimatesoftheapparent
sizesofthebrighteststars,suchasthosemadebyTychoBrahe(seeMagnitude)andenabledGalileotocounter
antiCopernicanargumentssuchasthosemadebyTychothatthesestarswouldhavetobeabsurdlylargefor
theirannualparallaxestobeundetectable.[127]OtherastronomerssuchasSimonMarius,GiovanniBattista
Riccioli,andMartinusHortensiusmadesimilarmeasurementsofstars,andMariusandRiccioliconcludedthe
smallersizeswerenotsmallenoughtoanswerTycho'sargument.[128]
Engineering
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Galileomadeanumberofcontributionstowhatisnowknownas
engineering,asdistinctfrompurephysics.Between1595and1598,
GalileodevisedandimprovedaGeometricandMilitaryCompass
suitableforusebygunnersandsurveyors.Thisexpandedonearlier
instrumentsdesignedbyNiccolTartagliaandGuidobaldodelMonte.
Forgunners,itoffered,inadditiontoanewandsaferwayofelevating
cannonsaccurately,awayofquicklycomputingthechargeof
gunpowderforcannonballsofdifferentsizesandmaterials.Asa
Galileo'sgeometricalandmilitary
geometricinstrument,itenabledtheconstructionofanyregular
compass,thoughttohavebeenmade
polygon,computationoftheareaofanypolygonorcircularsector,and
c.1604byhispersonalinstrument
avarietyofothercalculations.UnderGalileo'sdirection,instrument
makerMarc'AntonioMazzoleni
makerMarc'AntonioMazzoleniproducedmorethan100ofthese
compasses,whichGalileosold(alongwithaninstructionmanualhe
wrote)for50lireandofferedacourseofinstructionintheuseofthecompassesfor120lire.[129]
Inabout1593,Galileoconstructedathermometer,usingtheexpansionandcontractionofairinabulbtomove
waterinanattachedtube.
In1609,Galileowas,alongwithEnglishmanThomasHarriotand
others,amongthefirsttousearefractingtelescopeasaninstrumentto
observestars,planetsormoons.Thename"telescope"wascoinedfor
Galileo'sinstrumentbyaGreekmathematician,Giovanni
Demisiani,[130]atabanquetheldin1611byPrinceFedericoCesito
makeGalileoamemberofhisAccademiadeiLincei.[131]Thenamewas
derivedfromtheGreektele='far'andskopein='tolookorsee'.In
1610,heusedatelescopeatcloserangetomagnifythepartsof
insects.[132]By1624Galileohadused[133]acompoundmicroscope.He
Areplicaoftheearliestsurviving
gaveoneoftheseinstrumentstoCardinalZollerninMayofthatyear
telescopeattributedtoGalileoGalilei,
forpresentationtotheDukeofBavaria,[134]andinSeptemberhesent
ondisplayattheGriffith
anothertoPrinceCesi.[135]TheLinceansplayedaroleagaininnaming
Observatory.
the"microscope"ayearlaterwhenfellowacademymemberGiovanni
FabercoinedthewordforGalileo'sinventionfromtheGreekwords
(micron)meaning"small",and(skopein)meaning"tolookat".Thewordwasmeanttobe
analogouswith"telescope".[136][137]IllustrationsofinsectsmadeusingoneofGalileo'smicroscopes,and
publishedin1625,appeartohavebeenthefirstcleardocumentationoftheuseofacompoundmicroscope.[138]
In1612,havingdeterminedtheorbitalperiodsofJupiter'ssatellites,Galileoproposedthatwithsufficiently
accurateknowledgeoftheirorbits,onecouldusetheirpositionsasauniversalclock,andthiswouldmake
possiblethedeterminationoflongitude.Heworkedonthisproblemfromtimetotimeduringtheremainderof
hislifebutthepracticalproblemsweresevere.ThemethodwasfirstsuccessfullyappliedbyGiovanni
DomenicoCassiniin1681andwaslaterusedextensivelyforlargelandsurveysthismethod,forexample,was
usedtosurveyFrance,andlaterbyZebulonPikeofthemidwesternUnitedStatesin1806.Forseanavigation,
wheredelicatetelescopicobservationsweremoredifficult,thelongitudeproblemeventuallyrequired
developmentofapracticalportablemarinechronometer,suchasthatofJohnHarrison.[139]Lateinhislife,
whentotallyblind,Galileodesignedanescapementmechanismforapendulumclock(calledGalileo's
escapement),althoughnoclockusingthiswasbuiltuntilafterthefirstfullyoperationalpendulumclockwas
madebyChristiaanHuygensinthe1650s.
Physics
Galileo'stheoreticalandexperimentalworkonthemotionsofbodies,alongwiththelargelyindependentwork
ofKeplerandRenDescartes,wasaprecursoroftheclassicalmechanicsdevelopedbySirIsaacNewton.
Galileoconductedseveralexperimentswithpendulums.Itispopularlybelieved(thankstothebiographyby
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VincenzoViviani)thatthesebeganbywatchingtheswingsofthe
bronzechandelierinthecathedralofPisa,usinghispulseasatimer.
LaterexperimentsaredescribedinhisTwoNewSciences.Galileo
claimedthatasimplependulumisisochronous,i.e.thatitsswings
alwaystakethesameamountoftime,independentlyoftheamplitude.
Infact,thisisonlyapproximatelytrue,[140]aswasdiscoveredby
ChristiaanHuygens.Galileoalsofoundthatthesquareoftheperiod
variesdirectlywiththelengthofthependulum.Galileo'sson,Vincenzo,
sketchedaclockbasedonhisfather'stheoriesin1642.Theclockwas
neverbuiltand,becauseofthelargeswingsrequiredbyitsverge
escapement,wouldhavebeenapoortimekeeper.(SeeEngineering
above.)
GalileoeViviani,1892,TitoLessi
Galileoislesserknownfor,yetstillcreditedwith,beingoneofthefirsttounderstandsoundfrequency.By
scrapingachiselatdifferentspeeds,helinkedthepitchofthesoundproducedtothespacingofthechisel's
skips,ameasureoffrequency.In1638,Galileodescribedanexperimentalmethodtomeasurethespeedoflight
byarrangingthattwoobservers,eachhavinglanternsequippedwithshutters,observeeachother'slanternsat
somedistance.Thefirstobserveropenstheshutterofhislamp,and,thesecond,uponseeingthelight,
immediatelyopenstheshutterofhisownlantern.Thetimebetweenthefirstobserver'sopeninghisshutterand
seeingthelightfromthesecondobserver'slampindicatesthetimeittakeslighttotravelbackandforth
betweenthetwoobservers.Galileoreportedthatwhenhetriedthisatadistanceoflessthanamile,hewas
unabletodeterminewhetherornotthelightappearedinstantaneously.[141]SometimebetweenGalileo'sdeath
and1667,themembersoftheFlorentineAccademiadelCimentorepeatedtheexperimentoveradistanceof
aboutamileandobtainedasimilarlyinconclusiveresult.[142]Wenowknowthatthespeedoflightisfartoo
fasttobemeasuredbysuchmethods(withhumanshutteropenersonEarth).
Galileoputforwardthebasicprincipleofrelativity,thatthelawsofphysicsarethesameinanysystemthatis
movingataconstantspeedinastraightline,regardlessofitsparticularspeedordirection.Hence,thereisno
absolutemotionorabsoluterest.ThisprincipleprovidedthebasicframeworkforNewton'slawsofmotionand
iscentraltoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity.
Fallingbodies
AbiographybyGalileo'spupilVincenzoVivianistatedthatGalileohad
droppedballsofthesamematerial,butdifferentmasses,fromthe
LeaningTowerofPisatodemonstratethattheirtimeofdescentwas
independentoftheirmass.[143]ThiswascontrarytowhatAristotlehad
taught:thatheavyobjectsfallfasterthanlighterones,indirect
proportiontoweight.[144]Whilethisstoryhasbeenretoldinpopular
accounts,thereisnoaccountbyGalileohimselfofsuchanexperiment,
anditisgenerallyacceptedbyhistoriansthatitwasatmostathought
experimentwhichdidnotactuallytakeplace.[145][146]Anexceptionis
Drake,[147]whoarguesthattheexperimentdidtakeplace,moreorless
asVivianidescribedit.Theexperimentdescribedwasactually
performedbySimonStevin(commonlyknownasStevinus)andJan
CornetsdeGroot,[31]althoughthebuildingusedwasactuallythechurch
towerinDelftin1586.[148]Howevermostofhisexperimentswith
fallingbodieswerecarriedoutusinginclinedplaneswhereboththe
issuesoftimingandwindresistanceweremuchreduced.
DuringtheApollo15missionin
1971,astronautDavidScottshowed
thatGalileowasright:accelerationis
thesameforallbodiessubjectto
gravityontheMoon,evenfora
hammerandafeather.
Inhis1638Discorsi,Galileo'scharacterSalviati,widelyregardedasGalileo'sspokesman,heldthatallunequal
weightswouldfallwiththesamefinitespeedinavacuum.Butthishadpreviouslybeenproposedby
Lucretius[149]andSimonStevin.[150]CristianoBanti'sSalviatialsohelditcouldbeexperimentally
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demonstratedbythecomparisonofpendulummotionsinairwithbobsofleadandofcorkwhichhaddifferent
weightbutwhichwereotherwisesimilar.
Galileoproposedthatafallingbodywouldfallwithauniformacceleration,aslongastheresistanceofthe
mediumthroughwhichitwasfallingremainednegligible,orinthelimitingcaseofitsfallingthrougha
vacuum.[151]Healsoderivedthecorrectkinematicallawforthedistancetravelledduringauniform
accelerationstartingfromrestnamely,thatitisproportionaltothesquareoftheelapsedtime(dt2).[152]
PriortoGalileo,NicoleOresme,inthe14thcentury,hadderivedthetimessquaredlawforuniformly
acceleratedchange,[153]andDomingodeSotohadsuggestedinthe16thcenturythatbodiesfallingthrougha
homogeneousmediumwouldbeuniformlyaccelerated.[154]Galileoexpressedthetimesquaredlawusing
geometricalconstructionsandmathematicallyprecisewords,adheringtothestandardsoftheday.(Itremained
forotherstoreexpressthelawinalgebraicterms).
Healsoconcludedthatobjectsretaintheirvelocityintheabsenceofanyimpedimentstotheirmotion,thereby
contradictingthegenerallyacceptedAristotelianhypothesisthatabodycouldonlyremaininsocalled
"violent","unnatural",or"forced"motionsolongasanagentofchange(the"mover")continuedtoacton
it.[155]PhilosophicalideasrelatingtoinertiahadbeenproposedbyJohnPhiloponusandJeanBuridan.Galileo
stated:"Imagineanyparticleprojectedalongahorizontalplanewithoutfrictionthenweknow,fromwhathas
beenmorefullyexplainedintheprecedingpages,thatthisparticlewillmovealongthissameplanewitha
motionwhichisuniformandperpetual,providedtheplanehasnolimits"[156]Thiswasincorporatedinto
Newton'slawsofmotion(firstlaw).
Mathematics
WhileGalileo'sapplicationofmathematicstoexperimentalphysicswas
innovative,hismathematicalmethodswerethestandardonesoftheday,
includingdozensofexamplesofaninverseproportionsquareroot
methodpasseddownfromFibonacciandArchimedes.Theanalysisand
proofsreliedheavilyontheEudoxiantheoryofproportion,assetforth
inthefifthbookofEuclid'sElements.Thistheoryhadbecomeavailable
onlyacenturybefore,thankstoaccuratetranslationsbyTartagliaand
othersbutbytheendofGalileo'slife,itwasbeingsupersededbythe
algebraicmethodsofDescartes.
TheconceptnownamedGalileo'sparadoxwasnotoriginalwithhim.
Hisproposedsolution,thatinfinitenumberscannotbecompared,isno
longerconsidereduseful.
DomeoftheCathedralofPisawith
the"lampofGalileo"
Writings
Galileo'searlyworksdescribingscientificinstrumentsincludethe1586tractentitledTheLittleBalance(La
Billancetta)describinganaccuratebalancetoweighobjectsinairorwater[157]andthe1606printedmanualLe
OperazionidelCompassoGeometricoetMilitareontheoperationofageometricalandmilitarycompass.[158]
Hisearlyworksindynamics,thescienceofmotionandmechanicswerehis1590PisanDeMotu(OnMotion)
andhiscirca1600PaduanLeMeccaniche(Mechanics).TheformerwasbasedonAristotelianArchimedean
fluiddynamicsandheldthatthespeedofgravitationalfallinafluidmediumwasproportionaltotheexcessofa
body'sspecificweightoverthatofthemedium,wherebyinavacuum,bodieswouldfallwithspeedsin
proportiontotheirspecificweights.ItalsosubscribedtothePhiloponanimpetusdynamicsinwhichimpetusis
selfdissipatingandfreefallinavacuumwouldhaveanessentialterminalspeedaccordingtospecificweight
afteraninitialperiodofacceleration.
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Galileo's1610TheStarryMessenger(SidereusNuncius)wasthefirstscientific
treatisetobepublishedbasedonobservationsmadethroughatelescope.It
reportedhisdiscoveriesof:
theGalileanmoons
theroughnessoftheMoon'ssurface
theexistenceofalargenumberofstarsinvisibletothenakedeye,
particularlythoseresponsiblefortheappearanceoftheMilkyWay
differencesbetweentheappearancesoftheplanetsandthoseofthefixed
starstheformerappearingassmalldiscs,whilethelatterappearedas
unmagnifiedpointsoflight
Galileopublishedadescriptionofsunspotsin1613entitledLetterson
Sunspots[159]suggestingtheSunandheavensarecorruptible.TheLetterson
Sunspotsalsoreportedhis1610telescopicobservationsofthefullsetofphases
ofVenus,andhisdiscoveryofthepuzzling"appendages"ofSaturnandtheir
evenmorepuzzlingsubsequentdisappearance.In1615Galileoprepareda
manuscriptknownastheLettertotheGrandDuchessChristinawhichwasnot
StatueoutsidetheUffizi,
publishedinprintedformuntil1636.Thisletterwasarevisedversionofthe
Florence
LettertoCastelli,whichwasdenouncedbytheInquisitionasanincursionupon
theologybyadvocatingCopernicanismbothasphysicallytrueandasconsistent
withScripture.[160]In1616,aftertheorderbytheinquisitionforGalileonottoholdordefendtheCopernican
position,GalileowrotetheDiscourseontheTides(Discorsosulflussoeilreflussodelmare)basedonthe
Copernicanearth,intheformofaprivatelettertoCardinalOrsini.[161]In1619,MarioGuiducci,apupilof
Galileo's,publishedalecturewrittenlargelybyGalileounderthetitleDiscourseontheComets(DiscorsoDelle
Comete),arguingagainsttheJesuitinterpretationofcomets.[162]
In1623,GalileopublishedTheAssayerIlSaggiatore,whichattackedtheoriesbasedonAristotle'sauthority
andpromotedexperimentationandthemathematicalformulationofscientificideas.Thebookwashighly
successfulandevenfoundsupportamongthehigherechelonsoftheChristianchurch.[163]Followingthe
successofTheAssayer,GalileopublishedtheDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems(Dialogo
sopraiduemassimisistemidelmondo)in1632.DespitetakingcaretoadheretotheInquisition's1616
instructions,theclaimsinthebookfavouringCopernicantheoryandanonGeocentricmodelofthesolar
systemledtoGalileobeingtriedandbannedonpublication.Despitethepublicationban,Galileopublishedhis
DiscoursesandMathematicalDemonstrationsRelatingtoTwoNewSciences(DiscorsieDimostrazioni
Matematiche,intornoaduenuovescienze)in1638inHolland,outsidethejurisdictionoftheInquisition.
Publishedwrittenworks
Galileo'smainwrittenworksareasfollows:
TheLittleBalance(1586inItalian:LaBillancetta)
OnMotion(c.1590inLatin:DeMotuAntiquiora)[164]
Mechanics(c.1600inItalian:Lemecaniche)
TheOperationsofGeometricalandMilitaryCompass(1606inItalian:Leoperazionidelcompasso
geometricoetmilitare)
TheStarryMessenger(1610inLatin:SidereusNuncius)
DiscourseonFloatingBodies(1612inItalian:Discorsointornoallecosechestannoinsul'acqua,oche
inquellasimuovono,"DiscourseonBodiesthatStayAtopWater,orMoveinIt")
HistoryandDemonstrationConcerningSunspots(1613inItalian:Istoriaedimostrazioniintornoalle
macchiesolariworkbasedontheThreeLettersonSunspots,Treletteresullemacchiesolari,1612)
LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina(1615publishedin1636)
DiscourseontheTides(1616inItalian:Discorsodelflussoereflussodelmare)
DiscourseontheComets(1619inItalian:DiscorsodelleComete)
TheAssayer(1623inItalian:IlSaggiatore)
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10/9/2016
DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems(1632inItalian:Dialogosopraiduemassimisistemi
delmondo)
DiscoursesandMathematicalDemonstrationsRelatingtoTwoNewSciences(1638inItalian:Discorsie
DimostrazioniMatematiche,intornoaduenuovescienze)
Legacy
LaterChurchreassessments
TheGalileoaffairwaslargelyforgottenafterGalileo'sdeath,andthecontroversysubsided.TheInquisition's
banonreprintingGalileo'sworkswasliftedin1718whenpermissionwasgrantedtopublishaneditionofhis
works(excludingthecondemnedDialogue)inFlorence.[165]In1741PopeBenedictXIVauthorisedthe
publicationofaneditionofGalileo'scompletescientificworks[166]whichincludedamildlycensoredversionof
theDialogue.[167]In1758thegeneralprohibitionagainstworksadvocatingheliocentrismwasremovedfrom
theIndexofprohibitedbooks,althoughthespecificbanonuncensoredversionsoftheDialogueand
Copernicus'sDeRevolutionibusremained.[168]Alltracesofofficialoppositiontoheliocentrismbythechurch
disappearedin1835whentheseworkswerefinallydroppedfromtheIndex.[169]
InterestintheGalileoaffairwasrevivedintheearly19thcentury,whenProtestantpolemicistsusedit(and
othereventssuchastheSpanishInquisitionandtheFlatEarthMyth)toattackRomanCatholicism.[10]Interest
inithaswaxedandwanedeversince.In1939PopePiusXII,inhisfirstspeechtothePontificalAcademyof
Sciences,withinafewmonthsofhiselectiontothepapacy,describedGalileoasbeingamongthe"most
audaciousheroesofresearch...notafraidofthestumblingblocksandtherisksontheway,norfearfulofthe
funerealmonuments".[170]Hiscloseadvisorof40years,ProfessorRobertLeiber,wrote:"PiusXIIwasvery
carefulnottocloseanydoors(toscience)prematurely.Hewasenergeticonthispointandregrettedthatinthe
caseofGalileo."[171]
On15February1990,inaspeechdeliveredattheSapienzaUniversityofRome,[172]CardinalRatzinger(later
tobecomePopeBenedictXVI)citedsomecurrentviewsontheGalileoaffairasformingwhathecalled"a
symptomaticcasethatpermitsustoseehowdeeptheselfdoubtofthemodernage,ofscienceandtechnology
goestoday".[173]SomeoftheviewshecitedwerethoseofthephilosopherPaulFeyerabend,whomhequoted
assaying"TheChurchatthetimeofGalileokeptmuchmorecloselytoreasonthandidGalileohimself,and
shetookintoconsiderationtheethicalandsocialconsequencesofGalileo'steachingtoo.Herverdictagainst
Galileowasrationalandjustandtherevisionofthisverdictcanbejustifiedonlyonthegroundsofwhatis
politicallyopportune."[173]TheCardinaldidnotclearlyindicatewhetherheagreedordisagreedwith
Feyerabend'sassertions.Hedid,however,say"Itwouldbefoolishtoconstructanimpulsiveapologeticonthe
basisofsuchviews."[173]
On31October1992,PopeJohnPaulIIexpressedregretforhowtheGalileoaffairwashandled,andissueda
declarationacknowledgingtheerrorscommittedbytheCatholicChurchtribunalthatjudgedthescientific
positionsofGalileoGalilei,astheresultofastudyconductedbythePontificalCouncilforCulture.[174][175]In
March2008theheadofthePontificalAcademyofSciences,NicolaCabibbo,announcedaplantohonour
GalileobyerectingastatueofhiminsidetheVaticanwalls.[176]InDecemberofthesameyear,duringeventsto
markthe400thanniversaryofGalileo'searliesttelescopicobservations,PopeBenedictXVIpraisedhis
contributionstoastronomy.[177]Amonthlater,however,theheadofthePontificalCouncilforCulture,
GianfrancoRavasi,revealedthattheplantoerectastatueofGalileointhegroundsoftheVaticanhadbeen
suspended.[178]
Impactonmodernscience
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AccordingtoStephenHawking,Galileoprobablybearsmoreoftheresponsibilityforthebirthofmodern
sciencethananybodyelse,[179]andAlbertEinsteincalledhimthefatherofmodernscience.[180][181]
Galileo'sastronomicaldiscoveriesandinvestigationsintotheCopernicantheoryhaveledtoalastinglegacy
whichincludesthecategorisationofthefourlargemoonsofJupiterdiscoveredbyGalileo(Io,Europa,
GanymedeandCallisto)astheGalileanmoons.Otherscientificendeavoursandprinciplesarenamedafter
GalileoincludingtheGalileospacecraft,[182]thefirstspacecrafttoenterorbitaroundJupiter,theproposed
Galileoglobalsatellitenavigationsystem,thetransformationbetweeninertialsystemsinclassicalmechanics
denotedGalileantransformationandtheGal(unit),sometimesknownastheGalileo,whichisanonSIunitof
acceleration.
Partlybecause2009wasthefourthcentenaryofGalileo'sfirstrecorded
astronomicalobservationswiththetelescope,theUnitedNationsscheduleditto
betheInternationalYearofAstronomy.[183]Aglobalschemewaslaidoutby
theInternationalAstronomicalUnion(IAU),alsoendorsedbyUNESCOthe
UNbodyresponsibleforeducational,scientificandculturalmatters.The
InternationalYearofAstronomy2009wasintendedtobeaglobalcelebrationof
astronomyanditscontributionstosocietyandculture,stimulatingworldwide
interestnotonlyinastronomybutscienceingeneral,withaparticularslant
towardsyoungpeople.
Asteroid697Galileaisnamedinhishonour.
Inartisticandpopularmedia
InternationalYearof
Astronomycommemorative
coin
Galileoismentionedseveraltimesinthe"opera"sectionoftheQueensong,"BohemianRhapsody".[184]He
featuresprominentlyinthesong"Galileo"performedbytheIndigoGirlsandAmyGrant'sGalileoonherHeart
inMotionalbum.
TwentiethcenturyplayshavebeenwrittenonGalileo'slife,includingLifeofGalileo(1943)bytheGerman
playwrightBertoltBrecht,withafilmadaptation(1975)ofit,andLampAtMidnight(1947)byBarrie
Stavis,[185]aswellasthe2008play"GalileoGalilei".[186]
KimStanleyRobinsonwroteasciencefictionnovelentitledGalileo'sDream(2009),inwhichGalileois
broughtintothefuturetohelpresolveacrisisofscientificphilosophythestorymovesbackandforthbetween
Galileo'sowntimeandahypotheticaldistantfuture,andcontainsagreatdealofbiographicalinformation.[187]
GalileoGalileiwasrecentlyselectedasamainmotifforahighvaluecollectors'coin:the25International
YearofAstronomycommemorativecoin,mintedin2009.Thiscoinalsocommemoratesthe400thanniversary
oftheinventionofGalileo'stelescope.Theobverseshowsaportionofhisportraitandhistelescope.The
backgroundshowsoneofhisfirstdrawingsofthesurfaceofthemoon.Inthesilverringothertelescopesare
depicted:theIsaacNewtonTelescope,theobservatoryinKremsmnsterAbbey,amoderntelescope,aradio
telescopeandaspacetelescope.In2009,theGalileoscopewasalsoreleased.Thisisamassproduced,lowcost
educational2inch(51mm)telescopewithrelativelyhighquality.
Timeline
1543NicolausCopernicuspublishesDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumasanalternativeworld
systemtothePtolemy'sgeocentricmodelcausingsubsequentquestionstoberaisedaboutAristotelian
physicsfollowingCopernicus'death
1563ParentsVincenzoGalileiandGiuliaAmmannatimarry
1564BirthinPisa,Italy
~1570ThomasDiggespublishesPantometriadescribingatelescopebuiltbetween15401559byhis
fatherLeonardDigges
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10/9/2016
1573TychoBrahepublishesDenovastella(Onthenewstar)refutingAristotelianbeliefinimmutable
celestialspheresandaneternal,unchanging,moreperfectheavenlyrealmofcelestialaetherabovethe
moon
1576GiuseppeMoletti,Galileo'spredecessorinthemathematicschairatPadua,reportsfallingbodies
ofthesameshapefallatthesamespeed,regardlessofmaterial[188]
1581Hisfather,VincenzoGalileipublishesDialogodellamusicaanticaetmodernaformulating
musicaltheories[189]
1581EnrolsasmedicalstudentatUniversityofPisa
1582AttendsmathematicslecturebyOstilioRiccianddecidestostudymathandscience
1585LeavesUniversityofPisawithoutdegreeandworksastutor
1586InventshydrostaticbalancewroteLaBalancitta(Thelittlebalance)
1586SimonStevinpublishesresultsfordroppingleadweightsfrom10meters
1588TychoBrahepublishesworkoncometscontainingadescriptionoftheTychonicsystemofthe
world[190]
1589AppointedtoMathematicsChair,UniversityofPisa
1590PartiallycompletesDeMotu(OnMotion),whichisneverpublished
1591Deathofhisfather,VicenzoGalilei
1592AppointedprofessorofmathematicsatUniversityofPadua,remains18years
~1593Inventsearlythermometerthatunfortunatelydependedonbothtemperatureandpressure
~1595Inventsimprovedballisticscalculationgeometricandmilitarycompass,whichhelaterimproves
forsurveyingandgeneralcalculationsandearnsincomefromtutoringonitsuse
1597LettertoKeplerindicateshisbeliefintheCopernicanSystem
1600Firstchild,Virginiaisborn~1600LeMeccaniche(Mechanics)
1600WilliamGilbertpublishesOntheMagnetandMagneticBodies,andonThatGreatMagnetthe
EarthwithargumentssupportingtheCopernicansystem
1600RomanInquisitionfindsGiordanoBruno,Copernicansystemsupporter,guiltyofheresyfor
opinionsonpantheismandtheeternalpluralityofworlds,andfordenialoftheTrinity,divinityofChrist,
virginityofMary,andTransubstantiationburnedatthestakebycivilauthorities
1601DaughterLiviaisborn
1604Measuressupernovapositionindicatingnoparallaxforthenewstar
1605Suedbybrothersinlawfornonpaymentofsisters'dowries
1606SonVincenzoborn
1606Publishesmanualforhiscalculatingcompass
1607RotilioOrlandiniattemptstoassassinateGalileo'sfriend,FriarPaoloSarpi
1608HansLippersheyinventsarefractingtelescope
1609IndependentlyinventsandimprovestelescopesbasedondescriptionofinventionbyHans
Lippershey
1609KeplerpublishesAstronomianovacontaininghisfirsttwolawsandforthefirsttime
demonstratestheCopernicanmodelismoreaccuratethanthePtolemaicforusessuchasnavigationand
prediction
1609ThomasHarriotsketchestheMoonfromtelescopicobservationsmadefourmonthsbefore
Galileo's
1610PublishesSidereusNuncius(StarryMessenger)viewsourmoon'smountainsandcratersand
brightest4ofJupiter'smoons
1610MartinHorkypublishesBrevissimaPeregrinatioContraNunciumSidereum,opposingGalileo
1610KeplerrequestsoneofGalileo'stelescopesorlenses,butGalileorepliesheistoobusytobuild
oneandhasnoextras[191]
1610LifetimeappointmenttomathematicspositionatUniversityofPadua,andasmathematicianand
philosopherforCosimoII,GrandDukeofTuscany
1611DiscoversphasesofVenusgrantedaudiencewithPopemadememberofLinceanAcademy
1611AwardedanhonorarydegreebytheJesuitCollegeinRome[192]
1611DavidFabriciuspublishesNarrationonSpotsObservedontheSunandtheirApparentRotation
withtheSunpriortoChristophScheinerandGalileo'spublishedworksonthesubject
1612ProposedJupiter'smoonscouldbeusedasauniversalclockforpossibledeterminationof
longitude
~1612or1613FrancescoSizzidiscoversannualvariationsinsunspots'motions
1613LettersonSunspots
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10/9/2016
1613LettertoBenedettoCastellidiscussingtherotationofthesunandGalileo'ssupportofthe
Copernicansystem.UsingBiblicalinerrancyasabasis,GalileowritesthatJoshua'scommandforthesun
tostandstillinJoshua10:13provesthe"impossibilityoftheAristotelianandPtolemaicworldsystem,
andontheotherhandagreesverywellwiththeCopernicanone."[193]Hewentontowritethat"thesun
givesnotonlylight(asitobviouslydoes)butalsomotiontoalltheplanetsthatrevolvearoundit"byits
rotation.[193]
1615LettertoGrandDuchessChristina(notpublisheduntil1636)
1616OfficiallywarnedbytheChurchnottoholdordefendtheCopernicanSystem
1616TheCatholicChurchplacesDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumontheListofProhibitedBooks,
pendingcorrection
1616PrivateletterDiscourseontheTides
1617MovesintoBellosguardo,westofFlorence,nearhisdaughters'conventobservesdoublestar
MizarinUrsaMajor
1619KeplerpublishesHarmonicesMundiwhichintroduceshisthirdlaw
1619DiscourseontheComets
1623MaffeoBarberinibecomesPopeUrbanVIII
1623PublishesTheAssayer
1624VisitsPopewhopraisesandhonourshim,leavingwithassumedpermissiontopublishworkon
theCopernicanvs.PtolemaicSystemsusedacompoundmicroscope
1625IllustrationsofinsectsmadeusingoneofGalileo'smicroscopespublished
1630CompletesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystemsandsubsequentlyreceives
approvalofChurchcensor
1632PublishesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems
1633sentencedbytheInquisitiontoimprisonment,commutedtohousearrest,forvehementsuspicion
ofheresyinviolatingthe1616injunction
1633CatholicChurchplacesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystemsontheListof
ProhibitedBooks
1638PublishesDialoguesConcerningTwoNewSciences
1642DeathinArcetri,Italy
1668IsaacNewtonbuildshisreflectingtelescope
1687IsaacNewtonpublishesPhilosophiNaturalisPrincipiaMathematicaderivingKepler'slaws
fromtheUniversalLawofGravitationandtheLawsofMotion
2016TheAmericanJunospacecraft,carringaplaqueandaLegominifigurededicatedatGalileo
arrivesatJupiter'sorbit
Seealso
AristarchusofSamos
CatholicChurchandscience
DialogodeCeccodiRonchittidaBruzeneinperpuositodelastellaNuova
Galileoaffair
LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina
Philolaus
SeleucusofSeleucia
TribuneofGalileo(MemorialintheFlorenceScienceMuseum)
VillaIlGioiello(Galileo'smainhomeinFlorence)
Notes
1.F.Vinci,OstilioRiccidaFermo,MaestrodiGalileoGalilei,Fermo,1929.
2."TheMathematicsGenealogyProjectGalileoGalilei".nodak.edu.
3.Drake(1978,p.1).ThedateofGalileo'sbirthisgivenaccordingtotheJuliancalendar,whichwastheninforce
throughoutChristendom.In1582itwasreplacedinItalyandseveralotherCatholiccountrieswiththeGregorian
calendar.Unlessotherwiseindicated,datesinthisarticlearegivenaccordingtotheGregoriancalendar.
4.Singer,Charles(1941)."AShortHistoryofSciencetotheNineteenthCentury".ClarendonPress:217.
19/29
10/9/2016
5.Whitehouse,David(2009).RenaissanceGenius:GalileoGalilei&HisLegacytoModernScience.Sterling
Publishing.p.219.ISBN1402769776.
6.Weidhorn,Manfred(2005).ThePersonoftheMillennium:TheUniqueImpactofGalileoonWorldHistory.
iUniverse.p.155.ISBN0595368778.
7.ThomasHobbes:CriticalAssessments,Volume1.PrestonKing.1993.Page59
8.Finocchiaro(2007).
9.Disraeli,Isaac(1835).CuriositiesofLiterature.W.Pearson&Company.p.371.
10.Hannam,James(2011).TheGenesisofScience.pp.329344.
11.Sharratt(1994,pp.127131),McMullin(2005a).
12.Finocchiaro,Maurice(2010).DefendingCopernicusandGalileo:CriticalReasoningintheTwoAffairs.Springer.
p.74.Retrieved21May2016.
13.Finocchiaro(1997),p.47(https://books.google.com/books?id=ewKMpRsF4Y8C&pg=PA47).
14.Hilliam(2005),p.96(https://books.google.com/books?id=KBKSyHOLzZAC&pg=PA96).
15.Carney,JoEldridge(2000).RenaissanceandReformation,15001620:a.GreenwoodPublishing.ISBN0313
305749.
16.AllanOlney(1870)
17.O'Connor,J.J.Robertson,E.F."GalileoGalilei".TheMacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive.UniversityofSt
Andrews,Scotland.Retrieved20070724.
18.JohnGribbin.TheFellowship:Gilbert,Bacon,Harvey,Wren,NewtonandtheStoryoftheScientificRevolution.The
OverlookPress,2008.p.26
19.Sobel(1999,p.16)
20.Sobel(1999,p.13)
21."Galilean".TheCenturyDictionaryandEncyclopedia.III.NewYork:TheCenturyCo.1903[1889].p.2436.
22.Sobel(1999,p.16)"ThemeaningofthenameGalileo,orGalilei,harksbacktothelandofGalilee,although,as
Galileoexplainedonthisscore,hewasnotatallaJew."
23.MauriceFinnochiaro,TheGalileoAffair:ADocumentaryHistory300,330n.13(Univ.Cal.Press1998)
24.Naess,Atle(2006).GalileoGalileiWhentheWorldStoodStill.SpringerScience&BusinessMedia.pp.8991.
Retrieved11March2015.
25.Sharratt(1994,pp.17,213)
26.Rosen,JoeGothard,LisaQuinn(2009).EncyclopediaofPhysicalScience(https://books.google.com/books?id=avyQ
64LIJa0C).InfobasePublishing.p.268.ISBN9780816070114.
27.Gribbin.John(2008).TheFellowship:Gilbert,Bacon,Harvey,Wren,NewtonandtheStoryoftheScientific
Revolution.OverlookPress.p.42
28.Sobel(2000,p.5)Chapter1.(http://www.galileosdaughter.com/firstchapter.shtml)Retrievedon26August2007.
"ButbecausehenevermarriedVirginia'smother,hedeemedthegirlherselfunmarriageable.Soonafterher13th
birthday,heplacedherattheConventofSanMatteoinArcetri."
29.Pedersen,Olaf(1985)."Galileo'sReligion".InCoyne,GeorgeV.Heller,Michayciski,Jzef.TheGalileo
Affair:AMeetingofFaithandScience,ProceedingsoftheCracowConference,May2427,1984.VaticanCity:
SpecolaVaticana.pp.75102.Bibcode:1985gamf.conf...75P.OCLC16831024.
30.Reston(2000,pp.314).
31.Asimov,Isaac(1964).Asimov'sBiographicalEncyclopediaofScienceandTechnology.ISBN9780385177719
32.Edgerton,SamuelY.TheMirror,theWindow,andtheTelescope,2009
33.Panofsky,Erwin(1956)."GalileoasaCriticoftheArts:AestheticAttitudeandScientificThought".Isis.47(1):3
15.doi:10.1086/348450.JSTOR227542.
34.Sharratt(1994,pp.4566).
35.Rutkin,H.Darrel."Galileo,Astrology,andtheScientificRevolution:AnotherLook".PrograminHistory&
PhilosophyofScience&Technology,StanfordUniversity.Retrieved20070415.
36.Finocchiaro(1989),pp.679.
37.Finocchiaro(1989),p.354,n.52
38.Finocchiaro(1989),pp.119133
39.Finocchiaro(1989),pp.127131andGalilei,(1953),pp.4326
40.Einstein(1953)p.xvii
41.Galilei,(1953),p.462.
42.JamesRobertVoelkel.TheCompositionofKepler'sAstronomiaNova.PrincetonUniversityPress,2001.p.74
43.StillmanDrake.EssaysonGalileoandtheHistoryandPhilosophyofScience,Volume1.UniversityofTorontoPress,
1999.p.343
44.Drake(1960,pp.vii,xxiiixxiv),Sharratt(1994,pp.139140).
45.Grassi(1960a).
46.Drake(1978,p.268),Grassi(1960a,p.16).
47.Galilei&Guiducci(1960).
48.Drake(1960,p.xvi).
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49.Drake(1957,p.222),Drake(1960,p.xvii).
50.Sharratt(1994,p.135),Drake(1960,p.xii),Galilei&Guiducci(1960,p.24).
51.Sharratt(1994,p.135).
52.Sharratt(1994,p.135),Drake(1960,p.xvii).
53.Grassi(1960b).
54.Drake(1978,p.494),Favaro(1896,6:111)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=6&VOLPAG=111).
ThepseudonymwasaslightlyimperfectanagramofOratioGrasioSavonensis,aLatinisedversionofhisnameand
hometown.
55.Galilei(1960).
56.Sharratt(1994,p.137),Drake(1957,p.227).
57.Sharratt(1994,p.138142).
58.Drake(1960,p.xix).
59.Alexander,Amir(2014).Infinitesimal:HowaDangerousMathematicalTheoryShapedtheModernWorld.Scientific
American/Farrar,StrausandGiroux.p.131.ISBN9780374176815.
60.Drake(1960,p.vii).
61.Sharratt(1994,p.175).
62.Sharratt(1994,pp.17578),Blackwell(2006,p.30).
63.Blackwell,Richard(1991).Galileo,Bellarmine,andtheBible.NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress.p.25.
ISBN0268010242.
64.Hannam,James."TheGenesisofScience".2011.p303316.
65."TheGregoriancalendar,firstadoptedin1582,wasbasedoncomputationsthatmadeuseofCopernicus'work"
(Kuhn,Thomas(1957),TheCopernicanRevolution,HarvardUniversityPress,p.125).
66.GraneyandDanielson(2014).
67.Brodrick(1965,c1964,p.95)quotingCardinalBellarmine'slettertoFoscarini,dated12April1615.Translatedfrom
Favaro(1902,12:17172)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=12&VOLPAG=171)(Italian) .
68.Finocchiaro(1989),pp.2728.
69.Langford(1992),pp.5657
70.Finocchiaro(1989),pp.28&134.
71.Graney(2015,pp.6869)Ingoli'sessaywaspublishedinEnglishtranslationforthefirsttimein2015.
72.Finocchiaro(2010,pp.72)
73.Graney(2015,pp.71)
74.Graney(2015,pp.6676,164175,187195)
75.Finocchiaro,Maurice."WestChesterUniversityHistoryofAstronomyLecturenotes:TextsfromTheGalileo
Affair:ADocumentaryHistory".WestChesterUniversity.ESS362/562.Archivedfromtheoriginalon30
September2007.Retrieved18February2014.
76."UnaerratareproducidadurantesigloscambialacensuradelaIglesiaaGalileo".Materia.
77.Heilbron(2010),p.218
78.Sharratt(1994,pp.12631)(https://books.google.com/books?id=rB0rHzrpJOMC&pg=PA126#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e).
79."PopeUrbanVIIIBiography".GalileoProject.
80.Finocchiaro(1997),p.82(https://books.google.com/books?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC&pg=PA82)Moss&Wallace(2003),
p.11(https://books.google.com/books?id=Lw50esHmgacC&pg=PA11)
81.SeeLangford(1966,pp.13334),andSeeger(1966,p.30),forexample.Drake(1978,p.355)assertsthat
Simplicio'scharacterismodelledontheAristotelianphilosophersLodovicodelleColombeandCesareCremonini,
ratherthanUrban.HealsoconsidersthatthedemandforGalileotoincludethePope'sargumentintheDialogueleft
himwithnooptionbuttoputitinthemouthofSimplicio(Drake,1953,p.491).EvenArthurKoestler,whois
generallyquiteharshonGalileoinTheSleepwalkers(1959),afternotingthatUrbansuspectedGalileoofhaving
intendedSimpliciotobeacaricatureofhim,says"thisofcourseisuntrue"(1959,p.483).
82.Lindberg,David."BeyondWarandPeace:AReappraisaloftheEncounterbetweenChristianityandScience".
83.Sharratt(1994,pp.17175)Heilbron(2010,pp.30817)Gingerich(1992,pp.11718).
84.Fantoli(2005,p.139),Finocchiaro(1989,pp.28893).Finocchiaro'stranslationoftheInquisition'sjudgement
againstGalileoisavailableonline(https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess3
62/resources/finocchiaro.html#sentence)attheWaybackMachine(archived30September2007)."Vehementlysuspect
ofheresy"wasatechnicaltermofcanonlawanddidnotnecessarilyimplythattheInquisitionconsideredthe
opinionsgivingrisetotheverdicttobeheretical.Thesameverdictwouldhavebeenpossibleeveniftheopinionshad
beensubjecttoonlythelessseriouscensureof"erroneousinfaith"(Fantoli,2005,p.140Heilbron,2005,pp.282
84).
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85.Finocchiaro(1989,pp.38(https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&f=false),
291,306)(https://books.google.com/books?id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA306#v=onepage&f=false).Finocchiaro's
translationoftheInquisition'sjudgementagainstGalileoisavailableonline(https://web.archive.org/web/2007093001
3053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#sentence)attheWaybackMachine(archived
30September2007).
86.Drake(1978,p.367),Sharratt(1994,p.184),Favaro(1905,16:209(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?
VOL=16&VOLPAG=209),230)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230)
(Italian) .SeeGalileoaffairforfurtherdetails.
87.Drake(1978,p.3567).
88.Shea,William(January2006)."TheGalileoAffair"(unpublishedwork).GrupodeInvestigacinsobreCiencia,
RaznyFe(CRYF).Retrieved12September2010.
89.StephenHawking,ed.p.398,OntheShouldersofGiants:"Galileo...isthefatherofmodernphysicsindeedof
modernscience"AlbertEinstein.
90.Sobel(2000,pp.2324).
91. Herbermann,Charles,ed.(1913)."GalileoGalilei".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.
byJohnGerard.Retrieved11August2007
92.Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.378).
93.Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.378)Sharratt(1994,p.207)Favaro(1906,18:37880)(http://moro.i
mss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=18&VOLPAG=378)(Italian) .
94.MonumentaltombofGalileo(http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=100359).InstituteandMuseumofthe
HistoryofScience,Florence,Italy.Retrieved20100215.
95.Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.380).
96.Shea&Artigas(2003,p.200)Sobel(2000,pp.380384).
97.SectionofRoomVIIGalileaniconographyandrelics(http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/section/GalileanIconographyRel
ics.html),MuseoGalileo.Accessedonline27May2011.
98.MiddlefingerofGalileo'srighthand(http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/object/MiddleFingerGalileosRightHand.html),
MuseoGalileo.Accessedonline27May2011.
99.Sharratt(1994,pp.20405)
100.Cohen,H.F.(1984).QuantifyingMusic:TheScienceofMusicat.Springer.pp.7884.ISBN9027716374.
101.Field,JudithVeronica(2005).PieroDellaFrancesca:AMathematician'sArt.YaleUniversityPress.pp.317320.
ISBN0300103425.
102.InDrake(1957,pp.237238)
103.Wallace,(1984).
104.Sharratt(1994,pp.20204),Galilei(1954,pp.25052),Favaro(1898),8:27475(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/Lettur
aWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=274)(Italian)
105.Sharratt(1994,pp.20204),Galilei(1954,pp.252),Favaro(1898),8:275(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.
DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=275)(Italian)
106.King(2003,pp.3032(https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30)).TheNetherlandsStates
GeneralwouldnotgrantLippersheyhisrequestedpatent(King,2003,p.32(https://books.google.com/books?id=KAW
wzHlDVksC&pg=PA32)).
107.Drake(1990,pp.13334).
108.Sharratt(1994,pp.12(https://books.google.com/books?id=TgYAq3P0P8C&pg=PA1))
109.SeeNicholasKollerstrom,http://www.dioi.org/kn/NewStar.pdf
110.i.e.,invisibletothenakedeye.
111.Drake(1978,p.146).
112.InSidereusNuncius(Favaro,1892,3:81(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=3&VOLPAG=81)
(Latin) )Galileostatedthathehadreachedthisconclusionon11January.Drake(1978,p.152),however,after
studyingunpublishedmanuscriptrecordsofGalileo'sobservations,concludedthathedidnotdosountil15January.
113.Sharratt(1994,p.17).
114.Linton(2004,pp.98,205),Drake(1978,p.157).
115.Drake(1978,pp.15868),Sharratt(1994,pp.1819).
116.God'sPhilosophersjuJamesHannamOrion2009p313
117.Drake(1978,p.168),Sharratt(1994,p.93).
118.Thoren(1989),p.8Hoskin(1999)p.117.
119.IntheCapellanmodelonlyMercuryandVenusorbittheSun,whilstinitsextendedversionsuchasexpoundedby
Riccioli,MarsalsoorbitstheSun,buttheorbitsofJupiterandSaturnarecentredontheEarth
120.Baalke,Ron.HistoricalBackgroundofSaturn'sRings.(http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/saturn/back.html)JetPropulsion
Laboratory,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,NASA.Retrievedon20070311
121.Drake&Kowal(1980)
22/29
10/9/2016
122.Drake(1978,p.209).Sizzireportedtheobservationsheandhiscompanionshadmadeoverthecourseofayearto
OrazioMorandiinaletterdated10April1613(Favaro,1901,11:491)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DL
L?VOL=11&VOLPAG=491)(Italian) .MorandisubsequentlyforwardedacopytoGalileo.
123.Ingeostaticsystemstheapparentannualvariationinthemotionofsunspotscouldonlybeexplainedastheresultof
animplausiblycomplicatedprecessionoftheSun'saxisofrotation(Linton,2004,p.212Sharratt,1994,p.166
Drake,1970,pp.191196).Thisdidnotapply,however,tothemodifiedversionofTycho'ssystemintroducedbyhis
proteg,Longomontanus,inwhichtheEarthwasassumedtorotate.Longomontanus'ssystemcouldaccountforthe
apparentmotionsofsunspotsjustaswellastheCopernican.
124.Ondra(2004),p.7273
125.Graney(2010,p.455)Graney&Grayson(2011,p.353).
126.VanHelden,(1985,p.75(https://books.google.com/books?id=Lyb7GX9mQIC&pg=PA75))Chalmers,(1999,p.25
(https://books.google.com/books?id=WQh5wDlE8cwC&pg=PA25))Galilei(1953,pp.36162).
127.Finocchiaro(1989,pp.16776),Galilei(1953,pp.35960),Ondra(2004,pp.745).
128.Graney(2010,p.454462)Graney&Grayson(2011,p.352355).
129.Reston(2000,p.56).
130.Sobel(2000,p.43),Drake(1978,p.196).IntheStarryMessenger,writteninLatin,Galileohadusedtheterm
"perspicillum".
131.Rosen,Edward,TheNamingoftheTelescope(1947)
132.Drake(1978,pp.163164),Favaro(1892,3:163(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=3&VOLPAG
=163)164)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=3&VOLPAG=164)(Latin)
133.Probablyin1623,accordingtoDrake(1978,p.286).
134.Drake(1978,p.289),Favaro(1903,13:177)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=13&VOLPAG=17
7)(Italian) .
135.Drake(1978,p.286),Favaro(1903,13:208)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=13&VOLPAG=20
8)(Italian) .Theactualinventorsofthetelescopeandmicroscoperemaindebatable.Ageneralviewonthiscanbe
foundinthearticleHansLippershey(http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/lippershey.html)(last
updated20030801),19952007byDavidson,MichaelW.andtheFloridaStateUniversity.Retrieved20070828
136."brunelleschi.imss.fi.it"IlmicroscopiodiGalileo" "(PDF).
137.VanHelden,Al.GalileoTimeline(http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html)(lastupdated1995),TheGalileoProject.
Retrieved20070828.SeealsoTimelineofmicroscopetechnology.
138.Drake(1978,p.286).
139.Longitude:thetruestoryofalonegeniuswhosolvedthegreatestscientificproblemofhistime,DavaSobelPenguin,
1996ISBN0140258795,ISBN9780140258790
140.Newton,R.G.(2004).Galileo'sPendulum:FromtheRhythmofTimetotheMakingofMatter.HarvardUniversity
Press.p.51.ISBN067401331X.
141.GalileoGalilei,TwoNewSciences,(Madison:Univ.ofWisconsinPr.,1974)p.50.
142.I.BernardCohen,"RoemerandtheFirstDeterminationoftheVelocityofLight(1676)",Isis,31(1940):327379,
seepp.332333
143.Drake(1978,pp.19,20).AtthetimewhenVivianiassertsthattheexperimenttookplace,Galileohadnotyet
formulatedthefinalversionofhislawoffreefall.Hehad,however,formulatedanearlierversionwhichpredicted
thatbodiesofthesamematerialfallingthroughthesamemediumwouldfallatthesamespeed(Drake,1978,p.20).
144.Drake(1978,p.9)Sharratt(1994,p.31).
145.Groleau,Rick."Galileo'sBattlefortheHeavens.July2002".Ball,Phil(20050630)."Sciencehistory:settingthe
recordstraight.30June2005".TheHindu.Chennai,India.
146.Heilbron,JohnL.(2015),"ThatGalileopubliclyrefutedAristotle'sconclusionsaboutmotionbyrepeatedexperiments
madefromthecampanileofPisa",inNumbers,RonaldL.Kampourakis,Kostas,Newton'sAppleandOtherMyths
aboutScience,HarvardUniversityPress,pp.4047
147.Drake(1978,pp.1921,414416)
148.GalileoGalilei:TheFallingBodiesExperiment(http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/galileofallingbodies.html).Last
accessed26Dec2011.
149.Lucretius,DererumnaturaII,225229Relevantpassageappearsin:LaneCooper,Aristotle,Galileo,andtheTower
ofPisa(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1935),p.49.
150.SimonStevin,DeBeghinselendesWaterwichts,AnvangderWaterwichtdaet,endeAnhangkomennadeBeghinselen
derWeeghconstendeWeeghdaet[TheElementsofHydrostatics,PreambletothePracticeofHydrostatics,and
AppendixtoTheElementsoftheStaticsandThePracticeofWeighing](Leiden,Netherlands:ChristoffelPlantijn,
1586)reportsanexperimentbyStevinandJanCornetsdeGrootinwhichtheydroppedleadballsfromachurchtower
inDelftrelevantpassageistranslatedin:E.J.Dijksterhuis,ed.,ThePrincipalWorksofSimonStevinAmsterdam,
Netherlands:C.V.Swets&Zeitlinger,1955vol.1,pp.509,511.
151.Sharratt(1994,p.203),Galilei(1954,pp.25154)(http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.p
hp%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109969&layout=html&Itemid=27#a_2289356).
23/29
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152.Sharratt(1994,p.198),Galilei(1954,p.174)(http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3
Ftitle=753&chapter=109916&layout=html&Itemid=27#a_2289015).
153.Clagett(1968,p.561).Oresme,however,regardedthisdiscoveryasapurelyintellectualexercisehavingnorelevance
tothedescriptionofanynaturalphenomena,andconsequentlyfailedtorecogniseanyconnectionwiththemotionof
fallingbodies(Grant,1996,p.103(https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q&
f=false)).
154.Sharratt(1994,p.198),Wallace(2004,pp.II384,II400,III272)Soto,however,didnotanticipatemanyofthe
qualificationsandrefinementscontainedinGalileo'stheoryoffallingbodies.Hedidnot,forinstance,recognise,as
Galileodid,thatabodywouldfallwithastrictlyuniformaccelerationonlyinavacuum,andthatitwouldotherwise
eventuallyreachauniformterminalvelocity.
155.Jung(2011,p.504(https://books.google.com/books?id=x5FiMR3kd_8C&pg=PA540#v=onepage&q&f=false)).This
aspectofAristotle'stheoryofmotioniscoveredinBooksVIIandVIIIofhisPhysics.
156.http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/753#Galileo_0416_799orInertia#Classicalinertia
157."Hydrostaticbalance".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
158."TheWorksofGalileo".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.Retrieved20080717.
159."SunspotsandFloatingBodies".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.Archivedfromthe
originalon24October2008.Retrieved20080717.
160."Galileo,LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.
Retrieved20080717.
161."Galileo'sTheoryoftheTides".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
162."GalileoTimeline".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
163."GalileoGalilei".TelAvivUniversity,ScienceandTechnologyEducationCenter.Retrieved20080717.
164."CollectionofGalileoGalilei'sManuscriptsandRelatedTranslations".Retrieved20091204.
165.Heilbron(2005,p.299).
166.Twoofhisnonscientificworks,theletterstoCastelliandtheGrandDuchessChristina,wereexplicitlynotallowed
tobeincluded(Coyne2005,p.347).
167.Heilbron(2005,pp.30304)Coyne(2005,p.347).TheuncensoredversionoftheDialogueremainedontheIndex
ofprohibitedbooks,however(Heilbron2005,p.279).
168.Heilbron(2005,p.307)Coyne(2005,p.347)Thepracticaleffectofthebaninitslateryearsseemstohavebeenthat
clergycouldpublishdiscussionsofheliocentricphysicswithaformaldisclaimerassuringitshypotheticalcharacter
andtheirobediencetothechurchdecreesagainstmotionoftheearth:seeforexamplethecommentededition(1742)
ofNewton's'Principia'byFathersLeSeurandJacquier,whichcontainssuchadisclaimer('Declaratio')beforethe
thirdbook(Propositions25onwards)dealingwiththelunartheory.
169.McMullin(2005,p.6)Coyne(2005,p.346).Infact,theChurch'soppositionhadeffectivelyendedin1820whena
Catholiccanon,GiuseppeSettele,wasgivenpermissiontopublishaworkwhichtreatedheliocentrismasaphysical
factratherthanamathematicalfiction.The1835editionoftheIndexwasthefirsttobeissuedafterthatyear.
170.DiscourseofHisHolinessPopePiusXIIgivenon3December1939attheSolemnAudiencegrantedtothePlenary
SessionoftheAcademy,DiscoursesofthePopesfromPiusXItoJohnPaulIItothePontificalAcademyofthe
Sciences19391986,VaticanCity,p.34
171.RobertLeiber,PiusXIIStimmenderZeit,November1958inPiusXII.Sagt,Frankfurt1959,p.411
172.Anearlierversionhadbeendeliveredon16December1989,inRieti,andalaterversioninMadridon24February
1990(Ratzinger,1994,p.81).AccordingtoFeyerabendhimself,Ratzingerhadalsomentionedhim"insupportof"
hisownviewsinaspeechinParmaaroundthesametime(Feyerabend,1995,p.178).
173.Ratzinger(1994,p.98).
174."VaticanadmitsGalileowasright".NewScientist(1846).19921107.Retrieved20070809..
175."Papalvisitscupperedbyscholars".BBCNews.20080115.Retrieved20080116.
176.Owen&Delaney(2008).
177."PopepraisesGalileo'sastronomy".BBCNews.20081221.Retrieved20081222.
178.Owen(2009).
179.Hawking(1988,p.179).
180.Einstein(1954,p.271)."Propositionsarrivedatbypurelylogicalmeansarecompletelyemptyasregardsreality.
BecauseGalileorealisedthis,andparticularlybecausehedrummeditintothescientificworld,heisthefatherof
modernphysicsindeed,ofmodernsciencealtogether."
181.StephenHawking,GalileoandtheBirthofModernScience(http://www.medici.org/press/galileoandbirthmodernsc
ience),AmericanHeritage'sInvention&Technology,Spring2009,Vol.24,No.1,p.36
182.Fischer,Daniel(2001).MissionJupiter:TheSpectacularJourneyoftheGalileoSpacecraft.Springer.pp.v.ISBN0
387987649.
183.UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(11August2005)."Proclamationof2009as
InternationalyearofAstronomy"(PDF).UNESCO.Retrieved20080610.
184."BohemianRhapsody".everything2.Retrieved20100820.
185.Stavis,Barrie.LampatMidnight.SouthBrunswick,NewJersey:A.S.Barnes,1966.
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186.Lalonde,Robert.GalileoGalilei/VesaliusandServetus(https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus).
February2008.ISBN9780978390914.
187.Robinson,KimStanley(2009).Galileo'sDream.NewYork:BallantineBooks.ISBN9780553806595.
188.GiuseppeMoleti,WalterRoyLaird.TheunfinishedmechanicsofGiuseppeMoletti(https://books.google.com/books?
id=ZRoYMobkW6cC&).UniversityofTorontoPress,1999.p.5
189.RobertHenryHerman,VincenzoGalilei.DialogodellamusicaanticaetdellamodernaofVincenzoGalilei:translation
andcommentary,Part1.NorthTexasStateUniversity,1973.p.17
190.Adam,Mosley."TychoBrahe".StarryMessenger.History&PhilosophyofScienceDept,UniversityofCambridge.
Retrieved13January2012.
191.TimothyFerris.ComingofAgeintheMilkyWay.WilliamMorrow&Company,Inc.1988.p.95
192.Shea,WilliamArtigas,Mariano."TheGalileoAffair".
193.GalileoGalilei,"LettertoBenedettoCastelli(1613)"(http://www.disf.org/en/documentation/03Galileo_PBCastelli.as
p),ReligionandScience.(SourceoftheEnglishtranslation.(http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/
lettercastelli.html))
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