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WIND LOADS
by
Ahmed Shawky Awad
uisiins and
Y*
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Acquisitions et
services bibliographques
Due to their high corrosion and chemical resistance, nber reinforced plastic (FRP)
materials are increasingly being used in the construction of industrial chimneys.
However, no national code currently exists to guide the design of such type of composite
structures. This thesis attempts to investigate the structural behavior of FRP chimneys
under both thermal and wind Ioads. The study also Uicludes a s w e y to identify the
appropnate type of composite for chimneys applications and an experimental study for
evaluating the damping of such composite.
The thermal study is conducted using an in-house developed h i t e element mode1
which is used to predict values for thermal stresses that can be used in the deign of FRP
chimneys.
A cornputer code that incorporates the classical lamination theory together with a
both the dong and the vortex shedding respomes of FRe chimneys is conducted using the
developed code. Appropriate thicknessa for FRP chimneys that satisfy the strength and
the fatigue limits of the material are presented in a graphical form.
Keywords: FRP materials, chimneys, themial stresses, wind loads, damping, design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
background to his student. Without his continuous support and his Enendiy advice, this
study could not be completed.
The valuable advice of Drs. B. J. Vickery and A. Davenpoa and the tremendous
cooperation of al1 the staff in The Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel are also sincerely
appreciated.
TABLE O F CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF EXAMNATION
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
NOMENCLATURE
xvi
CHAPTER 1 NTRODUCTION
1.1 General Review
iN CONSTRUCTlON
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fibers
2.3 The M
m (polymers)
10
11
12
13
Temperature Change
Temperature
3.4 Thermal Stress Anaiysis of FRP Chimneys
3.4.1 The Effect of the Larninate Thickness
3.4.2 Effect of the Diameter of the Chimney
3.4.3 The Effect o f the Height of the Chimney
3.4.4 The Effect of the Number of Layen and Fiber rientation
3.4.5 Summary of the Results of the Parametric Study
4.12 Conciusions
111
112
114
115
115
Composite
6.5 Recommendations For Further Research
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
VITA
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER TWliEE
Coordinate systerns and nodal degrees of Eeedom of CLS element.
Variation of outer and mid-surface longitudinal and circumferential stresses
at fkee end ofcylinder due to linearly varying temperature change.
Cross-piy cylinricd panel.
Cross section and vertical projection of laminated Cylindrical FRP chimney. 52
Thermal stresses of 5 layers angle-ply (+/- 55') FRP chimney versus the
laminate thickness at a section away frorn the boundaries of the c h e y .
Thermal stresses of 5 layers angle-ply (+/- 550 ) FRP chimney versus the
laminate thickness at the base section of the chimney.
The effect of the diameter on the thermal stresses induced at the base of a
FRP chimney.
The hoop and axial stresses at the inside face dong the height of a FRP
chimney subjected to linearly varyng temperature.
CHAPTER FOUR
< = 0.70%.
= 0.85%.
< = 0.85%.
c = 1.0%.
< = 1.O%.
= 1.O%.
xii
110
CHAPTER EwE
A photo showing various components of the shaker system.
Schematic diagram of the Shake Table and the Data Acquisition System
A photo showing the epoxy glue and steel plate used in mounting the
specimen.
A photo of a typical specimen mounted to the slide table.
The damping of the fkst mode vernis the Eequency nom the resonant test.
The damping of both first and second mode versus the nequency nom
The damping ratio of the nrst mode verrus the maximum bending strain
amplitude h m the decay test.
The damping ratio versus the maximum baiding seain amplitude in the
longitudinal direction for specimen (2 in diameter)
110
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Typical properties of some selected fibers.
14
17
reinforced composites.
2.5 The mechanical properties of orthotropic layer with 70% fiber content
18
28
CHAPTER THREE
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 The dimensions, the lay-ups and the tip deflections of FRP chimneys
85
CHAPTERFIVE
5.1 The measured nahuai fi.equenciaand damping values nom the resonant
NOMENCLATURE
Al1 symbols are defined at their first appearance. The principal symbols used are listed
below :
ai, pi
P'1
1% 1
of orthotropic lamina.
Equivalent modulus of the laminate in X and y directions,
equivalent in-plane shear moduius and equivalent Poisson's ratio.
Natural kquency and mode shape of the i" mode of vibration.
Vortex shedding f?equency and Strouhal number.
decmnent,
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The cornmon impression about industriai chimneys is that they are simple vertical
structures. The tnith is that they are complex structures in their behavior and design
requirements. in fact the design of industrial c h e y s is rather sophisticated and requires
knowledge of structure dynamics, fluid rnechanics, materiai science, chemistry and heat
transfer. Aithough the casualties due to the collapse of chimneys are very few, the
consequences of chimneys' deterioration are usually disastrous in ternis of losses of the
output fiom the served equipment or industry.
and the availability of high quality welded steel, steel chimneys became more economic
than brickwork for relatively short chimneys. With the increase concem about air
pollution, the heights of the chimneys became usuaily detennined by the need to disperse
the flue gases over a wide area. As such, chimneys haMng a height ranging between 80 m
and 200 m (sometimes up to 300 m) became widely used. For such long chimneys, steel
is not econornicai as a material for construction and remforced concrete is the alternative.
Concrete chimneys are usually provided with bnckwork or a steel liner to protect the
concrete shell (windshield) h m hot and aggressive flue gases.
Industrial chimneys face a variety of environmental hazards during their life time.
These include high wind loads, across-wind oscillations, earthquakes, chernical effects
and thermal loads. Any of these hazards cm govem the design of chimneys. Besides acid
corrosion. across-wind oscillation caused by vortex shedding is the most comrnon cause
of failure in steel chimneys (Pritchard, 1996). Ail ta11 structures are subjected to the
vortex shedding phenomenon. Meanwhile, the low structural damping of steel chirnneys
makes them more vuinerable than other structures. On the other hand, concrete chimneys
possess sufficient mass and structural damping to suppress the across-wind oscillations.
This phenomenon has been researched For more than 50 yean. Till the late the L9807s,
chimneys' design codes did not provide a simple and reliable method which assists
chimneys' designers in addressing this phenomenon. Recently, chimney codes (e.g.
C I C N ( 1988), AC1 ( 1 995)) have provided approximate means for predicting excessive
across-wind amplitudes.
words, the materiais properties are optimized by combination. It is common that two or
effects of some of their less desirable properties. Although the practical applications of
composite materials go back to perhaps the Second World War, they have found wide
spread use in aerospace and marine industry only in the past two decades.
nie moa commonly used composite is the fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). In such
a composite, fibers act as a reinforcement for a polymer matrix. The fibers may be
aligned continuously or randomly in the matrix material. The fiben can be also aligned
unidirectionally or in an inter-woven arrangement. The composite is usually stacked in
multilayer fashion to form the basic structure which is called the laminate. As such,
strength, stiflhess and any other property could be tailored to provide the optimum
structural performance by changing the type of fibers or matrix and also by aitering the
conventional structural matenals. Composite materials provide high strength low weight
structures, sutam moderate and hi& temperature as well as have high corrosion
resistance for wide ranges of acids and bases. Despite of ail of these advantages, the
potentid use of composites in structural applications is stiil creeping. The reasons which
slow down their use in construction could be the lack of design experience, the
unavailability of design codes and the incomplete understanding of the behavior of FRP
matenals under long term exposure to various environmental effects.
been used as liners. This is foliowed by constructing chuiineys totally tiom FRP matenals
(Plecnik, 1984). The poor performance of polymers at hi& temperature is one of the
early difficulties faced by the materiai producers and the designers. The rapid
development of the FRP industry provideci polymen which cm sustain higher
temperatures and consequently encouraged the use of' FRP in the construction of
chimneys. Till now, no design code exists for FRP chimneys but there is an attempt by
the International Cornmittee on Industrial Chimneys CICIND to develop a mode1 code
for such structures.
h i t e element analysis.
3. Studying the behavior of FRP chimneys under wind loads, developing a
simplifieci cornputer code to be useci in the design of FRP chimneys under both
wind and thermal loads-
the literature. This mode1 is then used to conduct a parametric study to assess the effect of
various parameters which might influence thermal stresses hduced in FRP chimneys.
Finally, stress values resuiting fiam themial loads acting on FRP chimneys are evaluated
equivalent elastic modulus for FRP chimneys, a dynarnic procedure @avenport, 1993) to
evaluate the wind response and a quadratic interaction failure critenon. Fatigue stresses
due to vortex shedding are aiso accounted for in the design. A parametric study
examining the sensitivity of the along and across-wind rrsponses of FRP chimneys to the
orientation angle of the Iayen, the mass density, the damping ratio of the composite and
the tapenng ratio is conducted using the developed code. Finally, design thicknesses for
FRP chimneys covering a certain range of dimensions are introduced.
In chapter six, conclusions that are drawn fiom this study as well as
recommendations for M e r research are presented.
CEAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction
surface is usually chemically treated or coated with a very thin layer to enhance the
bondhg with the ma&,
Fiber reinforced plastic materals have usually a polymeric matrix. Plastics have
iow density, good chernical resistance and can be easily fabricated Memwhile, the lack
of thermal stability and the relatively poor mechanical properties of plastics can be
remedied by adding fiers to the plastic matrix.
The reinforcements used with FRP materials are either E-glass, S-glass, carbon or
ararnid fiben. E-glass is selected in the majority of structural applications due to its low
cost. Carbon and aramici fibers are mainly used in the aerospace and marine applications
because of their higher modulus compared to E-glas fibers. Table 2-1 shows the
mechanical properties of some of the commonly used fiers at room temperature.
Fiber
E-glas
S-gla~s
Carbon
High strength
1.70-1.80
Inter. Modulus
1-78-1-81
High modulus
1.80- 1 -90
Ultra-high
1-90-2.0
rnodulus
Aramid
1.39-1.47
( K e v l a r -
3100-4000
5300-5650
22 10-2760
1520- 1 860
1.3-1.6
1.80
0.75
0.40
210-250
290-300
340-390
480-520
3000-3620 70-179
4 9 ) ( r
1.9-4.4
d i
-0.6 (long.)
10.0 (radial)
-2.0 (long.)
l )
* Kcivar-49 is the most commonly used aramid fiber in the advanccd composite industry.
It should be mentioned that these types of fiben have different maximum working
temperatures. Depending on the type of glass, the tende strength of glas fibers starts to
decrease between 220 and 260C, reaching only 50% of its room temperature strength at a
temperature range of 480-560C. On the other hand, carbon fiben usually start to oxidize
between 300400C. Aramid fibers have maximum working temperature of 90C. Carbon
and aramid fibers are characterized by having a negative thermal expansion coefficient in
the longitudinal direction which can be used to produce a composite having zero themal
expansion.
Most of the fibers are m d a c t u r e d in the fom of Long continuous filaments and
then combined in various fashions to produce strands, tows, rovings, yarns or mats. Short
fibers are obtained by cuning the continuous fiers into lengths ranges fiom 3 to 50 mm.
Fibers have generdly a linearly elastic tende stress-strain response hl1 they fail in a
brittle mamer.
The composite matrix is required to hlfill several functions. The matrix binds the
fiben and holds them in the desired direction, acts as a stress transFemng media to the
fibers and protects the fibm from the mechanical damage, chernical and moisture attack.
The matrix has a minor role in the longitudinal strength and modulus of a unidirectional
continuous fiber composite. However, the matrix properties influences the transverse
strength and modulus as well as shear strength and modulus OF a unidirectional fiber
composite.
are used more commonly with short fiers because of the difficulty of processing high
viscosity resin with continuous fibers. Thennosets are more thermdy stable and
chemically resistant than thermoplastics. Therefore, thermosets are more suitable for FRP
chimneys applications. A bnef discussion about the properties of the previously
mentioued thermosets will be introduced in the foIlowing ab-sections.
Polyester resins are mwively used in numerous FRP applications, e.g. the
construction of pipes and tanks. Polyester resins have a relatively low cost and
meanwhile, have adequate mechanical properties as well as reasonable environmental
durability. Polyester resins can be classified as orthophthalic, isophthalic, Chlorendics
and Bisphenol A fumarates. Orthophthaiic resin is among the least expensive polyesters.
However, this type of resin has relatively poor corrosion resistance. The applications of
that resin is limited to some structural applications where neither corrosion resistance nor
corrosion resistance to that provided by isophthalic polyester. These two types of resins
have a very high rpsistance to concentrated acids. However, their resistance to alkaline
enWonments is poor. Bisphenol-A fumarates polyester resins are used for high durability
and for hi& performance applications where their relatively hi& cost can be justified.
Chlorendic polyesters have high fhe resistance but their strength and toughness properties
Vinyl esters have a higher failure strain as well as better impact darnage resistance
and Fatigue properties than typical polyesters. Vinyl esters have replaceci polyesters and
epoxies as well in many applications. They can be cured at room temperature without
postcuring and still have KDT 90C (this is a big advantage compared to epoxies). The
vinyl esters cm be classified as Fire retardant, Novolac and high elongation vinyl esters.
Fire retardant version of vinyl esters contains brominated Bisphenol-A epoxy and are
suitable for chemical resistant structures. This type of resin has a high tensile failure
strain (typically 6%). Commercial names of this type of resin which are available in
North Amenca include Derakane 510 series, CoRezyn VE 8400 series, Dion VER
9300NP and Hetron FR9911992. Novolac vinyl ester resin is particularly suited to
applications requiring both high serving temperatures and solvent resistance. The tensile
failure stran of this resin is relatively low (typically 3%). Commercial names of this type
of resin, which are available in North America include Derakane 5 ION, CoRezyn VE
8730 senes, Dion VER Y480NP, Hetron FR980 and Corin Vibrin E-085 series. High
elongation vinyl esters cm reach up to 10% failure tensile strain. Commercial names of
this resin hclude Derakane 8084 and CoRezyn 85-DA-5000.
Vinyl esters are high performance resins compared to isophthalic polyesters. They
have a superior resisrance to w a t a and chemical attack, higher stiaess at elevated
temperatures and greater toughness. The fdure shah of these resins is dso higher than
orthophthalic and isophthalic polymer resins (typically twice). Due to their excellent
2.3.3 E ~ o x v
resins
Epoxy resins are widely used in aerospace applications. In general, epoxies have
higher values of fracture toughness compaml to polyesters and vinyl esters which usually
result in superior fatigue performance. Epoxies have hi&
high mechanical properties and high working temperature. They are much expensive than
polyesters and vinyl esters and confineci to special applications requiring good
mechanical properties, specially high shear strength and high working temperature.
properties,
creep &stance,
hardness
and
flammability
characteristics. Phenolic resins are convenient for performance under heat with retention
of p r o p d w under f
kconditions. There are two basic types of phenolic resins: resole
and novolacs. Resole phenolics have mechanical properties comparable with those of
orthophthalic polyesters with extra thermal stability and fre resistance. he Iow failure
strain of phenolic resins, which leads to composite having poor mechanical properties,
has limited the application of this type of resin.
Polyimide resins have hi& thermal stability which results in service temperatures
of about 300C (among the highest of currently available resins). A study done by Buyny
(1990) has shown that composite laminates having polyimide as a resin suffer &otm
Table 2-2 shows a typical range for the mechanicd properties of thermoset resins,
(Neil, 1994). As stated by Neil (1994), this information is just indicative and the actual
properties of the polymer depend on the exact system used and the curing schedule.
pulmided or larninated structures in which the fibers can be oriented precisely. Two
directional fiber alignent is used with larninated composite and three directional is
Fibers are woven in both 0" and 90' directions which brings the lamina properties in the
two directions to be identical if the f i e r content is the same in the two directions.
Iayer is called a lamina and the whole composite is called the laminate. nie typical
thickness of a lamina varies between 0.8 to l.Omm. The order in which various laminae
(having different fibers orientation) are stacked in the laminate is engineered to obtain the
laminate consisting of six lamina whose angle of f i e r orientation are 0,+300,-30,30,+300 and 0, respectively. A laminate which is symmetric about its mid plan is
prefemd because it does not exhibit extension-bending coupling (as will be discussed in
details in chapter 4).
other structural matenal. As such, the mechanical properties and the thermal
charactenstics of a laminate can be tailored and suited to the desired application.
and their interaction with the environmental conditions such as moisture and temperature.
Two major environmental problems are usually associated with polyrners; moisture
absorption and thermal instability.
sensitive. in general, the moisture absorption of glass-epoxy composite is less than glaspolyester composite. The effect of moisture absorption has to be taken into account in the
design of poiymeric composites especiaily if the composite is highly stresseci (compared
to its ultimate strength) or if the operating temperature is close to the HDT of the min. A
Matrix
Glasdpolyester
Glasdepoxy
Carbon/polyester
Carbon/epoxy
Glass-carbon/epoxy
(weight %)
4
2
(_%)
-15
- 10
1.5
<2
(YO)
-10
- 10
+1
103cycle(%) 10'cycle(%)
-35
- 1O
-20
O
-5
-2
-3
As mentioned before, most of the polymeric matrices possess a certain HDT after
which a significant loss of the composite strength and modulus usually occur. The
reinforcing fibers have a much higher thermal stability cornpared to the matrix. As such,
the presence of the fibers in the matrix causes signincant improvement in the HDT of the
composite. By studying three ciiffirent types of matrix resin reinforced by E-glas and K
g l w fibers, Ghosh (1995) has reported that glas fiber reinforcement has trernendously
improved the HDT of the m a h . R d t s of this study are presented in Table 2-4. As c m
be noted fiom Table 2.4, the HDT of the polyester resin changed h m 79OC to 170C due
to adding 33% (by weight) of N-glas fibea to the resin. A significant improvement of
the HDT of the epoxy and the phenolic resins is also noted nom the table. The British
Standard Specification For GRP Pipes (BS 5480, 1991) recommends an upper limit for
the working temperature of polymeric composite to be 20C less than the HDT of the
composite to ensure that the composite possesses its ambient mechanical properties.
A typical environment can have hot andlor wet conditions. The stiffhess and
strength of a composite in such environment may be considerably reduced in cornparison
to its mbient properties due to the combined effect of temperature and moisture
(hygrothermai). The composite matrix is more sensitive than Abers to the hygrothermal
effect. For that, the composite properties that are dominated by the matrix are much more
affected. The hygrothermal conditions generate the most severe degradation of the plastic
composite properties; mainly the transverse normal and in-plane shear strength and
stiffhess properties. On the other hand, longitudinal properties of the plastic composites
are very slightly alfected as they are dominated by the fiber properties.
Table 2-4 Cornparison of HDT of some unreiforced m a h resins and fiber reinforced
composites (Ghosh, 1995)
Reinforcing fibers Isophthalic
1
Phenolic
polyester
Epoxy
(Resol)
used (6 layers)
HDT CC)1 %mers1 HDT (OC)1 %mers HDT("C) 1 %fibers
Unreinforced resin
79
O
94
O
130
O
Composites
N-glas
170
33
187
33
208
50
E-dass
194
36
200
36
210
50
attack and penetrate the resin matrx. This can result in damage of the fibedresin interface
as well as exposure of the fibers. The corrosion of reinforced plastics is dependent upon
the type of resin used. Glass/polyester has good resistance at low operating temperature to
most chernicals except strong bases and strong oxidants. Glass/epoxy shows better
resistance at low temperature to al1 chernicals except strong oxidants with decrease in the
resistance at high temperature. Glasdvinyl ester has an excellent chernical resistance to
alkalis and acids and is suitable for tough industrial applications. Above certain chemical
concentration and working temperature, the use of vinyl esters under strong oxidants or
aggressive solvents attack is not recommended The polymeric resins can be ranked frorn
low to hi& according to their chemical resistance as ortho-po 1yester, iso-po 1yester,
Bisphenol-polyester and vinyl ester. For denning the appropriate resin for specific
chemical attack under a certain service temperature, the designer should consult the
Due to the cyclic nature of the wind loads acting on chimneys, fatigue is a major
consideration when the design of a FRP chimney is attempted. The damage modes of
fiber reinforced composites under fatigue loading are similar to those due to static
loading. These damage modes include mairk cracking, interfacial debonding (sepration
of the fibea from the matrix), delarnination (separation of the adjacent layers) and fiber
breakage. Fatigue of FRP is characterized by three stages of damage accumulation
(Mallick, 1997). The initial stage C
O ~ ~ of
S ~pnrnary
S
fiber direction and diseibuted along the length of the fibers. Another cracks paralle1 to the
fibers develop and mers failure then initiates in the region of stress concentration created
by the primary cracks. This is usually fiollowed by delarnination in the intenor of the
laminate and excitation of al1 the damage modes till one of the lamina fils.
Generally, the increase of the fiber content increases the fatigue strength of the
composite. The angle of orientation of the fibers measured fiom the direction of the
applied load (0) has a significant role in the fatigue strength. For example, for the angleply laminate (Hl),a rapid reduction of the fatigue strength is associated with increasing
the angle of orientation of the layers. Such an increase in angle makes the mechanicd
properties of the composite more dependent on the ma&
The %ers alignment in the matrix contributes to the fatigue behavior of FRP
laminate. Unidirectional laminate, stressecl in the &ers direction, has higher fatigue
strength than multidirectional and woven fbncs. For muitidirectional laminates, the
fatigue strength as ratio of its static strength is less than that of the unidirectional
laminate, (Kim,1989). In general, the woven fabncs have lower stifiess, strength and
fatigue strength than the unidirectional and nonwoven cross-ply laminates. This is due to
the stress concentration at fiber tow crossover points in the fabric, which become sites for
fatigue damage in the resin and fiber resin-interface, @ais, 1975).
Unidirectional glasdepoxy laminate has a ratio between the fatigue strength (at 10
million cycles) and the ultirnate static strength equal to one third, (Curtis, 1989). This
value is comparab!e with the 40% and 20% ratio provided by mild steel and aluminum,
respectively. On the other hand unidirectional carbonkpoxy laminate exhibit superior
fatigue strength (80% of the ultirnate static strength at 10 million cycles). As such, carbon
fibers are preferred in aerospace applications which usually need high fatigue strength
and low weight matenals.
ester (Noprol 92-20) and rubber modined vinyl ester (Noprol 92-40). The results of the
study have shown that generally for a high amplitudes of fatigue stresses, vinyl ester
resins and iso-NPG polyester have longer fatigue Life for the same stress level compared
to iso- and ortho-polyesters. For low amplitudes of fatigue stresses, all the laminates
exhibit a sirnilar Me time. In another study, Forsdyke (1988) has shown that Phenolic
matrix gives higher fatigue strength than polyesters.
The fatigue behavior under wet envimnrnents depends on the sensitivity of the
strength is similar to its effect on the static strength of the FRP composite. However, a
reliable data for hot/wet fatigue strength of FRP materials are not available.
2.7 L o n Term
~
Performance of FFW Materials
The failure of a materid under sustained constant load is known as stress rupture.
Considering the moisture effect on the stress rupture of E-glass/polyester Bisphenol A
(lay-up, rnatlwoven rovinghat), Munscheck (1987) has pointed out that the tende
strength of the composite has been reduced under wet condition. The moa important
This finding provides a limit for the safe working strength of glass/polyester exposed to
long tem stresses at 30C. On the other han& Ho fer (1975) has show that the moisture
has improved the stress rupture of graphitekpoxy (lay-up, [0/45/-45/0/90], and [O]) at
177C. The combined effect of moisture and temperature on stress rupture is much more
complicated. The stress rupture of unidirectional glass/polyester imrnened in water was
investigated at temperatures 30C,4SC and 60C by Pritchard (1988). It was surprising
to h d that tirne of failure was longer for the 45C case than the 30C and the 60C cases.
2.8 A ~ ~ l i c a t i o n
ofs FRP Materials in the Construction Industnt
and also reduces the repair and maintenance cost of these structures.
2) FRP materials have very low weightlstrength ratio as weii as a relatively low
weight/stifiess ratio. This light weight reduces the foundation costs as well as rnakes
transporthg and assembling the structure cornponents much easier.
1) FRP bars are used as a reinforcement for concrete members. For instance, the Taylor
Bridge (Manitoba, Canada) has been constnicted recently using carbon fiber reinforced
plastic ( C m )as prestressing and shear reinforcement of four main girden as well as
reinforcement for a part of the deck slab of the bridge. Glass fiber reinforced plastic
(GFRP) bars were also used to reinforce a portion of the barrier wall of the bridge.
2) FRP structural shapes such as wide flange sections, angles, channels, hollow rounded
and rectangular sections are used as the main suctural elements in the construction of
bridges and industrial buildings. These sections are usualy fabricated nom E-glus
fibers with polyester or vinyl ester resins. A large nurnber of composite plastic bridges
aiready exist in many countries ail over the world. For exarnple, Fiberline BridgeKolding (Denmark), one of the largest GFRP bridges in Europe, the lightweight of the
composite allowed the bridge to be easily erected in only 18 night-time hours. Pa10
Alto (California) bridge, 10-
long
demonstrates the feasibility of using E-glas fiber reinforced polymer in short span
bridges.
3) FRP laminates are used in up-grading and retrofitting of existing structures.
4)
FRP laminates are used as main structural components in the construction of pipes,
tanks, stacks and large roofs (e.g. Haj terminal in Saudi Arabia, the Pontiac Silver
1) The cost of FRP materials is a major obstacle to the spread use in structurai
application. The cost of the cheapest FRP composite @-glasdpolyester) is twice that
of iow carbon steel.
2) The FRP materials have relatively low stifiess. For that, most structural applications
are not govemed by the strength but by the stifiess of the material.
3) Some of the FRP composites can sustain the individual effects of environment
behavior of FRP matenals, researchers rely on extrapolation nom laboratory data. This
gives rise to a suspicious long term behavior and uncertain.
4) The lack of practical codes for the variety of structurai applications hinden the use of
E3.P matenals with confidence, as the required experience does not exist.
he aim of the previous discussion was to present the mechanical propemes and
environmentai resistance of fiber reinforceci plastic polymers. The final objective is to be
able to choose the constihients of an FRP composite which suit the industrial chimneys
applications. From the previous discussion and based on the serviceability conditions of
industrial chimneys which include high thermal effect, chernical environment and cyclic
loading due to wind actions, the following constituents of FRP are comidered to be
appropriate for chimneys:
a) Fibers
For the level of stresses expected in an industrial chimney, E-glas fibers are the most
suitable type of fibers h m the cost point of view. However, the surrounding matnx
(resin) has to assure the necessary chemical and abtasion resistance to protect the fiben
from any chemical substances.
b) Matrix
In view of the mechanical properties of the available polymeric resins, given in table 2-2,
one may conclude the following:
Polyester resins (the least expensive resins) have almost the same modulus and
strength ranges as vinyl esters, epoxies and Phenolic. These resins have reasonable
failure strain. moderate chernical resistance and low continuous service temperature
(up to 130C). As such, the use of polyester resins should be confined to low
temperature applications which does not involve strong chemical environment in the
form of strong bases and strong oxidants.
Vinyl ester resins have slightly higha continuous service temperature (up to 150C)
train
chernical resistance. For that, vinyl esters are suitable for the consmiction of indusnial
chimneys having moderately service temperature.
Epoxy resins, while having better continuous service temperature than vinyl esters (up
to 180OC), are not as good in chemical resistance and have a higher cost.
Phenolic and Polyimide resins have higher lange of service temperature (120 -300 O C )
wth good chemical resistance. Both of hem have very low failure strain. PhenoIic
mins are low tensile strength resins having a low cost. Polyirnide resins have very
high tensile strength and a high cost.
the chirnney is less than the continuous service temperature of the vinyl ester polymer.
For the case of chimneys having high service temperature and chernical attack is not a
conceni, epoxy polymers reinforced by E-glas fiben cm be used for such applications.
Typical mechanical properties of vinyl ester E-glas composite layer having 70% fibers
content (by weight) which will be used in the rest of this thesis, are shown in Table 2-5.
Table 2-5 The mechanical properties of E-glasdvinyl ester layer with 70% fiber content
Modulus
Longitudinal
Transverse
In-plane shear
GPa
E, = 36.85
E1= 1 1.16
G,,=3.36
Ultimate Strength
Longitudinal (tende)
Transverse (tende)
In-planeshear
~~~~~
MPa
O,
= 552.77
O,
= 16.74
O,? = 70.57
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Introduction
Due to their high corrosive resistance, fiber reinforced plastic materials are
increasingiy being used in the construction of industrial chimneys. The design of a
chimney is governeci mainly by wind loads and thermal stresses resulting frorn the
differences among the ambient, the operathg and the curing temperanires.
formulation of the element is extended in this study to include thermal stress analysis of
larninated structures.
The finite element development is verified using results of thermal stress analysis
for a number of plate and shell problems which are available in the literature. The finite
element mode1 is then used to perform an extensive parametric study in order to identify
the main parameters affecting the themal stresses induced in
considerations which should be accounted for when perfonning thermal stress anaiysis of
FRP chimneys are discussed. Finally, a chart predicting thermal stresses induced in EXP
chimneys as a function of the parameters defining the through thickness temperature
distribution is presented.
elernents, which are based on the Mincilin plate theory (Mindlin, 195l), provide a suitable
numerical tool for nich an application. Degenerated sheil elements were first introduced
by Ahmed et ai. (1970) through the nine-node isoparamehic element. However,
degenerated isoparametric shell elements have shown to predict very stiff solutions
(locking) when used to mode1 thin plate and sheil structures. A large number of attempts
have been done to overcome this looking phenornenon which achially results kom the
elements. However, none of these attempts have been successfbi in a general application.
A consistent subpararnetric laminated shell elernent was developed by Koziey ( 1993).
The main advantage of this element is being k e Eom the spurious shear modes; i.e. does
not exhibit locking when used to mode1 thin shell structures. This has been achieved by
using a consistent formulation which includes cubic approximations for displacements
and quadratic interpolation for rotations as will be seen later.
2) Local set of axes (x',yt,z'), x' and y' are tangent to the surface, while
2'
is
The location of a point within the element in the global coordinate system is determined
by the coordinates of the corner and the mid-side nodes
(x,,x,zJ
node as
Ni are quadratic interpolation hmctions and V,i is the unit vector perpendicdar to the
d a c e (at node i) multiplied by the thickness of the sheil and t is the through thickness
P (about
x') are achieved using rotational degrees of keedom at the corner and mid-side nodes. It
should be noted that these rotational degrees of fkeedom provide a linear displacement
through the thickness. The degrees of freedorn associated with various nodes of the
element are shown in Fig.3.1.
Based on the above, the global displacements u, v and w in terms of the nodal degrees of
Freedom are
where
Ht
M,= , H is the thiclmess of the shell, Ni and Niare cubic and quadratic
7
V,i and Tziare directed dong the local axis x' and y' axes, respectively. The procedure
for calculating the above vecton is desm'bed by Koziey (1993). It should be noted that
another set of degrees of &dom,
through the thickness of the shell (and consequently exact distnibution of the transverse
shear stresses), were used in the formulation of the element. Such degrees of hedom are
important when the analysis of a thick &el1 stmchire is considered. In the current
application, which is directed towards the analysis of thin structures, these degrees of
fkedom were deactivaid A fll description of the element as well as the stiffiiess maau<
In this sub-section, the load vector of the laminated consistent shell element
where
E',
and doare the initial local strain and stress vectors, respectively. The matrix
[Df]is related to the constitutive matrix for orthotropic matenal [Dl using the following
transformation:
(3.4)
The constitutive matrix [Dl, given by Jones (1975), is defined in the materiai axes system
1-2-3 (axis 1 is pardel to the fiber direction, while axes 2 and 3 are perpendicuiar to the
fibers, both axes 1 and 2 are tangent to the mid-dace of the shell). The matrix [TJ
represents the transformation matrut relating the local axes system (x',y' and z') to the
matend axes system (12 and 3). An expression for [Thl is given by Cook et al. (1989). It
should be noted that the transformation angle 0 (orientation angle), which is included in
the ma& [TJ, is the angie between the %adirection (axis 1) and the local axis x'. In
practice, practitioners usually use the angle betwem the fiers and the vertical axes of the
chimney as a reference angle. However, in this study, it was decided to define 0 as the
angle between the x' axis (i.e. horizontal plane) and the fibers direction. This was done
for convenience to be consistent with the way consistent shell element is developed.
A temperature change AT vdl induce initial thenaal strains {&}
where a,,and a ?, are the thermal expansion coefficients of the Lh Iayer in the direction
of axes 1 and 2, respectively. The transformation m a h
[Tc]is applied to
{&"a}to
obtain the local initial strains {EL} expresseci relative to the local axes X'J' and z' i.e.
and substituthg Eq.3.3 into Eq.3.7 (putthg {sa} = {O} ), the following expression for
P'J relates the nodal degrees of fkedom to the local strains and
is defined by Koziey (1993), H and hL are the total thickness of the sheii and the thickness
of the 'L layer, respectively, detlJl is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix and is also
given by Koziey (1993), and t, is the through thiclmess variable varying from -1 at the
bottom to +1 at the top of the L~ layer, and is related to t using the following relation:
strains { E ') resulting fkom such temperature change are obtained. Substituthg { o . } and
{si i into Eq.3.3, the thermal stresses {a'}cm be evaiuated.
thickness temperature distribution The temperature variation at any point w i t h the plate
is expressed as: T(x,y,z) = TLs/H, where TLis the value of the temperature at the top and
bonom
rnid-surface; and H is the thickness of the plate. The boundary condition of the plate are
such a way that the x-displacements are prevented at the two edges perpendicular to the
x-axis, the y-displacements are prevented at the two edges perpendicular to the y-axis,
and the z-displaciments are prevented dong the four edges of the plate. Results of the
analysis are presented using the dimensionless parameter w, which is defuied as:
wL= H w/a, TLA'
where: w, is the centrai deflection of the plate, a,is the coefficient of thermal expansion,
and A is the length of the plate dong the x-axis.
The analyses are conducted For different A/B and W A ratios; where B is the length of the
plate dong the y-axis. Values of the dimensioniess parameter w, resulting from these
analyses together with those predicted by Timoshenko et al. (1959) are presented in Table
3.1 showing an excellent agreement. It should be noted that the displacements resulting
fkom the thermal analysis of isotropic plate are independent of the modulus of elasticity
of the plate. The Poisson's ratio of the plate considered in this exarnple is assurned to be
Table 3.1. Results ofthe analysis of an isotropic plate subjected to lineariy varying
tem~erahm
w, for various A/B
ratios
Source
A/B=I .O
A/B=2.0
Timoshenko (1959)
Timoshaiko (1959)
Timoshenko (1959)
An angle ply (#) square plate is considered for thermal stress analysis using the
consistent shell element. The plate has the same boundary conditions and is subjected to
the same through thickness temperature distribution described in the previous exarnple.
The mechanical properties of the orthotropic lamina dong the 1-2 directions (1 is the
fiben direction and 2 is an axis perpendicular to the fibers in the plane of the plate) are
givenas: E,
= 53.8
a, = 6 . 3 IO4
~ m,m/ O C , a = 20% IO6 d m / OC.The aspect ratio of the plate is chosen in
ARI = 100; where A is the length of the plate and H is the thickness.
The analyses are conducted for various angles of orientation 8 and considering 1
and 4 layers, respectively. Results of the analyses are also presented using the
dimensionless parameter w, and are given in Table 3.2 together with those predicted by a
finite element soIution conducted by Wu et al. (1980). An excellent agreement between
the results of two sets of analyses is shown.
Source
2 layers
4 layers
A closed fonn solution for the thennai stress anaiysis of free standing isotropic
T,and T, are the temperatures at the inside and outside faces of the shell, respectively. In
the above equation, the stresses at the outer Face are t e d e if T,>T,. An isotropic free
standing cylinder having a modulus of elasticity E =36.85 GPa ,a Poisson's ratio v = 0.3,
a coefficient of thermal expansion a = 7.7~10' m/m/OC and a diameter D
=3 . h
is
modeled using the consistent laminated shell element. The cylinder is subjected to the
through thickness temperature distribution shown in Fig.3.2. The above parameters are
substituted into Eq.3.10 to obtain the stresses at a cross section away from the boundaries.
According to Eq.3.10 such a section is subjected to pure fircdereatial and longitudinal
bending stresses (Le. stresses at the mid-suffice e q d zero) which are equal to 2.027 MPa
and -2.027 MPa at the inner and outer faces, respectively. Results of the nnite element
analysis together with those predicted by Timoshenko e t al. (1959) are presented in
G,
and <r,
is the mid-plane
,, vanishes at
the fkee end and that both oh, c, approach the exact value (2.027 MPa) away fiom the
boundaries. It is also clear fkom the figure that a full agreement between the finite
element and the closed form solution is achieved.
Tem~erature
RI B = 1 , where the
variables A, B and R are shown in Fig.3.3 and H is the thickness of the shell. Two types
of boundary conditions are considered in the analysis; BC, has the four edges of the panel
clamped while BC2 has the circular edges klly clamped and the straight edges (dong ya i s ) satisQ the following boundary conditions (see Fig.3.3 for axes description):
i) The x and z displacements as well as the rotation about the x-axis are restrained
ii) Al1 other motions are ailowed
The layers have the following properties defineci in the directions of the material axes ( 12): E, = 181 GPa,
= 6 1 1 GPa, v , =~ v , , =v,
prwnted using the dimensionles parameter w, ,defned in nib-section 3.3.1, and are
given in Table 3.3 together with those predicted by a f i t e element analysis conducted by
Chandrashekhara et ai. (1993). It could be concluded fiom the results shown in table 3.3
that the consistent laminated shell element provides a very good agreement with the
analyses conducted by Chandrashelcharaet ai. (1993).
a
=
Chandrashekhara (1993)
Having verified the accuracy of the consistent laminated shell element when
extended to thermal stress analysis, the finite element mode1 is then used to study the
effect of various parameten affecting thermal stresses induced in FRP chimneys. FRP
chimneys are usually constmcted fiom angle-ply laminates with orientation angles varies
between 8
k35O
presented in sub-section 2.4. Figure 3.4 shows a typical cross section of cylindrical
chimney and a vertical projection of the laminate. It is also s h o w in the figure, the
material axes 1-2, the local axes x' and y' and the orientation angle 8.
between the operating and the curing ternperatures, a number of FRP chimneys
constructed ffom a Der41 1-45 matrix reinforced by E-giass fibea are modefed using the
consistent laminated shell elernent. For a 70% fiber content (based on weight), the
mechanical properties for a laminate dong the material axes are given by: E,= 36.85 GPa,
= 4.32
4 3 . 4 10-6
~ mlmPC, where a,and a, are the coefficient of thermal expansion in the Bbers
direction and perpendicular to the fibers, respectively.
boundary conditions are assumed to be full kation at the bottom of the chimney and fkee
displacements and rotations at the top.
considered for thermal stress analysis. The larninate of the chimney consists of 5 angleply layers (5S0/-55" 155"/-55"/55"). Notice that these angles are measured relative to the
axis x', x' is an axis tangent to the surface and located in a horizontal plane. The andysis
is carried out by varying the laminate thickness in the range of 1Omm to l3Ornm. The
temperature distribution is assumed to be linear with values of -30C and -130C at the
interior and exterior surfaces, respectively (as described in the previous section). The
thermal stresses that resulted h m the analysis are plotted in Figs.3.5 and 3.6 for a
location away nom the boundary and for a point located at the base of the chimney,
respectively. Fig.3.5 indicates that the thickness has no effect on the thermal stresses at
sections located away nom the boundary. This is due to the fact that by increasing the
thickness of the shell, both the initial thermal strains (extemal load) and the stifiess of
the shell increase and thus the same values of final thermal stresses are obtained. Fig.3.6
shows that up to a thickness of 3 0 m , an increase in the thickness leads to a
corresponding increase in the themial stresses at the base of the chimney. The same figure
shows that beyond a thickness value of 30mm, stresses become almost constant. This
behavior was also reported for laminated plates by Thangaratnam et al. (1987).
consisting of 5 layers symmetric angle-ply laminate (8= t5s0) is considered for thermal
stress analysis in order to asses the efTect of the diameter of the chimney. The temperature
variation follows the linear dishibution previously described when studying the effect of
the thickness. The parametric study is perfomed by varying the diameter of the chimney
in the range between 1.5m and 6m. The variation of the themal stresses induced ai the
base of the chimney versus the diameter is presented in Fig.3.7. It could be concluded
from the figure that the change in the diameter has no significant effect on the thermal
The effect of the height of the chimney on the induced thermal stresses is studied
by fixing both the diameter and the thickness of the FRP chimney and varying its height.
Analyses indicated that the maximum values of thermal stress (occurring near the fixed
bottom of the chimney) are independent of the height of the chimney. The stress
distniutions along the height are Clpcaily as shown in Fig.3.8; the change of the height
only a e c t s the length of the region having constant stress distriiution.
3.4.4
In this section, the effects of varying both the number of layers (keeping the total
thickness constant) and the orientation of the fibers on the thermal stresses induced in
FRP chimneys
FRP
maximum longitudinal stresses a,and transverse stresses q (occurring near the base) for
the outside face of the c b e y are plotted versus the angie of orientation 8 for different
laminate configurations. Fig.3.10 shows similar graphs plotted for the inside face. Both
figures indicate that the number of layers has no significant effect on both the
longitudinal and the transverse stresses. At the inside face of the shell, the increase of the
90" and decreases the transverse stresses which reach minimum values at O = 90"- For the
outside face, the increase of the angle ply 8 leads to a slight decrease in the stresses which
is then followed by a significant increase of the stresses with the angle 8 (at 0 = 37.5" for
From the above conducted parametric study, it can be concluded that the height,
the diameter, the thickness and the number of layen used to achieve the thickness have
almost no effect on the maximum thermal stresses induced in FRP chimneys. Such
stresses are usually very localized in a nanow region near the base of the chimney. The
main parameten affecting the values of the stresses are the temperature profile, the angle
of the orientation of the fibers, the coefficient of thermal expansion and the modulus of
elasticity along the fibea direction. For practical FRP chimneys consisting of glass fibers
and vinyl ester resin, the last two parameten depend rnainly on the percentage of the
fibers content.
The practical range for the angle of inclination 0 is between 3S0 and 55". Examining
the stress values shown in Figs.3.6 and 3.7 (these figures represent results for chimney
having 0
55O),
the fiben direction) and q (perpendicdar to the fibers direction) are approxirnately 100
MPa and 80 MPa, respectively. Typical d t h a t e strength dong the fiben a,, and
perpendicular to the fibers ouhave approximately the following values o,,=il00 MPa
and sZu
= 33.5 MPa (for 70% E-glas content based on weight). Cornparison between the
induced stresses and the ultimate strength indicates that although large factor of safety is
achieved along the libers direction, the cross &ers direction is unsafe. As such, one
would expect that cracks localized at the bottom part of the chimneys paralle1 to the fiber
direction would occur (independent of the value of the thkkness) due to thermal stresses.
From the above discussions, it is clear that the temperature distribution assumed
in the analysis results in across thermal stresses which are approxirnately 2.5 times the
allowable stresses in that direction. As such, it is aixnost impossible to avoid cracking in
the across fiber direction. Moreover, if the design is govemed by preventing such cracks,
the fiber reinforcement would be redundant. Knowing that cracks will occur, it has been
decided to anaiyze the FRP chimneys under thermal loads by assuming that the stiffhess
in the direction perpendicular to the fibers alrnost vanishes (Le. & is very mall). R i s
assumption is made for al1 layers along the height of the chimney. The author believes
that this assumption is conservative because, in practice, cracks will not occur in al1
layen and not necessary along the whole height of the chimney. The safety of an FRP
chimney analyzed under such an assumption can be checked by assuring that the stresses
dong the fiben do not exceed the ultimate strength divided by a suitable factor of safety
and also that the interlarninar shear stresses are also well below the ultimate shear
snength. By assuring that the interlaminar shear stresses are safe and using an angle-ply
configuration, it is expected that the cracks in one layer will be very much controlled by
the stifiess of the two adjacent layers along the fibers direction. Figure 3.1 I shows the
variation of the longitudinal stresses o,with the angle ply 0 for a typicd FRP chimney
using the temperature distriiution descrihi above (after degrading the across fibers
stiflhess). It should be noted that the anaiysis has been perfomed for a practical range of
8 varying between 3S0 and 60". From Fig.3.11, it c m be concluded that the maximum
stresses o,do not exceed value of 180 MPa This value leads to a factor of safety of
approximately six when compared to the ultimate strength. in order to check safety
against shear failure, the in-plane shear stress r,, as well as the transverse shear stresses
r,, and r,, resulted from the same analyses are plotted in Fig.3.12 versus the angle of
orientation 8.The typical values For the ultimate shear strength in-plane and transverse
are given by r,, = 70.6 MPa ,r,, = 70.6 MPa and 7, = 18.85 MPa Cornparison between
the induced shear stresses and the ultimate ones reveals that factor of safety of
approximately 3.5, 15 and 5.6 are achieved for the in-plane and the transverse shear
stresses, respectively.
Restrainng the design to FRP chimneys constnicted nom vinyl ester resin
reinforced by 70% (based on weight) E-glas fibers, for a certain angle of inclination 8 of
the fibers, the themal stresses depend only on the temperature profile. This profile is
2. The Merence between the temperahire at the inside and the outside faces (AT); AT =
Using the approach described in sub-section 3.5. analyses have been conducted to
determine the maximum stresses o, as function of Tm and AT for huo angle
configurations, 8 = f 35' and k 55'. respectively. Figures 3.13 and 3.14 show the
variation of the maximum dong fiber stresses CF, vems the temperature variation AT for
different values of' Tmfor 0 = f 35" and i 5S0, respectively. These graphs can be used to
estimate the stresses induced in a FRP chimney, having the above-described properties
under various temperanite variations. Cornparison between the two graphs indicates that
in general higher themal stresses are introduced when the fiben become more vertically
inclined (i.e. 0 = f 55' leads to higher thermal stresses than 0 = + 35'. The shear stresses
associated with various temperature profiles are shown in Tables 3.4 and 3.5 for 0
35O and f5S0, respectively. It should be noted that the shear stresses Vary linearly with the
parameter Tmand independently of AT. The designer of FRP chimney has to assure that a
sufficient factor of salety is achieved against shear failure.
Table 3.4. The in-plane and transverse shear stresses associated with the longitudinal
Table 3.5. The in-plane and transverse shear stresses associated with the longitudinal
stresses in Fig.3.14 for an angle.
Middle surface
Maximum in-plane
Maximum transverse
shear stresses
s-
The developed h i t e element formulation is then used to study the effect of various
parameters which might influence the thermal stresses induced in angle-ply laminated
fiber reinforced plastic chimneys. Redts of the parametric midy indicate that the
thickness, the diameter, the height and the number of laminae have no significant effect
on the induced thermal stresses. Analyses indicate that the thermal stresses depend
rnainly on the through thiclmess temperature distnution (relative to the curing
temperature), the angle of orientation of the fiers, the coefficient of tfiennal expansion
and the moduus of elastici@ dong the fers direction. The last two parameters depend
on the mer content in the matrix. The thermal stress analyms of typical FRP chimneys
shows high stress concentration near the boundaries with in-plane across fiber stresses
exceeding the typical ultimate strength in this direction. As such, cracks are expected to
occur in FRP chimneys as a result of through thickness temperature variations. However,
it is believed that these cracks will be controlled if the interlarninar shear stresses are less
than the ultimate shear strength divided by an appropriate factor of safety.
The analysis then proceeds by assuming a negligible value for the modulus of
elasticity in the direction perpendicular to the fibers. Results of this 1 s t set of analysis
indicate that for the practical range of the early mentioned influential parameters, the
dong fiber direction stresses as well as the shear stresses of cracked chimneys are within
acceptable values. Finally charts predicting the dong fiber thermal stresses induced in
typical cracked FRP chimneys (but lirnited to 70% nber content and angles of inclination
9 = f 3 5 O and f 55') as a function of the through thickness temperature distribution are
presented These stress values c m be considered when the design of a FRP chimney is
atternpted.
u,%W,cCPi
sR
0 4 v,
W'
of M o m of CLS element.
i
Elasticity
A
0
present
Y (ml
Fig3.4 Cross section of FRP chimney and vertical projection ofthe laminate.
a"
0
2
-,
bF -25
-50
inside Face
-75 -100
0.02
0-04
0-06
0.08
O. 1O
0.12
0.14
thickness (m)
Fig3.6 Thermal stresses of 5 layers angle-ply (+/- 5 9 ) FRP chimney versus the laminate
thickness at the base section of the chimney.
120
80 7,
40
........-........A-
- ..
O2
**
- - . - ..
*
d,
inside face
-80
-120
01
Diameter (m)
Fig.3.7 The eKect of the diameter on the thexmai stresses induced at the base of a FRP
chimney.
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
Fig.3.8 The hoop and axial streses at the inside face dong the height of a FRP
chimney subjected to linearly varyi.ng temperature.
Fig.3.9 The maximum longitudinal and transverse stresses at the outside face of the
larninate vs. the angle of orientation.
+/- 8
AT,=-30 OC
AT,=-
.....
--
130 O C
*
-
2 layers
4 layers
-
E y E l n000
O,
O,
(inside fce)
10 layers
Fig.3.11 The maximum longitudinal stresses at the inner and outer Face of the laminate
vs the angle of orientation after degrading the across fibers stitfness of the layers.
Fig.3.12 In-plan shear stress s,, ,transverse shear stresses r,, ,r, of 10 layer lamiBate
at the bottom of the chimney after degxading the across fibers dffhess of the layers.
1 . . . - .- -
inside face
Fig.3.13 The longitudinal thermal stresses of 35' angle-ply FRP chimney for Merent
temperature fields (degraded across fibers modulus E, = E,!1000)
AT,,
T r\
inside face
Fig.3.14The longitudinal themai stresses of 55' angle-ply RIP chimney for different
temperature fields (degraded across fibers modulus E, = E ,11000)
CEAPTER 4
COMPUTER A[DED-DESIGN CODE TO EVALUATE WIND RESPONSES OF
FlBER REINFORCED PLASTIC CEfIMNEYS
4.1 Introduction
One of the engineering problerns that interest the researchea and the designers of
industrial chimneys is understanding the complete behavior of the vortices in the
downstream of cylinden created by the oncoming flow. Strouhal stated the relationship
between the fkequency of the vortices, the wind speed and the diameter of the cylinder
more than a cenhny ago. Many efforts have been made in the past to estimate the
magnitude of the fluctuating forces acting on cynders and associated with the turbulent
wind in the wake of the structure (VanKoten (1969), Scurton (1963), Vickery (1997),
Davenport (1993)). The vortex shedding phenornenon is stilI an open area of research. As
stated by Vickery (1997). the difficulty in predicting the across-wind behavior of
chimneys is that the current available wind hmneis are not capable of achievkg high
Reynolds number associated with prototype chimneys.
an equivalent static loads according to the CICIND code for steel chimneys (1988), or
as a combination of static and dynamic loads based on a procedure developed by
Davenport ( 1993).
4) Tsai and Wu (1971) failure criterion used to constnict a failure envelope representing
applying the fatigue damage indicator defined by the EUROCOMP Design Code of
FRP (1997).
in this chapter, a bnef description for the above theones and procedures and how
they are incorporated in the development of a computer design-aided code for EXP
chimneys subjected to wind loads, is presented. A flow chart showing the interaction
between different parts of the cornputer code is givm. A verification for the developed
code using results of detailed finite element is presented and a parametnc study on the
parameters affecthg the vortex shedding respome is performed. Finally, design
thicknesses for different aspect ratios and factors of safety are provided for FRP chirnneys
subjected to both wind and themai loading.
the figure, the FRP chirnney is constxucted from a number of curved larninae. in each
lamina, fibers have a specific orientation forrning an orthotropic layer. The principle
material axes for each lamina are those parallel and perpendicular to fiber direction as
shown in a vertical projection of a typical laminate given in Fig.4.2. In this figure, axes 1
and 2 are tangent to the surface and are parallel and perpendicular to the fiben,
respectively. Axis 3 is perpendicular to the surface, Le. perpendicular to both axes 1 and
2. In the sarne figure, another set of local orthogonl axes X,y,Z are shown; both K and
y are tangent to the surface of the chimney, X lies in a horizontal plane and y
has an
inclination a (a is the tapering angle of the chimney) with the vertical, Z is perpendicular
to both X and
material axis 3). The direction of the local axes (Z-7) relative to the matenal axes (1J ) is
shown in Fig.42, where 0 is the angle between axes 1 and X.
directions. The material properties of each lamina in the directions parallet and
perpendicular to the fibers (material directions) are usually available from the
manufacturer. Starting h m the stress-strain relations for each orthotropic lamina, the
classical lamination theory can be used to evaiuate the elastic pmperties for an equivalent
orthotropic section. The aeps used to obtain the equivaient orthotropic properties are
described in the following sub-sections.
The classicd lamination theory is based on the assumption that transverse shear
stresses r,, and
,
t
neglected. Based on the above assumptions, the stress strain relations in the principal
material axes (1,2,3) for an orthotropic lamina are given by:
T
where Qijare the reduced stiffhesses and are defineci in terms of engineering constants as
Qll
El
I - u12uT,
E, and Etare the longitudinal and transverse Young's modulus of the lamina (paralle1 and
perpendicular to the fibers, respectively) , G,,is the in-plane shear modulus, v , is
~ the
major Poisson's ratio of the lamina defined as the ratio between the transverse strain
the longitudinal strain
E,
to
Stresses and strains in the local axes systern (%y) are related to the material axes
[TI
is defined as
where 0 is the angle of orientation between the material lamina axes and local laminate
axes as shown in FigAl.
Usig Eqs. 4.1 to 4.5, the stress strain relations in the X,y,Z coordinates are given by
where
O,, = (QI, + Q,
- 4~,)sin~Ocos~e
+Q,2(~U14e
+COS%)
+ 2Q,)sin30cos0
= (Q, , - QI,- 2Q,)slli38cos0 + (Q,, -Qn + 2Q,)sin0cos3~
Q, = (QI, + Qu - 2Q12- 2 ~ ~ ) s i n ~ 9 c o+sQ,(sin%
%
+ cos%)
It is noticed that the coefficients of the transforrned reduced stifhess matrix
4, given by
Eq.4.7 have no zero cross-diagonal terms in contrast with the reduced stifiess matnx Q,,
given by Eq.4.1. This means that coupling exists between shear strain and normal stresses
as well as between shear stresses and normal strains.
The classical lamination theory assumes perfectly bonded layen, Le., no slip is
allowed between the layea. For a thin laminate, the transverse shear deformations y, and
y, are neglected. As such, a straight line perpendicular to the middle surface will remain
straight and perpendicular to the middle surface when the laminate extends or bends,
(Kirchhoff-Love hypothcsis). Also, by neglecting the normal stmh si, the middle
K ~ K,
,and
andf directions,
the above, the strain components through the laminate thickness can be obtained From the
following relation:
By substituting Eq.4.9 into Eq.4.6, the stresses in the kh layer cm be expressed in ternis
locations is expected to occur in spite of the continuity of the strains through the
thickness of the laminate.
The resulting laminate forces and moments can be obtained by integrating the
%
E;
Y:,
&+k,
-
#
E
K-
, ,are the membrane forces per unit length, M,, M iand M ,are
the bending moments per unit length of the laminate, N is the total number of layers and
Z, andZk-,are the distance betwem the top and the bottom faces of the kmlayer from the
middle surface as shown in Fig.4.3. Since the middle surface strains and curvatures do
not vary with the coordinate, Z ,Eq.4.11 and Eq.4.12 can be rewritten as
Where
N
a,B, and D, are the extensional, coupling and bending stiffnesses. The prnence of Bi,
terms produces couphg between the bending and the extension of the laminate. As such ,
a laminate which has non zero BQterms will bend a d o r twist if it is extended. For more
The purpose of this section is to evaluate the elastic properties for an equivalent
single orthotropic layer to replace the laminated FRP in perfonning the analysis. As
mentioned before, when the laminate is constnicted by stacking a number of orthotropic
iaminae in an arbitras, sequence of orientations, the laminate stiffhess matrices will be
hlly populated. The presence of the coupling rnatrix
bending and extension. Meanwhile, the presence of A,, and A, in the matrinix A produces
coupling between the normal stresses and shear strains ( D,,and DI, do the sarne effect).
For laminates which are symmetric about their mid-plane (Le. for each lamina above the
rnid-plane, there is an identicai one at equal distance below the mid-plane), the
components of the coupling matrix [BIvanish. On the other hanci, for laminates which are
anti-symmetric about their mid-plane (Le. for each lamina above the mid-plane having a
positive angle0 ,there is another lamina at qua1 distance below the mid-plane with same
thickness and have a negative angle ), the t e m A,, A,, Dl,and D2,vanish. For the
case of laminates constnicted fiom large number of angle-ply layers M.the cornponents
of the matrx p]flly vanish and the ternis A,, A.,
zero and thus can be negiected. The chimneys considered in this study are chosen to meet
such criteria
Substituthg Bi,, A,,, A , D,,and D2,with zeros into Eqs. 4.13 and 4.14, yields:
(NI = [Al @)
whem:
and
(MI = [Dl
{KI
(4.18)
For an equivalent orthotropic materials, the extension stress-strain relations are given by:
(4.19)
where
(KI = F I {Ml
where
1
[F7=p
(Extension)
where q, are the components of the ma& [A]". Meanwhile, Equations 4.18, 4.21 and
4.22 can be used to obtain the propdes of an equivalent orthotropic matenal having the
sarne bending stifhess of the larninate. This leads to the following equivalent laminate
bending properties:
(Bending)
v*
=-- dl2
dl,
The behavior of a Eee standing chimney subjected to wind loads can be simulated
as beam bending about axis A-A shown in Fig.4.l (the load is acting dong the x axis
shown in the figure). Considering a horizontal cross section of the chimney, such global
bending will cause mainly elongation (or shortening) strans which vary fiom point to
another on the circUZIlference of the section (the through thichess local bending saain
can be neglected as the thickness of the chimney is much smaller than its radius). As
such, the main parameter which govem the strains induced in the equivdent beam mode1
is E,, (equivalent extension rnodulus of elasticity dong the y axis shown in Fig.4.1). E,
can be obtained by evaluating El
transformation:
E, = E~COS' a
where a is the angle between axes
evaluate the displacements and the strains of the chirnney, stresses should be evaluated
fiorn the calculated strains and the tnie modulus o f each lamina as will be seen later.
Due to the dynarnic nature of wind loads, the natural fkequencies and the
associated mode shapes of chimneys are required in order to estirnate their dynarnic
response. From the practical point of view, it is enough to consider the First few modes of
vibration in evaiuathg the dong-wind response because of the small contribution of the
Ln this study, tapered chimneys having lineiffly varying thicknesses are modeled
as cantilever beams with varying moment of inertia Aluiuugh, closed form solution for
the natural Ekequencies and mode shapes of constant mass and constant inertia cantilevea
exiss, the variation of the structure thickness and diameter introduce extra complication.
As such, it was decided to use the Stodola method (marix iteration) to detennine the
nahuai hquencies and mode shapes of the chimneys. Considering a FRP chunney, the
elastic properties for the equivalent orthotropic chimney can be obtained using the
Stodola method is probably one of the best iterative methods in evaiuating natural
kquencies and mode shapes. The method starts by assumhg a trial shape for the fim
mode. This is followed by evaluation of the deflected shape resulting fkom the inertia
loads associated with the fint trial shape. This deflected shape, after normalization to a
certain desired amplitude, is used as a new mal shape (which is more accurate than the
first trial). The process continues iteratively dl1 the deflected shape in two consecutive
cycles are identical. For more detaiis about the Stodola method, the reader is referred to
Berg (1989). An expression for the naniral fkequencies ai is provided by Berg (1989) as
follows
where m(y) is the mass at elevation y,qi (y) is the finai computed deflected shape before
normalizing, L is the height of the chimney and yi(y) is the last normalized trial shape.
It should be noted that ,in rnanipulating the above integral, the height of chimney is
divided to equaily spaced intervals and the integrations are evaluated numericaliy using
the Simpson's method.
For any trial h c t i o n , the process will converge to the fimdamental mode as long
as it is not forced to converge to another. For proceedmg to the higher modes, the Iower
mode cornponents have to be swept out From the trial shape used in the iterations. For
exarnple, the third mode trial shape should be swept out frorn the first and the second
mode shapes which are already defined. Because the integration is perfonned
numerically, the trial shape will never be completely swept out From the lower modes
depending on the accuracy of the integration. As such, the sweeping process should be
done in each cycle of the iteration to ensure the convergence to the desired mode.
The natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes evaluated using the
Stodola method are incorporated into the dynarnic analysis as descnbed in the following
sub-sections.
The wind load acting on a typical chimney has two basic components; the mean
component which is rnainly static and the fluctuahg component which has a dynamic
nature. The Bucniating part is divided to an irreguiar and slowly varying component
known as the background component, and an oscillatory component having a definite
frequency and known as the resonant component The dynarnic whd response of a
chimney is controlled by various omis of aerodynamic parameters; the turbulent
fluctuations in the oncoming flow which cause the dong and across-wind response; and
the vortices shedding in the wake of the structure which mate an across-wind response
and aerodynamic damping forces. Herein, the method used for calculating the wind load
combination of the mean, the background and the resonant response. The peak
generalized response f (may be bending moment, shearing force or deflection) is
presented in the form
r =r+gr
(4.27)
where T is the mean response, 7 is the root mean square of the fluctuating response
(including the effect of both the background and the resonant response) and g is the peak
factor with typical values between 3 and 4. The root mean square (ms) of the fluctuating
component is defined as
where
is the m i s background response (slowly varybg component) and ?,, is the rms
resonant response associated with the jm natural mode. The peak factor is d e h e d as
where T is the sample period and v is the effective cycling rate and is given as
v = f,$/
4 is the'j
,/$+ i ~ , ~
(4.30)
Consider a structure subjected to a lateral force F(y) (force per unit length) which
F(y)
fluctuating component. The mean response Fof a certain function (r can be deflection,
bending moment or shear force) is given by
?=
(4.3 1)
F(Y)*~,(Y~
where iiy) is the influence line of this specific function defining the response due to a
unit lateral load acting at a height y. An expression for the mean wind force F(y) is
presented in appendix A as h c t i o n of the height of the chimney L, the top diameier of
the chirnney DL,the drag coefficient CD,the reference velocity pressure at the top of the
structure Q, the variation of the wind speed 4, (y) and the diameter 4, (y) dong the
height of the chimney.
the naturd kequencies of the structure, can be considered a s a quasi-static response. The
mean square background response can be written as:
where R(y,,y,J is the correlation of the Eluctuating forces at heights y, and y?. F(y,) and
F(y3 are the mean forces, i,(y,) and i&)
[(y,) and I(y3 are the intensiry of the turbulence at height y, and yz, respectively.
RecogniPng that the correlation firnction R(y,,yJ depends only on the separation (Le.
depends on Ay = =,-y3 and providing a transition formula between large scale and local
scale correlations, Davenport (1993) simpfied the double integration in the expression of
Eq.4.32 to be a single integration over the height. The hplified expression of the rms
The resonant response in the vicinity of the natural fkquencies of the stnicture
can be evaiuated using modal andysis. Such procedure gives satisfactory results provided
that the modal f?equencies are well separated and the structure is lightly damped. Based
on this method, the resonant modal contribution of the jm mode to the root mean square
response P (given in Eq.4.28) can be written as:
- 2
rRi = ZRI-.R,-
(4.33)
zRJ2
=
SG5(f,) is the generaiized modal force spectnim (defined by Eq.A.6 in appendix A), M, is
ratio
(given by Eq.A.7 in appendix A). R, is the value of the response r due to unit 2,.R, can
be defined by the influence ne of the response r and the mode shape of j" mode as:
R, =
(4.35)
where m(y) is the m a s per unit Length at height y, pJ(y) is the j" mode shape. Using
Eqs.4.33 to 4.35, a general expression for the resonant modal response $ of the'j mode
is given by Eq.A.5 shown in appendix A. Having evduated the mean, the background and
the resonaut responses, Eq.4.27 to Eq.4.30 can be apped to obtain the peak dong-wind
response of the chimney.
It should be noted that the aerodynamic damping associated with the along-wind
response expressed by Eq.A.7 in appendix A has always a positive and well defined
value. On the other hand, the aerodynamic damping associated with the vortex response,
which is discussed later, reaches a maximum at resonance with a negative vaiue reducing
the overall effective damping of the structure in laterai osciIlations.
The across-wind turbulent response due to lateral turbulence can be related to the
along-wind response. Knowing that the across wind forces are ody fluctuating
components having zero mean values, Davenport (1993) showed that typicdly the across-
fi
times the dong-wind resonant response. However, when a slender structure is excited
monantly by the vortex shedding (causing lateral movement), the lateral turbulence has
Little influence on the maximum laterd response and therefore can be ignored.
The response of a slender structure to vortices which shed behind the structure in
a smooth or turbulent flow is not completely undentood yet. This difficulty of predicting
the vortex response is due to the limited full scale data and the difficulties in achieving
Reynolds Number associated with large chimneys in the wind tunnels testing (Vickery,
1997). The response of FRP c b e y s to vortex shedding is evaluated based on a mode1
The frequency of the eddies f, shedding behind a cylinder when a flow passes the cylinder
is given by
where S, is Strouhal number, U and D are the mean wind speed and the diameter of the
cylinder, respectively. When the fiequency of the eddies matches any of the natural
fkequencies of the structure, it will not only dnve the cylinder in a resonant lateral
response but dso causes a rapid change of the aerodynamic damping from positive to
negative leading to signincant amplification of the lateral motion. This explains why the
structure continues to resonate (locking) even if the mean wind speed fluctuates by
e 5 % - 9 0 % about the critical wind speed. At this range of wind speed the fkequencies of
the vortex eddies are not following Strouhai behavior (Le. Eq.4.36) but are controlled by
the motion of the structure. Expressions for the vortex generaiized force specmim
(across-wind forces) for the j' mode of vibration of the cylinder (when the vortex
fkquency f , is close to the f?equency of the'j mode) and the maximum negaive
aerodynarnic damping ratio are given in appendix A. Suggested values of mis lifi
coefficient, Strouhai nurnber and correlation length of lift forces, which are part of these
expressions, are given by Vickery (1997) and are dso presented in appendix A. Using the
generalized vortex force spectnun of the 'j
aerodynarnic damping ratio (Eq.A.8 and Eq.A.12 in appendix A), the mean square
resonant vortex response can be obtained h m Eq.A.5 in appendix A.
In Eq.A.8, the integration is evaluated numerically and the ratio ( f,' / St ) as a part
of this equation ( f,' / St = U, / U, ;U, is the wind speed at the top, U
, is the j' critical
wind speed which creates eddies matching one of the natural frequencies of the structure
4)
is scanned nom 0.7 to 1.4 to obtain the maximum value of the integral. It shouid be
h t
Beside using the dynamic approach given by Davenport (1993), it was decided to
use the code for steel chimneys developed by international Committee on industrial
Chirnneys CICIND (1988) to evaluate an equivalent static wind load for FRP chimney. In
this code, a gust factor is employed to account for the innuence of the fluctuating part of
dong-wind loads. The mean wind Ioad is scaied up dong the height of the chimneys
using this gust factor to obtain an equivalent static load.
this procedure is not totally consistent. On the other han& the American Concrete
institute's Code for concrete chimneys (1995) applies the gust factor to the mean base
bending moment not to the mean distriiuted loads. Neithm approach is totally correct and
both can lead to high error for some structures as guyed towen (Vickery, 1995).
Conceming the across-wind response multing fiom vortex shedding, the CICMD
code for steel chimneys provides an approximate method for calculating upper bound
limits for the across-wind amplitudes. The procedure is based on wind tunnel tests as well
as full-scale observations. The code recommends considering the response of the second
as well as the first modes of vibration for slmder chimneys having iow first critical wind
speed (associated with the fint mode). It is also stated in the code that if critical wind
speed exceeds 1.2 the design wiod speed at the top of the chimney, no signifiant
oscillations would be expected in the lateral direction of the chimney.
combined with the peak dong and across-wind loads associatcd with the first
3) The vortex shedding load that resulted fiom exciting the second mode ( if the
second critical wind speed is less than the design wind speed) is combined with the
peak dong and across-wind loads associated with the second critical wind speed.
The wind load as defined by the code for steel chimneys developed by
International Cornmittee on Indusnial Chimneys (CICIND, 1988) is also calculated for
cornparison with the dynamic method discussed above.
Having evaluated the bending moment diagram using the dynarnic procedure
given by Davenport (1993), the maximum normal strain ( E, ) acting on the kh layer of
any horizontal cross-section of a FRP chimney cm be evaluated as follows:
% is maximum normal strain acting on the kh lamina in the direction of the global axis
y; M( y ) is the maximum bending moment resulting from the three load cases described
in section 4.5.5 at level y, N(y) is the nomal force due to the own weight ochimney and
acting at a section having an elevation y from the base, and Et, A(y), I(y) and 4 are the
outer radius, the cross sectional area, the moment of iuertia of the cross-section and the
of the laminate as obtained h m Eq.425. The in-plane strain zW in the direction of the
local axis
and the strains in the local lamina axes 1-2 can be obtained using the
followuig relations:
Consequently, the stresses defined in the local axes 1-2 and acting on the k" lamina are
given by:
where QI,,
Qll,
Q
, and Q, are the reduced &esses
cornponents in determining the capacity of a biaxial stress field. The general Form of the
criterion in terms of the ultimate strength is
where
O,,
o,, are the dong fibers tensile and compressive ultimate strengths,
respectively. 4, o, are the tensile and compressive dtimate strengths in the direction
perpendicular to the fibers and
T,,
FRP structures, the above defined ultimate strengths have to be divided by an appropriate
factor of safety.
4.8 Fati~ue
Calculation
The vortex shedding response is not oniy excessive lateral amplitudes experienced
by the chimneys but also it is a fatigue concem. The fatigue behavior of FRP materials is
more complicated that other structurai materials because of the different possible damage
mechanisms experienced by this type of plastic composite. The damage in composites
involves a widespread number of microstnicturai mechanisms, manix cracking,
in chapter 2) is a long way h m providing a simple and accunite technique for life fatigue
prediction.
A number of atternpts have been done to develop a relation between the along
fibers fatigue strength and the number of cycles based on the knowledge of the static
strength of the composite (Mandell ( 1981), Jones ( 1984)). The relationship between the
along fibers Fatigue strength S and the number of cycles can be written as:
S = o,,(rn.logN + b)
(4.4 1)
where o,, is the ultimate static strength in the fibers direction, rn and b are constants.
Such a relation represents a straiaight line when drawn on a semi-log scale; rn is the dope
of this line. Based on the intermediate range of the experimental results conducted by
Mandell ( 1981) and Jones (1984), values of -0.12 and 1.0 are assumed in this study For rn
and 6, respectively.
The fatigue strength of FRP materials in the cross fiben direction is not
sufficiently covered in the literaure. Based on test clah, the code of design for reinforced
plastic pipes developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineering ASME
RTP-lb (1997), defines limiting strain values which assure nomcracking of the matrix of
a composite when subjected to long term cyclic loading. These limiting lateral strain
values are equal to 0.0015 and 0.008 for tende and compressive stresses, respectively. in
this study, it was decided to use these limit values (for laterd strain) to check for the
across-wind fatigue induced by vortex sheddhg. In view of the approach described by the
EUROCOMP (1997). and using the avaiiable information about fatigue strength of FRP
materials, the following equation is used to check the fatigue damage under combined
date of stresses.
where N, and N,, are the number of cycles to cause longitudinal and in-plane shear
stresses failure, respectively. These are calculated using Eq.4.41 by substituting o,,,equal
to the ultimate along fiber normal strength and the in-plane shear strength (both divided
by a suitable factor of safety), respectively, while S is equal to the induced factored
stresses o, and a,,, respectively, resulting fkom the vortex shedding analysis. N is
calculated as defked by the CICIND (1988) for 20 years design life as:
N=0.4 I O ~ A ' ~f- " ~
where A=-
3SU,
, U, is the critical wind speed, U, is the design wind speed at the top
UL
and f is the resonant frequency. ~2~ is the maximum factored transverse strain due to
vortex shedding
and
E,
A flow chart, nimmaripng various steps incorporateci into the cornputer code for
element (Koaey, 1993) which was descn'bed in chapter two, is used to veTify the simpler
approach developed in this chapter. Three different chimneys are modeled and analyzed
under static load conditions using both the laminated shell element and the simple
computer code. The chimneys' laminates conskt of angle-ply larnhae al1 having 50 % Eg l a s as reinforcement and Der 41 1-45 as resin. The layers have the following mechanical
properties defined in the directions of the material axes (1-2): E, = 23.46 GPa, E2 = 6.95
= 0.32.
chimneys and the stacking sequence of the layers are shown in Table 4.1. The three
chimneys are subjected to wind speed equal to 30m/sec at elevation 1Om above the
ground and are assumed to have 1.0% viscous damping ratio. The equivalent static load
based on the CICIND (1 988) is applied to both the finite element mode1 and the computer
code developed in this chapter. The deflections at the top of the chimneys, axial and hoop
stresses resulting h m both analyses are presented in Table 4.1. Cornparison between the
results of the analyses Uidicates an excellent agreement and shows that the simple
approach adopted in the chapter accurately predicts the response of iarninated FRP
chimneys.
Table 4.1 The dimensions, the lay-ups and the tip deflections of FRP chimneys
D
(m) (ml
30
1.5
lay-UP
Deflection
m e n t FE.
(mm)
30
Stresses (MPa)
present
F.E.
=x
OOWOO\OO
0.41
0.401
3.1
=,
=x
32.55 1 2.95
G y
31.1
The geometry of a FRP chimney, the properties of its laminate and the wind
characteristics have a direct influence on the structurai response of the chimney. The
main material and geometry parameters are: the elastic properties of the basic materials
(fibers, matrix), fibers content ratio, fibers orientation, laminate stacking sequence
wind responses.
Using the cornputer code developed in this chapter, a parameic study is done for
investigating the effect of some of the previously mentioned parameters on the along and
across-wind responses of FRP chimneys.
The fiber orientation of the individual lamina plays a significant role in defining
the apparent elastic properties of the laminate. In order to shidy the effect of the fiber
orientation, 3 cylindricai c b e y s are considered. The chimneys (1, II, IiI) have 40, 60
and 80m height, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.5m diameter, and 75, 105 and 140m.m wail thickness,
respectively. The &ers type is E-glas-roving (50 % of the weight of the composite) used
as reinforcement for Der 4t 1-45 resin. AU chimneys consists of angle-ply laminate (f0)
and the thickness of each lamina is taken equal to 1.m.m. The elastic properties of each
lamina in the material axes are as follows: longitudinal moduius E, = 23.46 GPa, lateral
modulus E, = 6.95 GPa, in-plan shear modulus G,,= 2.20 GPa and Poisson's ratio v,, =
0.32.
Fig.4.4 shows typical relation between the apparent longitudinal flexural modulus
E, that resulted nom the developed cornputer code, normalized with respect to the lateral
modulus E, of the basic laniina, and the angle-ply f 0 (for chimney 1). Lt is clear from the
figure that the longitudinal modulus is strongly dependent on the laminae orientation. The
maximum modulus is achieved at 8 = 90, Le. fibers are ail oriented parallei to the y
direction. The minimum value of the apparent longitudinal modulus occurs at the vicinity
of 0 = 30'. It should be mentioned that due to the contribution of the shear modulus, the
minimum longitudinai apparent modulus E,, cm be larger or srnaller than the lateral
lamina modulus & and also the maximum can be larger or maller than the longitudinal
lamina modulus E,.Fig.4.4 suggests that in order to benefit fiom the presence of fibers in
enhancing the longitudinal stifiess of the chimney, fibers have to be oriented by an angle
0 >5S0. in Fig.4.5, the first natural frequency of chimney 1 are plotted versus the angle of
orientation 0. As expected, the natitrai fresuency has the same trend as the variation of
the apparent longitudinal rnodulus.
The dong and across-wind tip deflection for chimney 1, II and III are evaiuated
using a wind speed U,,= 30.0 m/s (at 10m above the gromd), a drag coefficient CD= 0.7,
an intensity of hrrbdeace 1,
= 0.14
11 should
be noted that
Meanwhile, the maximum across-wind response occurs at the vicinity of the critical wind
speed which is evaluated using Eq.4.36 with
kquency of the chunney. It is noted that the angle of orientation has a strong effect on
the longitudinal tip deflection. On the other hand, the lateral tip deflection is found io be
unaffected by v w n g the angle of orientation. The across-wind response has little
sensitivity to the change of the longitudinal modulus due to the associated change of the
natural kquency of the chimney. in fact, the change of the natural nequency alters the
critical wind speed and the response is ahnost the same.
It is also noted that the maximum dong-wind response occurs in the vicinity of an
angle of orientation 8 = 30". It could be concluded that the angle of orientation is an
excellent design tool for tailoring the laminate to give the optimum structural
performance.
The mass density of FRP materials depends on the percentage of the fibers in the
marix as well as the mass density of both the fibers and the ma&.
However, the
variation of the mass density of the fibas and the ma& is mal1 and the mass density of
ERP composite mainly alters with the percentage of fiber content. The typical density of
FRP varies between 1400 kg/m3 for low fiber ratio to 1900 kg/m3 for high f i e r ratio.
density of the composite. It should be noted that the mass density was varied by changing
the percentage of the fibers which consequently changes the stif'hess of the composite.
As seen in Fig.4.7. a sharp increase in the tip deflection occurs with the decrease of the
mass density. In view of Eq.A. 12, a decrease in the m a s density of the chirnney leads to
an increase in value of the negative aerodynamic damping associated with vortex
shedding and consequently a decrease in the total damping of the structure. This sharp
increase in the response may be shifted to the nght or lefl depending on the damping ratio
and the average diameter over the upper third. In general, FRP materials have light
weight compared to other structural materiais. By examinhg Eq.A. 12 given in appendix
A, it cm be stated that due to their Light weight, FRP chunneys are expected to experience
relatively higher negative aerodynamic damping in the vicinity of the critical wind speed
compared to steel and concrete chimneys. The negative aerodynamic damping should be
cornpensated by sufficient materiai damping or extemal damping devices to prevent
excessive oscillations.
Chimneys 1, iII (both have angle-ply 8 = k45 and mass density 1580 kg/m3) are
analyzed using variable structural damping ratios. Fig.4.8 shows the variation of both
dong and across-wind response with the damping d o . It is ciear that the dong-wind
response is aot sensitive to the damping ratio. This is due to the fact that the dong-wind
response is govemed rnainly by the static components (mean and background) and the
resonant component (aFcted by the damping ratio) has a Littie effect On the other hand,
the damping ratio has a significant contribution to the across-wind response which is a
resonant response. It is noted that the variation of damping ratio has the same effect as the
variation of the mass density since both of them contribute directly to the total damping
of the structure (see Eq.A. 12).
The damping of FRP materials depends on a large number of parameters; the fiber
orientation, stacking sequence of the layers, amplitude and frequency of vibration and the
manufacturing process. As shown in Figs.4.7 and 4.8, the location of the critical response
zone varies significantly with the two main parameters which influence the total damping
of the structure (structural damping, average mass over top third). With the uncenainty
about the propa damping ratio for FRP matends, the designer of a FRP chirnney should
be consewative in estimating the damping ratio in order to ensure the stability of the
chimney against vortex shedduig. Otherwise, by overestimating the damping ratio, the
chimney rnight become located in the critical region of the across-wind response.
in Figs.4.7 and 4.8, the across-wind response of chimneys 1, iI and iii are
calculated using the CICIND code (1988) for Steel Chimneys and are plotted versus the
mass density and the dampng ratio. respectively. It is clear nom these figures that the
CICTND code provides a consemative response for chimney 1 and slightly unconservative
for chimneys II and DI.
approaches a zero value. As seen in Fig.4.9, providing 0.6 tapering ratio reduces the
needed mctural damping by about 0.3%. This damping vdue is significant when
compared to values of the structurai damping for steel and FRP materials.
The responses of the same three chimneys, based on the CICIM) (1988), are also
s h o w in Fig.4.9. It can be seen h m the figure that the values predicted by the CICIM)
are very conservative for the tapering ratios 0.0 and 0.3. Meanwhile, the sarne graph
shows that for a tapering ratio T = 0.6, both the dynamic andysis and the CICID predict
very close behavior.
The tapering ratio seerns to be a very good tool for reducing the across-wind
response for FRP chimneys. Tapenng reduces the aerodynamic damping forces and
disperses the fi-equencies of the eddies dong the height. This dispersion makes the
spectrum of the lift forces flatter and reduces the dynamic effect of the vortex forces.
The wind loads are considered as dacribed in section 4.5 with wind speed U,,=30 &sec2,
drag coefficient C,=0.7 and intensity of turbulence I,=O. 14. For each chimney, three
different designs are attempted by assuming that the viscous damping ratio
6, is equd to
0.70 %, 00.5 % and 1.O %, respectively. The chimneys' laminates conskt of Der 41 1-45
resin reinforced by 70% (based on weight) E-glas fibers. The layers have the folowing
properties defined in the directions of the materiai axes (1-2): E,= 36.85 GPa, & = 11.16
= 4.32
GPa, v,,
= v,, = 0.3
consist of angle-ply (H) layen; 0 is measured with the tangentid axis located in a
horizontal plane as shown in Fig.42. The values of uitimate strengths of the layers
dehed in the material axes are as follows: longitudinal tende o,,= 552.77 MPa,
longitudinal compressive a
, = 44220 MPa, tramverse tende sZt= 16.74 MPa,
transverse compressive CL,= 89.28 MPa and in-plane shear strength q2= 70.57 MPa.
Most of the study is conducted assuming an inclination angle 0 = fis0. However, for the
sake of comparison, one set of anaiysis for an angle of inclination 8 = f3S0 is conducted.
Three different heights L are considered in the design; L = 30,40 and S b , respectively.
For each height, the diameter D is varied in such a way that a range of 10 to 20 is covered
The thermal
tindings of chapter three. The curing tempemure Tc,the operating (inside) ternperature
with maximum almg fiber compression and tensile thermal stresses equal to 113 MPa
and 76 MPa, respectively, for the case of angie-ply 0
chimneys expenence only compressive stresses (near the base only) with stress values are
equai to 57.5 MPa and 12.6 MPa at the inside and outside face of the chimney,
perpendicular to fibers (especially at the bottom of the chimney). The maximum dong
nbers stress a,, resulting h m the tanperature variation c m be obtained nom Fig.3.13
or Fig.3.14. It should be noted that this stress value is independent of the thickness of
the shell as discussed in chapter three.
2) A desired factor of safety FS is selected for the dong fibers stresses. A factor of safety
of 1.6 is chosen for the across fibers direction (sllnilar to the value used in the ASME
RTP- 1b-( 1997)). As such, the ultimate tensile strength o,,, compression strength o,,
in the along fibm direction and the in-plane shear strength a,, are given as:
w here O,,,a,, and a,, are the ultimate tensile, compressive and in-plane shear strengths as
defined earlier.
subsection 4.5.5 are evaluated. The maximum values obtained h m the three Ioad
cases are denoted as a,, and .
,
a
correspondhg main
E,.)
resulting
q = 1.1 a
,
+
1.5 q,
where O,, a,and a,?are the along fibm ,transverse &ers and the in-plane shear stresses,
respectively.
7) Equation 4.40 is used to check the adequacy of the chosen thickness by substituting O,,
q,q*,b l t . 9
Clcu q
m >,
u
a,,respectively*
8) Meanwhile, Eq.4.42 is used to check the safety of the chimney against fatigue failure.
9) In case that the let hand side of Eq.4.40 or Eq.4.42 is Iarger than 1.0, a larger
thickness has to be chosen and steps 4 to 7 are repeated till the lefi hand side of the
two equations is less than unity.
nie above design steps are conducted to various FRP chimneys (dl having 8 =
f5S0) covering the dimension range mentioned early in this subsection. For each
chimney, the adequate thickness of the sheil is evaiuated based on a factor of safety FS
equal to 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The design is also repeated assuming a viscous
darnping ratio S, equd to 0.7 %, 0.8 % and 1.0 %, respectively. The calculated
thicknesses are plotted versus the aspect ratio UD in Figs.4.10 to 4.21. Each of these
figures shows two thickness values; a thickness evaluated by considering only the alongwind loads and another thichess evaluated based on both the dong-wind and the vortex
shedding loads (Le. includes both static and dynamic loads and consider fatigue failure).
Both design thicknesses account for the thexmal and the gravity loads.
AU analyses indicate that, when considering loads due to vortex shedding, the
design is govemed by the fatigue failure rather than strength. AU figures show a typicd
behavior reflecting a linear increase of the thickness with the increase of the aspect ratio
(Le. with the decrease of the diameter, keeping the height constant) when only along wind
loads are considered. Such behavior is expected, since for static behavior, a decrease in
the diameter kads to a linear mcrease in normal stresses. Such an increase in stresses has
to be compensated by a magnification for the thickness in order to keep the same stress
level.
On the other hand, Figs.4.10 to 4.21 show that when both along wind and vortex
shedding loading are considered, an increase in the aspect ratio is associated with a
decrease of the required thickness. This behavior can be interpreted by considering
Eq.A. 12 (appendix A), which shows that an increase in the diameter (smaller aspect ratio
UD) leads to an increase in the negative aerodynamic damping associated with the vortex
shedding. Also, accorcling to EqA. 12, such an amplification of the negative aerodynamic
darnping can be reduced by increasing the m a s of the chimney and consequently
increasing the thickness.
The plotted figures indicate that except for a srnail range of high aspect ratios of
the design presented in Figs.4. 17, 4.20 and 4-21,the design of the chirnneys is govemed
by fatigue failure.
The effect of the viscous damping ratio can be assessed by comparing the
thicknesses of the chimneys designeci using the s m e factor of siety (FS) and having
difkrent damping ratio t, (e.g. cornparison between Figs.4.10, 4.14 and 4.18). Such
cornparisons show that the thicknesses based on the dong wind T o n s e are not affected
by the variation of the damping. On the other hand, an increase in the damping ratio &
significantly decreases the required thickness when vortex shedding is considered.
The tip deflections 6 remlting Born the analysis of the chimneys designed for a
Factor of safety FS equal to 2 and having 0.70% viscous damping ratio are presented in
Fig.4.22. tt is expected that this case exhibits the maximum deflection as it has the least
factor of safety and damping ratio. As s h o w in the graph, the ratio of the tip deflection to
the diameter does not exceed 0.24D which is Iess than 0.3D;the limiting deflection for
the serviceability requirements specified by the CICIND (1988) for steel chimneys.
conducted for cornparison with 0 = S 5 O . The design thicknesses for factor of safety FS =
5 and 0.7% damping ratio are shown in Fig.4.23. As expected, the design thicknesses are
increased for al1 the range of the aspect ratio. By changing the fibers orientation from 5 5 O
to 3S0,the stresses in the lateral direction of the layers are increased. The lateral direction
of the layers has low ultimate strength. For that, the required thickness to satisQ Eqs.4.40
and 4.42 is increased compared to the 55Oorientation angle laminate. It is noted aiso that
the fatigue stresses governs the design of the chimney o d y up to aspect ratio 15 which is
A factor of safety 5 is cornmonly used in the design of FRP materials for the
between 15 and 20 gives the minimum design thicknesses when the vortex shedding
response is considered in the design of FRP chimney. Within this range of aspect ratios,
the chimney will not expenence excessive lateral oscillations due vortex shedding or high
fatigue stresses if the design thickness is chosen appropnately. In some cases the designer
can not optimize the aspect ratio to reduce the fatigue stresses produced by the vortex
shedding. Therefore, a choice between satisfj4ng the Fatigue strength requirements
(increase the thickness of the chimney) or reducing the vortex shedding response by
adding darnping to the system has to be made. This will ultimately depend on the most
cost efficient solution.
4.12 Conclusions
parameters. These include the wind characteristics, the laminate properties and the
geomehy of the chimney. From the pafametric study conducted in this investigation to
assess the effect of various parameters on the wind responses of FRP chimneys, one cm
effect of the composite mass density and the damping ratio. Since FRP are very Iight
materials and do not have a well defined damping ratio, a conservative approach m u t
be used in estimating the across-wind response of such chimneys.
Tapering ratio is a very efficient way of reducing the vortex shedding response.
The CICIND code for steel chimneys (1988), when applied to FRP chimneys Ieads to
overly consefyativeresults in some cases and slightly unconservative in other cases.
tA
Fig.4.1 Vertical and horizontd cross sections of FRP chhmq.
-X
20
40
60
0.7
III
across-wind
along-w ind ..-.. .
--.m.-
...*.-----*-
*
-9.
---*.*-
P . . * - - . . . -
'
I I **
-. .-.
-.
.
*
-
**.
:*
--.
-*-
-------
-- - *-*----..--*.....
-
O - .
Angle of orientation(+/-8)
Fig.4.6 Along and across-wind tip deflection versus angle of orientation.
II
III
5,=0.8
- - - - - - - - - --------
-*--------
O h
-------.---._.-_*_--.---
Fig.4.7 Nomdized across-wind tip deflection versus the mass density for 1, II and m.
0.0 10
Damping ratio (Q
Fig.4.8 N o d i z e d tip deflections versus damping ratio for chimneys 1, II and 111.
Damping ratio (Q
Fig.4.9 The estimated across-wind response versus the structural damping for chimney
with height H= 40m,bottom diameter @=3.Om for 0.0,03 and 0.6 tapering ratios.
120
--
5 = 0.7 %
30m
40m alang-w ind
*..-..Som
--
-c- 30m
40m along-wind
and vortex
--A-.
---O-,
HfD
Fig.4.10 Estimated thicknesses of FRP chimneys vernis the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 2.0,5 = 0.70%.
A--.
5 = 0.7 %
-30m
--
30m
-r-
40m
along-wind
and vortex
- - & - - Som
m
Fig.4.12 Estimated thicknesses of FRP chimneys vernis the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 4.0,c = 0.70%.
A--.*
- - - - -.
-.
-.,
30m
-dom
- - - . 50m
-+
-Y
10
.'
42
14
along-wind
30m
along-wind
50m
'S.
16
18
20
WD
Fig.4.13 Estimated thicknesses ofFRP chimneys vernis the aspect ratio
for factor ofsafety = 5.0,1; = 0.70%.
22
A-.
-30m
'.
--.
m.
-\
4orn along-wind
Som
..m.--
\\
30m along-wind
40m and vortex
.*A-50m
m...
--
& = 0.85 %
-.
-30m
-.
- - - - - - 501x1
.W.-
.&*.
50m
and vortex
<
< = 0.85 %
-30 m
-.
40 m along-wind
.m.-.-
50 m
--
+30m
**&*-
along-wind
Som and vortex
m
Fig.4.16 Estimated thicknesses of FRP chimoeys versus the aspect ratio
for factor of d e t y = 4.0,< = 0.85%
Factor of d e t y = 5.0
- --
A-*-
-.
& = 0.85 %
-\
10
12
--
30m
40m along-wind
*-***Som
30m
ind
- 40m along-w
and
vortex
* * A - - Som
16
14
EUD
18
20
<
22
&-.
..
r,
-30m
-.
40m along-wind
....*. Som
Y*
4-
-*&.-
30m
40rn along-wind
Som and vortex
m
Fi& 18 Estunated thicknesses of FRP chimneys versus the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 2.0, = 1.O%
<
A-.-
k
-\
-30rn
-.
.\
\
=A
A-**
- 9 .
- 0
c;=
1.0%
Y.
-30 m
-....
0 .
40 m dong-wind
50 m
Lm
Fig.4.20 Estimated thicknesses of FRP chimneys versus the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 4.0.6 = 1.O%.
-30m
along-w ind
aiong-wind
and vonex
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
L/D
Fig.421 Estimated thicknesses of FRP chimneys vernis the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 5.0, = 1.O%
<
Lm
Fig.4.22 Tip deflection normazed to diameter of FRP chimneys versus the aspect ratio
for factor of safety = 2.0 and 5 = 0.7%.
180
-,
<
A-
. _.--r
:
.
.
. -a
along-wind
40m along-w ind
--A-.
Som and vortex
4-
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
m
Fig.4.23 Estimateci thicknesses ofFRP chllnneys versus the aspect ratio for factor
ofsfety = 5.0, & = 0.7%, 0 = +/- 35'.
CHAPTER 5
DAMPING OF FRP MATERIALS
5.1 Introduction
thennoelastic
conversion of mechanical energy into heat, fiction at fiber-matrix interface and energy
dissipated berneen layers due to delamination.
The damping of FRP materials depends on many parameters such as: the rnatrix
property, fibers content, fibm onentaiion, fkquency, strain amplitude and method of
manufacturing. Although a number of studies exists in the iiterature for evaluating the
damphg of FRP mater&, no &ta exkt for typical materiai used in the construction of
FRP chimneys. The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate experimentally the material
damping of glass reinforced Vinyl ester materials which are typicaiiy used in the design
of FRP stacks.
This chapter starts by presenh'ng a bnef review of the research existing in the
literature and pertaiing to the damping of FRP matends in general. This is followed by a
description of two techniques which are used to evaiuate the material damping
experimentally. Finally, the experiments conducted in this study are described and the
obtained results are presented.
For more than three decades, f i b s reinforced plastic materials have been
investigated for dynamic properties and damping capacity. In general, results of the
studies indicate that for FRP materiais tested at low strain levels, the material damping is
independent of the snain amplitude but does depend on the fiber content, fiber
orientation, temperature, moisture, fkequency of load and matrix properties.
In the late sixties, Schultz (1968) published remarkable resuits of damping ratios
of unidirectionai (UD) glass-epoxy cantilever beam using the decrement and the
bandwidth techniques. In this study, it was observed that the damping capacity mainly
depends on the fkequency of Ioading and the angle of orientation of the fiers. In generd,
it was found that the damping capacity increases with the increase in kquency.
Meanwhile, by varyhg the angle of orientation, it was found that the maximum damping
is achieved at an angle of 45". Damping values for unidirectional and cross-ply E-glass
fiber reinforced epoxy beams under flexurai vibration were reported by Gibson (1976) for
a wide range of frequency (20-500 Hz). It was found that the damping values
considerably increase with the increase of the load frequency and are independent of
strain amplitude (up to 0.002 strain for cross-ply laminate). Mymon, Biley and Rehfield
(1978) conducted an experimental investigation studying the effoct of temperature,
moisture content and angle of orientation on the damping capacity of a variety of graphite
epoxy laminates. It was found that the angle-ply [+4S0] laminate exhibits higher damping
than [O0], and [0J+450J900,/-450,] laminates for both dry (2SC) and hot-wet (93C)
conditions. The same shidy showed that the hot-wet environment increases the damping
for the [O0] laminate by about 29 %. Meanwhile, a remarkable decrease for the damping
(about 28%) was observed for the other two laminates due to the effect of the hot-wet
environment.
The effect of the frequency of the loading on the damping values of FRP materials
was studied by Robert (1982) showhg in grnerai an inmase of 10%-20% in the darnping
ratio for tenfold increase in the fkquencies. It should be mentioned that d l of these
studies dealt with linear viscoelastic damping, at low strain, well bonded and undamaged
relation: -, where c is the damping coefficient and c, is the criticai damping coefficient
cm
maximum amplitudes. The relations between the above defined damping parameters are
given as:
qj
=2nq=41r(;=Zntan6=2d
(5-1)
logarithmic decranent (sometimes called the fke decay technique) and the off-resonance
impedance technique. A brief description of the logarithmic decrement technique and the
half power band-width methoci, which are used in this study, are presented in the next
sub-sections.
m
where 4, and &, are the response amplitudes at the nh and n + '
cycles. It should be
mentioned that the expression given by Eq.5.2 is based on the assumption that the
damping ratio is very maIl i.e.5 cc 1.O%. As such, the fiee decay method is most suited
to the determination of damping values for lightly damped systems (typically less than
0.01).
This technique is the most wideiy used method in damping testing. For structures
with well separated modes, single de-
when excited resonantiy gives very accurate results. In this metho, the steady state
covering a wide range around the natural frequency of interest, are measured. For a given
fiequency response curve, the damping ratio can be calculated fkom
where
and f, are the fbquencies at which the amplitudes of response are 1 I f i tirnes
the maximum amplitude. For tightly damped structures, fitting the modal peaks of
continuous structure to the steady state response of single degree of keedorn system is
more convenient than applying Eq.5.3 to estimate the modal damping. in the current
study, the measured response of the specimens ovet the fkequency range in the
neighborhood of the modal fkequency of interest has been fitted to the following equation
(which represents the steady state response of single degree of fieedom system excited by
a harmonic load).
where y( E T ) is the measured amplitude of the response, p,, is the amplitude of the applicd
hamonic force, k is the stiffiiess of the specimen, m is the dnving fiequency, o is the
= -.
In the
tests, the response of the specimen due to varying hquency of harmonic load is
measured. in view of Eq.5.4 and using the above measured response, a curve fitting
technique can be used to estimate o ,& and y .
damping values of this specific composite, it was decided in this study to conduct some
dynarnic tests in order to evaluate the damping capacity of this type of polymeric
composite.
Four cyiindrical specimens having diameten equal to 2", 3", 4" and 6" and
thicknesses equai to O. 19", O. 19", 0.2" and 0.24", respectively, are used in the dynamic
testing. Al1 specimens conskt of filament winding angle-ply g l a s reinforced vinyl ester
laminates. The specimens have an equivalent axial modulus of elasticity E = 1.3.10' psi
(8.97 GPa) and an axial tensile strength o = 9000 psi (62 MPa). The specimens are
stacked as follows: 0.0 1" chemical barrier reinforced with Nexus Veil having 10% fiber
content, 0.1" Anti-wicking barrer of two chopped srand mats 1 10 oz with 25% fiber
content, structurai layers of a continuous nlament winding with fis0 (angle-ply)
orientation angle measured h m the longitudinai axis of the specimen with 70% fiber
content, and W
The damping testes are perforrned using a uni-directional shake table recently
constnicted at ze University of Watern Ontario. The shake table system consists of an
electro-magnetic shaker connected to a 4'x4' slide table, an amplifia and a PC based data
acquisition system. The output sipds which excite the shaker are generated and
controlled by enomous speed data acquisition board.
Figure 5.1 represents a photo showhg various components of the shaker system.
The schematic illustration of the shake table system is shown in Fig.5.2. For more details
about the shake table and the data acquisition system, the reader is referred to ECDamaty
( 1998).
The dynamic tests are conducted by mounting the specimens to the slide table.
The specimens' clamping is designed such that there is no
neither from any created damage in the matend nor through fiction losses at the clamped
end. As such, the specimens have been carefully glued to steel plates using epoxy glue
and then mounted on the table using four corner steel bolts comected to the steel plates as
s h o w in the photo provided in Fig.5.3.
signals are then stored to the hard disk of the PC through the data acquisition system.
Figure 5.4 shows a photo of a typicd specimen mounted to the slide table.
The haif power band-width technique is adopted to evaluate the damping of the
specimens. The following steps are applied to identify the darnping ratio of each
specimen:
1) The specimen is driven by a harmonic excitation having a specific fiequency.
2) The steady state response (acceleration) of the specimen (usually at the top of the
Low amplitudes of excitation are chosen to minimize the effect of aerodynamic darnping
and also to Limit the specimens' strain to the level at which damping of the composite is
independent of the amplitude. Fig.5.5 shows a typical fkquency response curve as
Logarithmic decrement tests have bem conducted as well for the fiat mode of
each specimen by sirnply pulling the top of the specimen and measuring the decay
response after removing the applied force. Since exciting only the Fbndarnental mode of
the specimen manually is possible, the acquired sigals for the decay test have been
filtered to eliminate the contributions of the higher modes to the response. Exciting the
second mode of vibration manually for the decay test was not possible because the
specimens are relatively stiff. For that, the fint mode of vibration has been only tested
using the decay test. These decay tests are conducted for cornparison with the resonant
tests results and also to check the dependency of the damping ratios on the strain
amplitude.
5.4.2 D a m ~ i n
Results
~
and Discussion
Resonant tests have been conducted for the first two modes of vibration of the
specimens dacribed in section 5.4. Table 5.1 shows the measured natural Eequencies and
dampuig values for various tested specimens. in Fig.5.6, The damping values
corresponding to the first mode are plotteci vernis the fundamental Eequency. The
damping ratios are fitted with a second order polynomial bction. However, the results
of the c w e fitting shows an almost Linear behavior. It is clear fiom the figure that the
variation of the damping ratio with the fkquency is almost negligible for the considered
rage of kequencies. Figure 5.7 shows the variation of the damping ratios of both the first
and the second mode with the modal fkequencies. It is clear firom the figure that the
results of the second mode show more scattered damping values about the fitting curve
compared to those corraponding to the fint mode.
The damping ratios corresponding to the fiindamental mode of the specirnens and
based on decrement decay tests are presented in Table 5.1 as well as Fig.5.8. in general,
most of the tests results show a good agreement between the decrement and the resonant
tests. It has been noted that typically the damping values obtained from the decay test are
slightly larger than those obtained nom the resonant test. Meanwhile, the dependency of
the damping ratios on the fkquency is much stronger for the decay test results compared
to those obtained using the resonant tests (specially for kquencies higher than 40 Hz).
The average damping ratios obtained h m all the conducted tests are equai to 0.6551 %
for the resonant tests and 0.75 14 % for the decay tests.
During the tests, the strains at the base of the specimens have not been measured.
However, these cm be easily caiculated using the values of the measured acceleration at
the top of the specimen. As mentioned earier the decay tests are conducted by pulling the
specimen at its top point and measuring the free decay acceleration. Ignoring the
contribution of the higher modes is a reasonable approximation since the initial imposed
deflection shape is very close to the k t mode shape and consequently the expected
behavior is mostly according to the first mode. Assuming that the specimen is vibrating
with only its fundamental mode, the base moment M(t) can be evaluated by considenng
where
Y(t)
is the measured tip acceleration of the specimen, m(x) is the m a s per unit
length, m, is the mass of the acc~ierumeterat level i, $(x) is the fhdarnentai mode shape
of cantilever beam normalized to be equal to unity at the top of the specimen, x, is the
distance between the base and the iLhacceleforneter and x is the vertical coordinate
measured from the base of the specirnen. Having evaluated the base moment M(t) using
where R is the outer radius of the specimen, E is the &ai longitudllial modulus and 1 is
the moment of inertia of the section.
Figure 5.9 shows the variation of the damping ratios vernis the maximum
amplitude of the bending strain obtabed nom a decay test (for a specimen having a
diameter D = 2 in and length L = 1.45 m). Figure 5.9 indicates that the increase of the
damping ratio with the strain level is fairly srnall. The small increase in the damping ratio
can be related to an added aerodynamic darnping and not to permanent damage in the
composite. The later usually results in a significant and rapid increase in darnping.
fibers directions, respectively. This level of strain is much lower than the maximum strain
level(0.002) at which the damping ratio is independent ofthe strain amplitude as reported
by Gibson (1976).
It should be mentioned that the maximum level of strain expected for FRP
chirnneys subjected to wind loads, varies between 0.0003-0.0005 (see chapter 4). These
values are Iess than the threshold value desmibed earlier by Gibson (1976). As such, the
values of damping obtained nom the experirnentai work conducted in this study can be
used in the design of FRP chnneys if giass resorced vinyl ester angle ply laminates (0
=
f i 5 O with the longitudinal axis) are used in the construction or the chirnneys. It is
obvious that the evaluated damping ratios are luniteci to a construction involving an
angle-ply 0 = S S O (measured with the longitudinal axis of the specimen). However, by
contacting many FRP manufacturers in Canada, it has been infonned that due to the ease
of Fabrication, this value of angle-ply is the most commody used in practice.
drag. Due to the interaction between the structure and the surroundhg Buid, some energy
transfers to the Buid through the work done by the drag forces. This source of energy
dissipation is known as the aerodynamic damping. The drag forces FD acting on structure
vibrating in still air is given as
where, CD is the drag coefficient, D is the diameter of the structure, p, is the air density
and y is velocity of the structure. For a continuous structure vibrating in a single mode,
the displacernent is w&en as Y(x,t) = y(t) +(x), where y(t) is the modal amplitude and
$(x) is the mode shape. The equivalent viscous damping factor for a single mode of
vibration in still air (mode shape is always positive dong the height such as the
indamental mode of fiee standing structure) can be written as
where T is the penod of oscillation, m is the m a s per unit length and L is the length of
the structure. The drag coefficient is not constant as the stmcture vibrates in the Buid, it is
in fact a function of Reynolds number which in hmis is a fimction of the relative velocity
(Le. the structure velocity assuming that the air is still). The drag coefficient of a ccular
cyhder in steady flow can be approximated as a function of Reynolds nimiber (Blevins,
1986) as
CD= b, + bJRe
w here
b, = 1.3 and 4 = 10 for the following range of Reynolds nurnber: 1< Re c 104, and v is
The aerodynamic darnping associateci with the tested specimens has been
calculated using Eqs.S.8 to 5.10. These values have been subtracted fiom the measured
darnping values to obtain the tnie material damping and are plotted in Figs.5.6 and 5.7.
Figures 5.6 and 5.7 show that the aerodynamic damping did not change the general trend
of the results and in general can be neglected for both the first and second modes of
vibration. The maximum value of the aemdynarnic damping is only 2.7% of the total
measured darnping. It should be noted that no correction for aerodynamic damping are
needed for the values obtained nom the decay tests presented in Fig.5.8. This is due to the
fact that the ploned values are obtained by extending the ntting curve of the rneasured
data to intersect with the vertical axes (which basicay corresponds to zero amplitudes).
On the other hand, the damping ratios which are plotted versus the strain amplitudes in
Fig.5.9 need to be corrected for aerodynamic damping. Figure 5.9 shows the values of the
negligi'ble.
5.6 Conclusions
Experimental testing has been conducted to evaluate the darnping values of FRP
laminates commonly used in the construction of FRP chimneys. Such laminates consist of
angle-ply (0 = f5 5 O with the longitudinal axis of the specimens) glass reinforced vinyl
ester composite. Both resonant and logarithmic decrement tests have been conducted on a
number of cylindrical specirnens. The damping results h m the decay test exhibited
slightly higher darnping ratios. For the range of frequency tested the damping value has
shown slight increase with the increase of the frequency. For the range of the applied
snain , results indicate that the damping values are strain-independent. The added
damping fkom the surrounding air has b m i calculated and found to be negligible. The
average darnping values fiom al1 conducted tests are equal to 0.66 % for the resonant tests
Charge Signal
Shaker Table
Accckromctcrs
Output Sqpah
Conditioning
Amplifier
2692-A-OS4
Conditioned
Signais
Pentiumpc
AT-MIO- lm-10
Fig.S.2 Schematic diagram ofthe Shake Table and the Data Acquisition System.
Fig.5.3 A photo showing the epoxy glue and steel plate used in mounting the specimen.
f (Hz)
Fig.5.5 Typical experimental fiequency-response curve and the fitted response of
single degree of freedom system.
Measured (mode 1 )
-2 order fitting
t
<
d
- L,
Fig.5.6 The damping of the nrst mode versus the fkquency h m the resomnt test.
Mode 1
- 2 nd order
0
Mode2
L - 5 U t
Fig.5.7 The damping of both first and second mode versus the fkquency fiom the
resonant test.
Fig.5.8 The damping ratio of the frst mode versus the hdamental hquency fiom
the decay test.
Fig.5.9 The damping ratio versus the maximum bending strain amplitude in the longitudinal
direction for specimen (2 in diameter).
CaAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
The nrst three questions are addressed using an analyticai approach, while an
experimental study is conducted to a t l ~ ~ the
~ e fourth
r
question.
Conclusions that can be drawn nom the whole study are summarized in the
following sub-sections.
thermal eff-
the constituents of FRP should be carefidly chosen in order to provide a durable structure.
Following the discussion in Chapter 2, Wiyl ester polymer reinforced by E-glas fibers
are suitable to be used in the construction of industrial chimneys as long as the service
temperature of the chimney is less than the continuous service temperature of the vinyl
ester polymer. For the case of chimneys having hi& service temperature, epoxy polymea
reinforced by E-glas fibm can be the alternative though a higher cost is expected.
in this study, the formulation of a consistent laminated shell element has been
extended to include themal stress analysis. The thermal formulation has been checked by
modeling and analyzing a number of benchmark problems and comparing the results of
the analyses with those availabie in the titerature. An excellent agreement has been shown
in all the analyzed examples. The effect of various parameten which might influence the
thermal stresses induced in angle-ply laminated mer reinforced plastic chimneys have
been studied using the developed model. Results of the pararneic study indicate that the
thickness, the diameter, and the height of the chimney as well as the nurnber of laminae
bave no signincant effect on the induced thmal stresses. Analyses indicate that the
thermal stresses mainly depend on the through thickness temperature distribution (relative
to the curing temperature), the angle of orientation ofthe nbers, the coefficient of thermal
expansion and the modulus of elasticity dong the fibers direction. The last two
of typical FRP chimneys shows high stress concentration near the boundaries with in-
plane across fiber stresses usually exceedmg the ultimate strength of the matrix. As such,
cracks are expected to occur in FRP chimneys as a result of a through thickness
temperature variation. Xowever, it is beiieved that these cracks can be controlled if the
interlaminar shear stresses are less than the ultimate interlaminar shear strength divided
by an appropriate factor of safety.
value for the modulus of elasticity in the direction perpmdicular to the fiben to simulate
a cracked chimney. Results of this last set of analysis indicate that for typical FRP
chimney, the along fibers stresses as well as the shear stresses of cracked chimneys are
within acceptable values. Finally, charts predicting the dong fibers thermal stresses
induced in typicd cracked FFtP chimneys as a fhction of the through thickness
temperature distribution are presented. These stress values can be considered when the
design of a FRP chimney is attempted.
The response of FRP chimneys to wind loads depends on the wind characteristics,
the laminate properties and the geometry of the chimney. From the paramenic study
conducted to assess the effect of various pisrazeters on the wind responses of FRP
chimneys, one can conclude the foiiowing:
The fibers orientation defines most of the lammate properties such as stiffiiess and
strength. To achieve a considefable improvement in the longitudinal stifniess of the
chimney and consequently reduce the wind response, fibers have to be onented by an
angle 0 S 5 " (O is measured with a horizontal direction).
The across-wind load response of FRP chimneys is vey sensitive to the combined
effect of the composite mass density and the damping ratio. Since FRP are very light
materials and do not have a weil dehed damping ratio, a consmative approach must
be used in estimahg the across-wind response of such chimneys.
Tapering ratio is very efficient way of reducing the vortex shedding.
The CICIND code for steel chimneys (1988), when applied to FRP chimneys leads to
overly conservative results in some cases and slightly unconsetvative in other cases.
When vortex shedding is considad, the design of FRP chimneys is show to be
governed by the fatigue strength for the range of aspect ratio and height considered in
this shidy.
The optimum aspect ratio (height to diameter ratio) which produces minimum
thickness of FRP chimneys subjected to both wind and thermal loads varies between
15 and 20.
Com~osite
Dynamic testing has been performed to evaluate the damping ratio of EglassNinyl ester fiber reinforceci plastic materiai. Both the resonant and the logarithmic
decrement techniques are used in this study. Based on the d t s of the damping tests, the
following conclusions cm be drawn:
The damping ratios obtained f h n the decay tests are shown to be slightiy higher than
those obtained fkom the resonant tests,
For the range of fkquencies applied in the tests, the decay tests show damping values
which are more f?equency-dependent compared to those obtained from the resonant
tests. However, the variation of the damping ratio with the fixquency is usually small.
For the range of strains applied in the tests (maximum expected strains in reai
chimneys are within this range), the damping ratios are s h o w to be strainindependent.
The average damping value obtained fkom the whole experimental study are equal to
0.66% and 0.75% for the resonant and the decay tests, respectively.
1) The uneven distniution of wind loads around the top part of cylindrical chimneys
might lead to ovalling of the chimneys in these Locations. This phenomenon, which
was s h o w to happen for steel chimneys, was not considered in this study. An
2) The fatigue strength for E-giassNinyl esta angle-ply composite which was shown in
this study to be corivenient for chimneys applications, is not well defined in the
fiterature speciaily for variable angles of orientation of the fibers. As such,
expenmental testing for evaluating the fatigue strength of E-glassNiny1 ester
composite is highly recommended.
chimneys under thermal and wind loads assume constant thickness through the height
of the chimney. Practical design of FRP chimneys includes often variation of the
4) The local buckling of thin shells is very much important when assessing the stability
of such type of structures. FRP chimneys are very susceptible to local buckling
specially due to the highly localized thermal stresses at the base of the shell.
Therefore, buckliag of FRP chimney has to be investigated.
APPENDIX A
(Davenport, 1993)
Mean drag force
+,(Y)
where
=I/
(t)
1,
(y) =
and
- #,
(y) is function d e W the variation of the diameter of the chimney dong the height
( WY)= O,(Y)-D,).
where 4 is the naturai frequency of the jm mode,+, (y) is the variation of the mass dong
the height, 5, and 5, are the structural and the aerodynamic damping and p(y) is the
mode shape.
Vortex shedding
The generalized force spectrum of vortex shedding is;
fiSGf,
(fi ) =
where
CLis the mis of the left coefficient. h is a coefficient defines the correlation of
1 as suggested by
Vickery (1997). f' = FD, 1 U, is the reduced frequency. The mis of the lift coefficient
= 1 @/L) and
(A.9)
the ms Iet coefficient with the aspect ratio and to accommodate the rapid decrease of
the left coefficient nea.the tip of the chimney. Strouhal number S, is surface roughness.
Reynolds number, turbulent and aspect ratio dependent. The suggested value for
Strouhal number S, is
(A-10)
In the across-wind vibration at a fkquncy near the vortex shedding fkquency, the
aemdynamic damping is expresseci by;
where K ( u ' ~ ) is the aerodynamic damping coefficient. With the associated uncertainty
of the aerodynamic coefficient and with the dramatic change nom positive to negative
in the vicinity of the aitical wind speed, it was suggested by Vickery that the maximum
negative aerodynamic is
1
D' and rn' are the average diarneter and average m a s over
(A. 12)
chimney. It should be noted that the non-linear ternis were neglected from the general
expression of the aerodynamic damping given by Vickery. This assumption is valid if the
vibrations have relatively small amplitudes.
Calculate the maximum wind response fiom the three cases of toading
For each section dong the height
Calculate the maximum strains for each tamina h m Eq.4.37 in x-y axes
Transforrn the maximum strains to 1-2 axes fiom Eq.4.3 8
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Related codes
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Australia Standard AS1 1702 SAA Loading Code, Part 2: Wind Loads
BS 5480 (1991): Specification For GRP Pipes, Joints And Finings For Use For Water
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