EASA Module 14 B2 Propulsion Notes

Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies
School of Aeronautical Engineering

Module 14 Propulsion
These notes are intended for training guidance only and are not to be used as an authoritative
document for use in the civil aviation industry. In all cases, reference must always be made to
the current documents for the most up to date information.
Amendment and Annual Review Record

Amendment
No
Incorporated
by
Date
Annual
Review
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
Completed by
C. Gibson
C Gibson
C. Gibson
Date
05/08/2011
31/08/12
14/05/13

14.1 Turbine Engines ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4
14.1.1 Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbojet, Turbofan, Turboshaft and Turbopro peller Engines ......... 14
14.1.2 Electronic Engine Control and Fuel Metering Systems (FADEC) ......................................................................... 22
14.2 Engine Indicating Systems .......................................................................................................................................................... 42
14.2.1 Exhaust Gas Temperature / Interstage Turbine Temperature Systems .............................................................. 42
14.2.2 Engine Speed ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
14.2.3 Engine Thrust Indication: Engine Pressure Ratio, Engine Turbine Discharge Pressure or Jet Pipe Pressure Systems
..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
14.2.4 Oil Pressure & Temperature ................................................................................................................................ 57
14.2.5 Fuel Pressure, Temperature and Flow ................................................................................................................. 59
14.2.6 Manifold Pressure ............................................................................................................................................... 65
14.2.7 Engine Torque .................................................................................................................................................... 66
14.2.8 Propeller Speed .................................................................................................................................................. 68
14.3 Starting And Ignition Systems ..................................................................................................................................................... 70
14.3.1 Operation Of Engine Starting Systems And Components ..................................................................................... 70
14.3.2 Ignition Systems And Components ..................................................................................................................... 77
14.3.3 Maintenance Safety Requirements ...................................................................................................................... 82
Acronyms and Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Bibliography and Recommended Further Reading ......................................................................................................... 83
EASA Module 14 B2 Propulsion
Page 3 of 71

14.1 Turbine Engines
Introduction
The conquest of air by powered flight was ever the aim of
man, and a great step forward was made by the Wright
Brothers at Kitty Hawk, America with their historic flight in
1903. Since that early date, aircraft have developed
steadily and, by 1939, aircraft speeds of 464 mph were
being achieved by production aircraft. Aircraft with piston
engines and propellers could climb to 56,000 feet and fly
distances of up to 7,000 miles non-stop. In attempts to
improve aircraft performance, engines were increased in
both size and power output, with various configurations
being tried (e.g. various in-line and radial engines with
from 7 to 36 cylinders per engine). Superchargers with
coolers, water-methanol injection systems and many aids
to performance were introduced. However, piston engine
and propeller combinations suffered a loss in performance
at high forward speeds and altitudes; clearly a new type of
aircraft propulsion unit was needed if aircraft performance
was to advance even more; thus the jet engine was born.
Principle Of Jet Propulsion

Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac
Newton's third law of motion which states "For every force
acting on a body, there is an equal and opposite reaction".
The earliest known example of jet reaction occurred during
the use of a toy called 'Hero's engine'. In 120 BC this toy
showed how the momentum of steam issuing from a
number of jet outlets could impart an opposite reaction to
the jets themselves, and in doing so cause the engine to
revolve. The force which accelerates the steam reacts in
the opposite direction on the engine, moving the engine
away from the accelerating column of steam. A garden
sprinkler uses a similar principle.
Page 4 of 71

Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and it is not, as
sometimes assumed, the result of the jet efflux impinging
upon the atmosphere. The jet engine is designed to
accelerate a stream of air to an exceptionally high velocity
and to obtain useful thrust from the reaction. There are
many ways of increasing the velocity of the air but, in all
cases, the resultant reaction is the propulsive thrust
exerted on the engine. Theoretically, all that is needed to
produce useful thrust is a tube, with an inlet, some means
of introducing and burning fuel and an exhaust. This is
known as a ramjet, illustrated in fig.2.
engine to burn the fuel, the aircraft has to be travelling at

300 knots or more.
This problem is overcome in the Turbojet (or Gas Turbine)
engine by using exhaust gas to power a turbine, which in
turn, drives a compressor fitted in the intake. It is generally
acknowledged that, in Great Britain, Sir Frank Whittle of
the Royal Air Force designed and developed the first British
gas turbine engine suitable for aircraft propulsion.
The ramjet has no moving parts, all the reactive thrust

being available to propel the aircraft to which it is fitted.
Unfortunately, in order to get sufficient airflow through the
Page 5 of 71

In 1941 the Whittle gas turbine engine powered the
Gloster E28/39 aircraft and many of the present-day RollsRoyce aero engines are developments of Sir Frank's
design. Aero gas turbine engines have been the foundation
t h a t has made modern high performance aircraft
possible. The function of any propeller or gas turbine is to
produce a propulsive thrust by accelerating a mass of air
(or gas) rearwards. Let us now apply Newtons Laws of
Motion to see how Thrust is produced.
In order to accelerate the air, a FORCE must be
applied (Newtons 1st Law).
The acceleration is proportional to the applied force.
There must be an equal and opposite REACTION
(Newtons 3rd Law) i.e. a forward acting force
which is the Thrust.
The thrust obtained is proportional to the mass of air
passing through the engine and to the velocity increase
(acceleration) of the mass of air flow, i.e.:FORCE (Thrust) = MASS x ACCELERATION
The same amount of propulsive thrust can be obtained by
either:
Accelerating a large mass through a small increase
in velocity.
Accelerating a small mass through a large increase

in velocity.
Thrust
A jet engine produces thrust in a manner similar to that of
a piston engine / propeller combination but, whilst the
propeller gives a small acceleration to a large mass of air,
the turbine engine gives greater acceleration to a smaller
mass of air flow. This point is illustrated in fig. 4.
Application of Principles
In addition to Newton's third law of motion, it is necessary
to study mass flow of matter, Bernoulli's theorem and
subsonic diffusion to understand how a gas turbine engine
produces useful thrust.
Mass Flow of Matter
To understand how matter behaves when moving in a duct
it is necessary to consider the mass flow of the matter.
This is defined as the quantity of matter flowing in unit
time, the mass flow may be expressed in lb/sec, kg/sec, or
in any other convenient units.
Page 6 of 71
Mass Flow through a Ducted System

When a steady stream of air passes through a steady flow
machine; such as a gas turbine engine, operating at fixed
rev/min and air inlet density; the mass flow at any point in
the system is of a constant value. If we consider the
machine to be an open-ended duct, we find that the mass
flow per second will depend on the density of the air and
the volume flowing per sec.
Therefore: - Mass flow = density area velocity.
This is known as the 'continuity equation' and it is true
for any steady flow system regardless of changes in the
cross-sectional area of the duct.
Bernoulli's Theorem
This theorem states that the sum of the pressure and
kinetic energies in a fluid moving inside a duct is constant,
even though pressure energy can be converted to kinetic
energy and vice versa. This theorem can be applied to the
relationship between pressure and velocity existing in the
air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine.
Page 7 of 71

Pressure Energy
In gas or fluid the pressure energy is more often called
'static pressure' and it can be defined as the pressure that
would be felt by a body which was submerged in the
medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as
the medium.
Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure

(PS) changes as area (and velocity) change.
Kinetic Energy
This kind of energy is more often called 'dynamic pressure'
and this term is used to define the extra pressure created
by the movement of the medium. Dynamic pressure is
proportional to mass velocity2 (i.e. mv2).
Continuity Equation and Bernoulli's Theorem
Incompressible fluid
Compressible Fluid (Atmosphere)
The combined effects of the continuity equation and
Bernoulli's theorem are shown in the diagram below, when
a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct
of varying cross sectional area. This shows that:-
Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas

turbine engine and, because the air is compressible, flow
at subsonic speeds causes a change in the density of the
air as it progresses through the engine.
Mass flow remains constant as the cross-sectional

area of the duct (and velocity) change.
Page 8 of 71

A duct which has a decreasing cross-sectional area is known
as a CONVERGENT duct, the inlet area is greater than the
area at the exit.
The air entering the duct at section A consists of air

pressure (P1) and velocity (V1), then as the air enters the
increased area of the duct at B it will spread out to fill the
increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow
down (continuity equation) and give a change in velocity to
V2. The static pressure of the air will increase (Bernoulli's
theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the duct
and, because air is compressible, the air density will also
increase as it is compressed by the rise in pressure in
section B of the duct.
When air flows through such a duct, it increases in velocity

and the static pressure is reduced. In other words, an
increase in velocity is accompanied by a drop in pressure;
there is also a drop in temperature. How the convergent
duct as applied to gas turbines is shown in the diagram
below.
Nozzles and Ducts

The energy changes throughout the gas turbine engine are
effected by means of nozzles and ducts of various shapes
and sizes
If the duct has an increasing cross-sectional area it is said to

be DIVERGENT and will convert kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
Page 9 of 71

The divergent duct is used at various points in a gas
turbine where velocity is to be reduced and pressure
increased, there is also an increase in temperature. A
typical position for a divergent duct is shown in the diagram
below. When air is compressed by this process it is called
subsonic diffusion and it is a principle that is used
extensively in jet engine design.
when additional energy is imparted to the air, e.g.

by heat
when energy is being extracted from the air, e.g. by

doing work
when the velocity of air passing through the duct

reaches sonic speed. If this occurs the nozzle is
said to be "choked".
NOTE The speed of sound is directly related to temperature.

When choking occurs, there can be no further increase in
velocity until the temperature of the air is increased.
Later, we shall see the various changes that occur in

velocity and pressure during the passage of an air stream
through practical gas turbine engines. During these energy
changes, the temperature will always follow the pressure.
It is essential to note that energy changes through these
ducts will NOT conform to the above if the following
conditions are encountered.
Page 10 of 71

Figure 9 shows a comparison of operation of a Gas Turbine
and a Piston Engine.
Working Cycle of a Gas Turbine Engine

Heat engines convert the heat energy of the fuel into
mechanical work. Piston engines and gas turbines are heat
engines, both using air as the working fluid. In the Piston
Engine the power output is intermittent, whereas in the Gas
Turbine it is continuous.
The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using
air as a working fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this,
the air passing through the engine is accelerated by
heating. This means that the velocity of the air is increased
before it is finally emitted in the form of a high velocity jet.
The working cycle of a gas turbine is called the Brayton
Cycle. The working cycle on which the gas turbine engine
functions is, in its simplest form, represented by the P/V
diagram (fig 10).
Page 11 of 71

BRAYTON CYCLE
3 to 4 Expansion through the Turbine where

energy is extracted (to drive the Compressor),
resulting in a decrease in pressure, and
temperature, whilst the volume of the gas
increases.
4 to 1 The air returns to ambient pressure ready
for the cycle to start again.
The expansion process is completed through the Jet Pipe

Nozzle, which produces a high velocity jet, the reaction to
this providing the thrust, the gas finally reducing back to
atmospheric pressure.
1-2 Compression: Work is done on the air in the

Compressor resulting in a rise in its pressure and
temperature and a decrease in its volume.
Note: The term Constant Pressure only applies if the

engine is operating under a constant set of conditions.
Even so, in practice there is a slight drop in the combustion
system due to turbulence caused by the actual combustion
itself.
2 to 3 Heat Energy (Combustion) increases the

temperature and volume while the pressure
remains virtually unchanged, hence the term:
CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE
Page 12 of 71

Changes in Temperature, Pressure & Velocity
The changes in temperature, pressure and velocity of the
gases through a gas turbine engine are illustrated in the
following diagram. The efficiency with which these changes
are made will determine to what extent the desired
relations between pressure, volume and temperature are
obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the higher is
the pressure generated for a given work input, i.e. for a
given temperature rise of the gas. Conversely, the more
efficiently the turbine uses the expanding gas, the greater
is the output of work for a given temperature drop in
gas.
During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine,
aerodynamic and energy requirements demand changes
in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression, a rise in the pressure of the air is required
with no increase in its velocity. After the air has been
heated, and its internal energy increased by combustion,
an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to
cause the turbine to rotate.
Also, at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required,
for it is the change in momentum of the air that provides
the thrust on the aircraft. Local decelerations of gas flow
are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
Page 13 of 71

14.1.1 Constructional Arrangement and Operation
of
Turbojet,
Turbofan,
Turboshaft
and
Turbopropeller Engines
There has been a great deal of development of gas turbine
engines since the Whittle gas turbine engine first appeared.
This engine was fitted with a single-sided centrifugal
compressor, which had a low compression ratio (about
4 : 1 ). To increase this, it would have been necessary to
increase the diameter of the compressor and, therefore,
the frontal area. This would, in turn, have increased the
weight considerably. A two-sided centrifugal compressor
was an improvement, but similar penalties could not be
avoided. The demand for greater power output, efficiency
and flexibility led to further improvements in design,
particularly by Rolls Royce with the axial flow, single and
twin spool type compressors, the turbo-fan engine
(including the RB series), up to the present Trent engine.
The basic principles of each component remain the same,

but the path of the air through the engine varies according
to the design. A straight flow system is usual as it provides
an engine with a small frontal area and is suitable for use
of by-pass and ducted fan principles. We shall now
introduce common types of gas turbine engines.
Turbojet
Although we shall be discussing the components of the

turbine engine later, it can be stated that all gas turbine
engines have an intake assembly, a compressor assembly,
a combustion assembly, a turbine assembly and an
exhaust assembly.
Page 14 of 71

This engine replaced the centrifugal type already
mentioned, overcoming the disadvantage of its low
compression ratio, high specific fuel consumption and large
frontal area. The axial flow engine (air path parallel to the
centre line of the engine) with its various stages of
compression in the same casing (the Avon Mark 1 engine
made by Rolls Royce had 12 stages of compression) gave
higher compression ratio and a considerable improvement
in performance and lower fuel consumption, as well as a
smaller frontal area. Let us now look at this in more detail,
together with any disadvantages of axial compressors.
The Axial Flow Compressor
The compressor consists of a series of discs which carry
blades of an aerofoil section (the Rotor). The rotor is
surrounded by a casing which houses fixed blades, also of
an aerofoil section (the Stators). A row of stator blades is
located behind each row of rotor blades to form a
compressor stage. Several stages go together to make up
the compressor. An additional set of stators is located prior
to the first set of rotor blades. These are the Intake Guide
Vanes. On some compressors the angular setting of these
vanes is automatically controlled to suit varying airflow
conditions. This ensures air enters the first stage
compressor rotors smoothly and at the optimum angle.
Page 15 of 71

The rotor blades displace the air rearwards, producing a
rise in pressure and simultaneously imparting a high
rotational or swirl velocity. The air next enters the first
stage stators where a proportion of the high kinetic energy
is converted into a further rise in pressure by the divergent
passages between the stators, with a consequent fall in
velocity. These passages also correct the swirl imparted
to the air by the rotor blades and present it at the correct
angle for entry into the rotor of the next compressor stage,
where the process is repeated.
Each stage produces an increase in pressure. This is
relatively small (1.1 to 1.2 times the inlet pressure) equally
produced by the rotor and the stator. The final row of
stators act as straighteners to remove any swirl from the
air before it enters the combustion system.
As the air density increases through the compressor from
inlet to outlet, the cross-sectional area of the air annulus is
progressively reduced. This maintains a constant net axial
velocity and also maintains the pressure rise from the low
to the high pressure end of the compressor.
Although the swirl velocity increases and decreases
through rotor and stator vanes respectively, the axial
velocity through all the stages remains approximately
constant.
Page 16 of 71

The multi-stage axial flow compressor is most efficient
when the airflow meets the rotor blades at the optimum
angle of attack. This angle is determined when the engine
is designed dependant on required mass flow, pressure
ratio and the compressor r.p.m. range. Compressor stages
are matched to give optimum efficiency at the high r.p.m.
range of operation (take-off and climb).
Surge in Axial Flow Compressors
When operating at lower speeds the air meets the first
stage rotors at too great an angle of attack. The airflow
pattern across the blades will break down and the blades
will stall, in the same way as any other aerofoil. When this
occurs the stall may spread downstream to the subsequent
compressor stages until the whole airflow pattern breaks
down.
At low engine speeds another factor can affect the rear
stages of the compressor. Due to the reduced pressure
ratio, the air attempts to occupy a greater volume. As the
space available is controlled by the volume of the annular
space, the result is a choking of the later compressor
stages. When choking occurs, the velocity of the inflow
through the compressor will decrease until the first stage
stalls. This would be followed by subsequent stages until
all stages have stalled.
High pressure at the compressor outlet will now cause a

reversal of airflow towards the compressor inlet. This
causes the compressor to SURGE. Choking is now
relieved and normal airflow is restored until choking reoccurs and the pattern repeats.
If surging continues it may cause severe turbine a n d
c o m p r e s s o r damage so the engine must be shut down
immediately.
Surging can also be caused by over fuelling. If the engine
is at low r.p.m. and the throttle is opened gradually, there
will be a gradual increase in gas temperature and velocity,
resulting in increased power at the turbine and the engine
will accelerate.
If, however, the throttle is opened too rapidly there will be
a rapid high fuel delivery rate. Acceleration response will
lag, due to the large inertia of the rotating assembly. There
will be a fast increase in gas velocity through the NGVs
and turbine, causing choking at the turbine. Air velocity
through the compressor will reduce until the first and
successive stages stall causing the engine to surge. To
overcome this some turbo-jet fuel systems are fitted
with an over fuelling control to regulate the fuelling rate to
match the lag in acceleration of the compressor.
Page 17 of 71

To ensure stable operation of the compressor over a wide
speed range anti-surge devices are fitted to the engine.
These include Bleed Valves which open or close
automatically in response to an r.p.m. signal. At low r.p.m.
they will open and release the excess volume of air (due to
the low pressure ratio) to atmosphere. This prevents
choking of the later stages, maintaining air velocity and
thus eliminating compressor stall.
Inlet Guide Vanes can be automatically adjusted such that
the airflow into the compressor continues to meet the first
stage rotors at the correct angle of attack, dependent on
engine r.p.m. and air intake temperature. Some engines
also incorporate one or more stages of variable incidence
stators to alleviate surge problems.
Twin Spool Axial Flow Compressor Engine
This engine has a compounded compressor assembly in
which the compressors are driven by separate turbines,
through co-axial shafts; the only connection between the
two rotating assemblies is the gas stream. This allows
each half of the compressor to be run at its most efficient
speed. The low pressure assembly rotates at a lower
rev/min and accepts air from the intake and passes it to
the high pressure drum, resulting in higher pressures and
increased stability.
The advantages to be gained are:
Higher compression ratio.
Better airflow stability.
Lower specific fuel consumption.
Greater flexibility in operation.
Reduction in the possibility of 'stall' and 'surge'.
More rapid acceleration possible.
Easier starting.
Greater power at altitude.
The twin spool axial flow compressor engine is illustrated

below. This example shows a turbo-propeller engine. The
rear (low speed) turbine drives the front (low speed)
compressor and also, through a reduction gearbox, a
propeller
Page 18 of 71
Reduced fire risk and heat loss.

Reduced noise level.
Greater thrust yield from reheat.
By-Pass Twin Spool Axial Flow Compressor Engine

The by-pass engine was developed to permit the use of
higher turbine temperatures to obtain higher thrust. About
half of the low pressure air is passed through the annular
by-pass duct surrounding the high pressure compressor
assembly and combustion system to re-join the hot gas
stream after the turbine. This results in higher combined
flow of cooler, slower gases to atmosphere. The
advantages to be gained in addition to those mentioned
are:
Higher propulsive efficiency.
High thermal efficiency.
Better power / weight ratio. (smaller, lighter high
pressure compressor, combustion system and
turbine).
Page 19 of 71
Turbo-Fan Engine
This is a high-ratio by-pass engine with a large diameter
front fan driven by the low pressure turbine, and operating
within a cowl to provide a separate low velocity, high-mass
air flow; the air is ducted to flow concentrically with the hot
jet and does not mix in an exhaust unit as in the medium
by-pass engine. The front fan may have more than one
stage and the by-pass ratio is 3:1 or more. As the high
pressure compressor is required to pass only a proportion
of the total mass flow, both the compressor and
combustion system are of smaller and lighter construction
than those engines already mentioned. An illustration of a
turbo-fan engine is shown here.
Some turbo-fans have three concentric shafts with an
intermediate compressor (as fitted to the Rolls Royce
RB178-51, the Rolls Royce / Turbomeca RB172 Adour,
the Rolls Royce RB203-01 (Trent) and the Rolls Royce
RB211). The advantages to be gained are as for the bypass engine mentioned previously, but with greater
propulsive efficiency and much lower specific fuel
consumption (SFC) due to the large mass flow and lower
jet velocities.
Page 20 of 71

Turboshaft
A gas turbine engine that delivers power through a shaft to
operate something other than a propeller is referred to as
a turboshaft engine. Turboshaft engines are similar to
turboprop engines. The power take-off may be coupled
directly to the engine turbine, or the shaft may be driven by
a turbine. The free turbine located downstream of the
engine turbine. The free turbine rotated independently
being connected to the main engine only by the hot stream
of gases. This principle is used in the majority of
turboshaft engines currently produced, and is being used
extensively in helicopters, ships, electric generators etc.
Turbopropeller
The turboprop (turbo-propeller) engine is a combination of
a gas turbine and a propeller. They are basically similar to
turbojet engines in that both have a compressor,
combustion chamber(s), turbine and a jet nozzle, all of
which operate in the same manner on both engines.
However, the difference is that the turbine in the turboprop
engine usually has more stages than that in the turbojet
engine. In addition to operating the compressor and
accessories, the turboprop turbine transmits increased
power forward, through a shaft and a reduction gear train,
to drive the propeller. The increased power is generated
by the exhaust gases passing additional stages of the
turbine. The exhaust gases also contribute to engine power
output through jet reaction, although the amount of energy
available for jet thrust if considerably reduced.
Page 21 of 71

14.1.2 Electronic Engine Control and Fuel Metering
Systems (FADEC)
An understanding of mechanical fuel control will help you
understand what the Full Authority Digital Engine Control
System (FADEC) does. The thrust of a turbo jet is
controlled by varying the amount of fuel burnt in the
combustion system, and in order to operate to safe
temperature limits, the amount of fuel that is burnt must be
governed by the amount of air that is available at the time.
The air supply is dependent upon the RPM of the
compressor and the density of the air at its inlet, so under
a constant set of atmospheric conditions the RPM of the
compressor is an indication of the engine thrust. The pilot
has control of the fuel flow to the combustion system and
is able to select any compressor RPM, between ground
idling and maximum permissible which is required for takeoff conditions, by the operation of a cockpit lever.
Atmospheric conditions can vary resulting in changes of
air density at the compressor inlet. A reduction in air
density will cause a reduction in the amount of air
delivered to the combustion system at a selected RPM,
with a consequent increase in the combustion chamber
temperature. If the fuel flow is not reduced, a rise in
compressor RPM will occur, accompanied with overheating
of the combustion and turbine assemblies.
An increase in air density will result in an increase in the

amount of air delivered to the combustion system at a
selected RPM, and unless the fuel flow is increased a
reduction in RPM will occur.
Changes in air density at the compressor inlet are caused
by:
Effects of Altitude. The density of the air gets

progressively less as the altitude is increased,
therefore less fuel will be required in order to
maintain the selected RPM.
Effects of Forward Speed. The faster the aircraft

flies then the faster the air is forced into the aircraft
intake. A well designed aircraft intake will slow down
this airflow, converting its kinetic energy into
pressure energy, so that it arrives at the compressor
inlet at an optimum velocity with an increase in
pressure and hence density. This is known as Ram
Effect, and plays an important part in the
performance of a turbo-jet. Within certain limits the
greater the ram effect, the greater the air mass flow
and more fuel can be burnt at the selected RPM,
producing more thrust.
Page 22 of 71

Purpose of the Engine Fuel System
The purpose of the engine fuel system is to deliver to the
combustion system, in a readily combustible form, the
correct amount of fuel over the whole operating range of
the engine, under the control of the pilot.
Layout of Typical System Components
The diagram opposite illustrates the layout of components
of a representative fuel system. Some of the components
in the system are fitted to the aircraft and other are fitted to
the engine. The aircraft mounted components are:
Fuel Tanks. These store sufficient fuel for the
aircraft's designed flight duration.
Booster Pumps. These ensure a constant supply
of fuel at low pressure to the inlet of the engine
driven HP Fuel Pump.
Low Pressure Cock. This isolates the engine fuel
system from the aircraft fuel system for servicing
requirements.
Note: These aircraft mounted components will be dealt
with in greater detail during the Aircraft System Phase.
The engine mounted components are:
Low Pressure Filter. Fuel enters the engine fuel

system at the LP filter. A low pressure switch is often
fitted to the filter case and this operates a warning light
in the cockpit if the fuel pressure on the outlet side of
the filter falls below a certain value.
Page 23 of 71

Engine Driven High pressure Pump. The HP fuel
pump receives filtered low pressure fuel at its inlet
and raises the pressure sufficiently to cause the fuel to
flow through the burners into the combustion chambers
at the correct rate determined by the throttle position
and atmospheric conditions.
Throttle. The throttle is set manually by the pilot and
its position determines the amount of fuel delivered to
the burners and hence the engine speed and thrust.
Movement of the throttle schedules the HP pump to
deliver fuel at the appropriate rate. Note: The throttle
levers are aircraft mounted components but the throttle
is mounted on the engine.
Barometric Pressure Control. The BPC is sensitive
to throttle movements and engine air intake conditions.
Its purpose is to relay fuel flow requirements to the HP
fuel pump in response to changes in throttle position,
and to modify that fuel flow in response to varying
engine air intake pressures, thus maintaining
automatically the selected RPM.
Acceleration Control Unit. When the throttle is

opened the BPC will schedule the HP fuel pump to
increase fuel flow. The HP fuel pump is able to respond
to the demand very quickly, but because of the inertia of
the compressor, fuel flow tends to rise faster than the
airflow. To prevent compressor surge due to over
fuelling, the ACU is sensitive to air/fuel ratio and limits
the rate of over fuelling during the early stages of a
rapid engine acceleration.
High Pressure Cock. The fuel flow to the burners

passes through the HP cock which is manually operated
from the cockpit. The cock has two positions, fully open
to permit engine running, or fully closed to stop the
engine by shutting off the fuel supply to the burners.
Pressurising Valve. The pressurising valve ensures

that the fuel pressure in the burner manifolds is high
enough for efficient burner operation.
Burners. The purpose of the burners is to present the

fuel into the combustion chamber in a readily
combustible form.
Page 24 of 71

Automatic Operation
A device sensitive to fuel flow to the burners and air
pressure at the engine intake, schedules a change in fuel
pump output in response to signals of varying air intake
pressure. Common names for such components are:
Barometric Pressure Control (BPC)
Barometric Fuel Control Unit (BFCU)
Altitude Sensing Unit (ASU)
Manual Operation
The pilot selects the required RPM by movement of a
cockpit lever which is mechanically connected to a throttle
valve in the engine fuel system. The result of opening the
throttle causes the fuel pump to schedule a greater fuel
flow to the burners. The gas temperature in the
combustion chamber rises and the acceleration of the
gases through the turbine increases. This results in a
higher compressor RPM and a greater airflow, thus
providing an increase in thrust.
During engine acceleration, a device sensitive to fuel flow

to the burners and air delivery from the compressor, limits
fuel pump output in response to signals of excessive fuel
to air ratio during the early stages of engine acceleration.
As the engine accelerates the same device schedule an
increase in fuel pump output in response to signals of
increasing compressor air delivery. Common names for
such components are:
Acceleration Control Unit (ACU)
Air Fuel Ratio Control Unit (AFRCU)
Page 25 of 71

Maximum RPM is automatically controlled by a device
driven by the engine via a train of gears. This limits the
output to the fuel pump in response to a signal of
maximum engine RPM. This component, known as the
Max RPM Governor, is adjustable, and is often
incorporated in the fuel pump.
The benefits of FADEC are:
1. Substitution of Hydro-mechanical control

system reduces weight and hence fuel
consumption.
2. Automation brings reduced pilot workload.

Note: Components controlling the fuel flow may be
mounted on the engine, whether individually, or grouped
together in one main unit known as the Fuel Control Unit.
3. Optimised engine control reduces maintenance
FADEC
4. Optimised airflow control allows the engine to
FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control System) is

the name given to the system that controls the engine on
modern Gas Turbine Engines. This part of these notes
discusses the common features of FADEC and also the
different applications used by the large commercial
passenger aircraft engine manufacturers, Rolls Royce (RR)
and General Electric(GE) and their derivatives IAE and
CFM.
FADEC replaces the hydro-mechanical fuel control
systems as exemplified by the Rolls Royce Spey or JT8D.
It can also be utilized to increase the engines efficiency,
by incorporating such devices as Variable Stator Vanes
and Automatic Turbine Rotor Clearance Control.
and optimises fuel consumption

work nearer the surge line, thus increasing
thrust, whilst reducing the chance of surge or
flameout.
A FADEC system consists of a Central Processor Unit
called an Electronic Engine Control (EEC) or an Engine
Control Unit (ECU), a Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) and
sensors.
The Central Processor Unit, for the purposes of these
notes will be referred to as the ECU.
Page 26 of 71

A FADEC system has the following inputs:
1. Analogue signals from electrical sensors.
2. Digital signals, usually on an ARINC 429 Data Bus,
from aircraft computers such as the Air Data
Computer (ADC), Thrust Management Computer
(TMC) and Flight Management Computer (FMC).
3. Thrust lever signals are transmitted by Rotational
Variable Differential Transformers, mechanically
connected to a conventional thrust drum, which is
moved by the Manual Thrust Lever and the Auto
Thrust Servo Motor.
4. Pressure inputs - apart from those received from
the ADC. Po and PS3 (Intake and Compressor
Delivery Pressure) signals are tapped directly into
pressure transducers located within the ECU.
5. Feedback signals from any moving mechanical
device, such as Thrust Reverser and Variable
Bypass Valves, utilise Linear or Rotary Variable
Differential Transducers (LVDTs or RVDTs).
Page 27 of 71

Overview
Principles
Engine Control Unit (ECU)
FADEC Interface with Aircraft
The ECU is a dual channel processor that computes all

functions of the FADEC system, based on its inputs and
stored data, and then commands the HMU to take
appropriate actions. Every second a typical ECU can
monitor 200 measurements from more than 40 sensors to
ensure the engine runs safely and efficiently. The ECU also
provides ARINC 429 data to the Flight Management
Computer (FMC), Thrust Management Computer (TMC)
and EICAS (Boeing) or ECAM (Airbus) cockpit display
computers.
Inputs to FADEC
Thrust Lever Resolver- Two analogue signals come

from the thrust lever resolvers. They represent the Thrust
Lever Angle (TLA), this angle is, however, most often
called the Throttle or Thrust Resolver Angle (TRA).
Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU)

The HMU provides an interface between the electrical
analogue output from the ECU and the fuel. It is achieved
by an Electrical Hydraulic Servo Valve (EHSV) actuating a
Fuel Metering Valve (FMV), thus controlling fuel supply to
the burners. In addition the HMU will have EHSVs
controlling fuel muscle pressure to Variable Stator Vanes
(VSVs) and Variable Bleed Valves (VBVs), if fitted.
Page 28 of 71

The previous diagram shows the interface between the
A310 and its PW 4000 series engine. Thrust required is
input to the Thrust Control Computer (TCC); either by the
pilot via the Thrust Rating Panel, or from the Flight
Management System when engaged in Performance
(Vertical Profile) Mode.
TRA signals are sent to the TCC for positional feedback

and to the FADEC as demand signals. The FADEC
monitors actual thrust and compares this with thrust
demanded (TRA). If these differ, the FADEC controls the
FMU to bring them into line.
The Auto-throttle Actuator drives the Throttle Control

Levers to the appropriate position, for the thrust required,
via the Coupling Units and Dynamometric Rods. It also
drives the Resolver Unit, positioning the Thrust Resolver
Angular position (TRA) to the thrust required as shown
below.
Page 29 of 71
Figure below shows the flow paths for a CFM 56-5 Engine, which is a typical FADEC engine. Please note the Following:
1 FADEC is a very useful tool for
gathering information for a
condition monitoring system.
Customers can choose whether
to have Condition Monitoring for
their system, therefore the
sensors required are customer
options and are marked *.
2 TLA stands for Thrust Lever
Angle. This signal is received
from the RVDT fitted to the
thrust lever drum. However this
angle is sometimes quoted as
the TRA Throttle or Thrust
Resolver Angle)
3 The ECU is powered by its
own alternator or by aircraft 28v
DC Aircraft Bus for Starting,
Testing and Maintenance. 115
VAC aircraft power is required
for the AC igniter circuit.
Page 30 of 71
The Engine-Control Unit (ECU)

The ECU is a dual channel processor
housed within a single container, however
all hardware within the container is
partitioned into the two channels. Normally
mounted on the fan casing cooling is either
by natural Fan Case Cooling Air or directly
by a dedicated Fan Air Ducting.
Page 32 of 71

ECU Architecture
Dual Channels
The FADEC System is fully redundant, built around two
independent control channels. Dual inputs, dual outputs,
and automatic switching from one channel to the other,
eliminate any dormant failure.
priority list contains critical faults such as processor,

memory or power failures, as well as other failures that
involve a channels capability to control the FMV, VSV, or
VBV torque motor(s).
During engine run status, each channel within the ECU will
determine whether to be in the active state or standby
state every 30 milliseconds based on a comparison of its
own health and the health of the cross-channel. Either
channel can become active if its health is better than the
cross-channels health. Likewise it will become standby if its
health is not as good as the cross-channels health. If the
two channels have equal health status, the channels will
alternate on each engine shutdown and the standby
channel will become the active channel on the next start.
Channel Transfer
Assuming the opposite channel is of equal or greater
health, channel Active/Standby transfer will occur after the
engine has been run above 76% N2 and subsequently
shutdown (N2 less than 35%).
Electrical Inputs
Channel Selection
The ECU will always select the "healthiest" channel as the
Active channel based on a fault priority list. The fault
All command inputs to the FADEC system are duplicated.

Only some secondary parameters used for monitoring and
indicating are single (e.g. the EGT input on the CF6
engine).
Page 33 of 71
To increase the fault tolerant design, the parameters are

exchanged between the two control channels via the cross
channel data link.
Pressure Inputs
Pressure tappings from the engine are plumbed directly
into the ECU, either discretely to each channel or a single
tapping that is split within the ECU and then sent to
discrete channel transducers.
Hardwired Inputs
Information exchanged between aircraft computers and the
ECU is transmitted over digital data buses. In addition
signals are hardwired directly from the aircraft where a
computer is not used. (Thrust Reverser feedback via
RVDT's or TLA via an RVDT)
Outputs
All the ECU outputs are double, but only the channel in
control supplies the engine control signals to the various
receptors such as torque motors, actuators or solenoids.
Further information on output signal receivers can be found
in the HMU section.
The ECU is equipped with BITE, which provides
maintenance information, and test capabilities via an
aircraft mounted component called Multifunction Control
Display Unit (MCDU, Airbus) or Propulsion Interface
Monitoring Unit (PIMU, Boeing).
Page 34 of 71

The ECU performs a self-test on power up, and selfmonitors during operation. In addition operation of a
ground test switch powers up the ECU which carries out a
real time ground test. For Boeing airframes the ECU stores
faults in the ECU volatile memory until the aircraft lands.
On landing the faults are streamed to the PIMU which
holds the fault until a BITE test is carried out. There is a
PIMU for each engine. An EICAS message will advise
maintenance staff to carry out this procedure even if the
pilot has not noticed the problem.
Main Interfaces
To perform all its tasks the ECU interfaces with , aircraft
computers, either directly or via the Engine Interface
Monitoring Unit (EIMU). Principle among these, are the
aircraft Left and Right Air Data Computers which supply
data, notably Ambient Temperature (Tamb); Total Air
Temperature (TAT); Static Pressure (PSO) and Total
Pressure (PT). All of these are required to determine that
the thrust commanded remains constant for the ambient
conditions and that thrust and EGT limits are not exceeded.
AIRBUS faults will be stored in the MCDU in real time.

BITE interrogation is airframe specific and cannot be
covered in a generic FADEC publication.
Limits Protection
Using the BITE system, the ECU can detect and isolate
failures in real time and hence allows switching of engine
control from the faulty channel to the healthy one.
The ECU has a dual channel limit protection section

comprising max limits for N1, N2 and N3 (RR only) In
addition various max limits are protected depending on the
system, most commonly Compressor Delivery (Burner)
Pressure. (Ps3).
Fail Safe Control

Thrust Regulation
If a standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is
unable to ensure one engine function, this control is moved
to a fail-safe position. For example, if the standby channel
is faulty and the channel in control is unable to control VBV
position, the valves are operated to the open position.
Thrust regulation on high bypass engine is calculated using

ADC inputs to calculate the required fuel to provide the
commanded thrust. The thrust is measured in terms of N1
speed or EPR (RR Trent). For the EPR engine in the event
of EPR signal failure it reverts to control by N1.
Page 35 of 71

As a backup there is a mechanical high pressure
compressor (HP2 or HP3) governor located within the
HMU.
Thrust Control Modes
R.R. Trent FADEC Control Modes
The primary thrust control loop uses EPR. In the event that
EPR computation is impossible then the ECU reverts to
the N1 mode where N1 is used to control thrust. In the N1
mode Auto Throttle is no longer available.
Systems vary, therefore below are three typical systems:

CFM 56 FADEC Control Modes
CF6 FADEC Control Modes
In the event that an ADC signal is lost then the ECU will
use the opposite channel signal. In the event that the
channels inputs do not agree as to which signal is
accurate then the ECU will revert to an alternate mode
using the last known ambient pressure signal. This is also
known as the soft reversionary mode.
The soft reversionary mode can cause throttle stagger as
the other engine is still operating in the normal mode. To
prevent this, the ECU mode switches can be pushed for
both engines, to select hard reversionary mode, which
means they are using the fixed corner point ambient
temperature for that engine. Because Tamb may be
higher than corner point there is now a danger of overboosting the engine. The pilot will always throttle back
before selecting hard reversionary and be aware of max
N1 indication to prevent over-boosting or over-temping the
engine.
The engine operates in one of three thrust modes, AUTO MEMO MANUAL. Entering/exiting these three modes is
controlled by inputs to the Engine Interface Unit (EIU).
Auto Thrust Mode
The auto thrust mode is only available between idle and
Max Climb Thrust when the aircraft is in flight. After takeoff the throttle is pulled back to the max climb position, the
auto thrust system will be active and the Automatic Flight
system will provide an N1 target to provide either:
Max Climb Thrust.
An Optimum Thrust.
A Minimum Thrust.
An Aircraft Speed (Mach Number) in association with the
auto pilot.
Page 36 of 71

Memo Mode
The Memo Mode is entered automatically from Auto mode
if the N1 target is invalid. One of the instinctive disconnect
buttons on the throttle is activated. Auto thrust is
disconnected by the EIU. In the memo mode, the thrust is
frozen to the last actual N1 value and will remain frozen
until the throttle lever is moved manually, or auto thrust is
reset.
Manual Thrust Mode
This mode is entered any time the conditions for Auto or
Memo are not present in this mode. Thrust is a function of
throttle lever position.
The Data Entry Plug is a contact connector. Jumper wire

connections in the plug provide the ECU specific
information about the engine. This information is used for
fuel scheduling and engine rating calculations. The plug is
configured for the specific engine characteristics. It is
attached to the engine by a lanyard and remains with the
engine if the ECU is changed.
Note: Some engine types have separate Rating and
Identification plugs (e.g. the GE CF6-80).
Wiring Harness
The Wiring Harness is routed as required around the
engine and to the strut connections. It provides input and
output signal paths for the FADEC.
Date Entry Plug & Wiring Harnesses

The Data Entry Plug is mounted on the FADEC channel A
housing on the upper left side. It provides engine trim data
for thrust rating, optional equipment configuration and
EPR/thrust relationships to the ECU for the specific engine
only.
Page 37 of 71

Power Supplies
Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA)
A dual coil Permanent Magnet Alternator driven from the

External or Accessory Gearbox powers the ECU. The dual
output is fed independently to the two Channels. The PMA
can provide all power requirements once the engine is
running above 15% N2 (N3 for RR Engine).
For engine starting an aircraft 28V DC supply is used.
In addition a 28V DC Bus supplies power for ground
testing the system and for back up in the case of the
primary 28V DC Bus failing.
Aircraft 28 V DC is also always available in the event of
PMA supply failing to both channels.
28V DC is applied to the ECU when:
The start switch is activated
The Fuel switch is placed to on (for an in-flight
windmilling start)
When ground test power is applied
The aircraft supplies a 115V AC 400HZ power source to
each channel f o r ignition exciter # 1 and ignition exciter #
2. The inputs are routed to the exciters or terminated within
the ECU by switching relays.
Page 38 of 71

It should be noted that if the ECU has a double channel
failure then the engine will not start as the exciters can
only be powered via the ECU.
Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU)
Primary outputs from the ECU are directed to the torque
motors of the EHSVs located on the HMU and to the torque
motor controlling the primary fuel metering valve. The fuel
metering subsystem is completely contained in the
HMU. The HMU is mounted on the front, right side of the
accessory gearbox. It is driven by a mechanical
connection to the gearbox. The HMU responds to electrical
signals from the ECU to meter fuel flow for combustion
and to modulate servo fuel flow to operate the engine air
systems. The HMU also receives signals from the aircraft
fuel control system to control an internal high pressure fuel
shutoff valve (HPSOV).
There are four external electrical connectors for electrical
interfaces with the aircraft and ECU. Four fuel ports
connect the HMU with the fuel pump and fuel nozzles.
There are five hydraulic connections for control interfaces
with the engine fuel and air systems. Each hydraulic
interface is controlled by an electro-hydraulic servo valve
(EHSV) that varies servo fuel pressure in response to ECU
signals.
The fuel connections to the HMU are:
Fuel inlet from the fuel pump

Fuel discharge to the fuel nozzles
Fuel bypass discharge to the fuel pump
Servo fuel inlet from the servo fuel heater.
The hydraulic connections from the HMU are:

Servo fuel pressure to the low pressure turbine case
cooling (LPTCC) valve
Servo fuel pressure to the high pressure turbine case
cooling (HPTCC) valve
Servo fuel reference pressure to the LPTCC and
HPTCC valves
Servo fuel pressure to the variable bypass valves
(VBVs)
Servo fuel pressure to the variable stator vanes
(VSVs).
The electrical connections to the HMU are:
Fuel control signals from EEC channel A

Fuel control signals from EEC channel B
HPSOV solenoid inputs from the fuel control valves
HPSOV position indication outputs to the EEC
Page 39 of 71

General
Fuel Metering Valve
The HMU has three hydraulic circuits:
A fuel metering valve (FMV) inside the HMU controls fuel

flow to the nozzles. The hydraulically driven metering valve
is controlled by the fuel metering valve EHSV. The EHSV
has two coils, one for each ECU channel. The controlling
ECU channel increases current through its EHSV coil to
hydraulically open the FMV. If neither coil has power, the
FMV closes. The FMV has two position indicating
resolvers. One resolver is excited by, and provides a
position feedback signal to, ECU channel A. The other
resolver goes to ECU channel B.
A fuel metering circuit

A bypass circuit
A servo control circuit.
The fuel metering circuit controls fuel flow to the fuel
nozzles in the engine combustor. It has a fuel metering
valve and a high pressure fuel shutoff valve (HPSOV).
Unmetered fuel from the fuel pump goes to the FMV.
Metered fuel from the FMV goes to the HPSOV. If the
HPSOV is open, metered fuel is routed to the fuel nozzles.
The bypass circuit is composed of a bypass valve, a
differential pressure (delta P) regulator, and an over-speed
governor. The fuel pump supplies more fuel than needed
for the metered fuel flow. The bypass circuit returns excess
fuel to the fuel pump.
The servo control circuit divides the fuel supply from the
servo fuel heater into regulated and unregulated servo
flows. These flows operate actuators located both inside
and outside of the HMU. The circuit has a servo regulating
and distribution section and five electro-magnetic servo
valves. One of these servo valves supplies servo pressure
for FMV control and is discussed below. The other servo
valves control pressure to engine air system actuators as
listed previously.
The differences between an HMU and a Mechanical

System are:
The LP cock is replaced by an Isolation Valve which
is controlled by the fire handle in the cockpit.
The HP cock is replaced by a Pressurising and Shutoff valve which is controlled by the Fuel Control
Switch on the Engine start / run lever.
Page 40 of 71
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Page 41 of 71
14.2 Engine Indicating Systems

Electrical Type
Introduction
The following notes provide the student with generic
information on Engine Indicating Instrumentation as found
on
most
General
Aviation
and
pre-Electronic
Instrumentation type of aircraft. Information on the Airbus
Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) and the
Boeing Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting Systems
(EICAS) are to be found in Module 5 B1 and B2 notes.
14.2.1 Exhaust Gas Temperature / Interstage
Turbine Temperature Systems
Temperature measurement falls into two distinct
categories, High Temperature measurement and Low
Temperature measurement. High temperature measuring
devices measure such things as Exhaust Gas Temperature
(E.G.T.) and Cylinder Head temperature. Low temperature
measuring devices measure such things as Fuel and Oil
temperatures.
There are a variety of ways in which temperature can be
measured as follows:
A change in the temperature of an electrical conductor can

cause a change in the resistance of that conductor. Thus
measuring the resistance of an electrical conductor can
indicate the temperature of that conductor. This is known
as the Resistance type.
Dissimilar metals when joined together at one end can
produce an electrical potential called a thermo E.M.F. This
e.m.f. is dependent upon the temperature difference
between the junctions, temperature measuring devices
using this principle are known as Thermo-Electric
measuring devices.
Radiation Type
The radiation emitted by a body at any wavelength is
dependent upon the temperature of that body. This is
known as a bodys Emissivity. Thus the temperature of a
body can be determined by that bodys Emissivity.
The majority of aircraft temperature measuring devices
utilise only the Electrical Type of measuring device,
which can be divided into two sub-groups dependent
upon whether the temperature range to be measured is
low or high.
Page 42 of 71

Low temperature measuring devices utilise the Resistance
type, whilst high temperature measuring devices utilize the
Thermo-Electric Type. Temperature measurement using
the Resistance type is known as Resistance Thermometry
and the Thermo-Electric measuring types are known as
Pyrometry.
Temperature Sensing Elements
The sensing element consists of a resistance coil wound
on an insulated former, the ends of the coil being
connected to a Two-Pin socket via contact strips. The
resistance coil may be made from various materials, e.g.
Nickel or Platinum, which possess positive linear
temperature coefficients of resistance.
Thermocouples
Seebeck Effect
If two dissimilar metal wires are fused together at both
ends to form a continuous loop; and the temperature of
one junction is raised above the temperature of the other
junction; a thermo-e.m.f. is produced, whose value will be
directly proportional to the difference in temperature
between the two loop ends. This is known as a Thermocouple, called the Seebeck effect after its discoverer.
It is most important that the correct bulb is used with a

specific indicator to avoid indication errors. Gauges are
calibrated for a specific type of resistance wire and are
marked accordingly, i.e. Plat. Law or Nickel Law.
Temperature bulbs may be filled with hydrogen to improve
their response time. The cable interconnecting the bulb
and indicator forms part of the temperature bulbs
resistance and should therefore not vary from a specific
stated ohm value.
The Seebeck Effect is utilised when measuring the high

temperatures of aircraft engine cylinder heads and jet
engine exhaust pipes.
Page 43 of 71

A millivoltmeter (normally calibrated in degrees Celsius) is
used to measure the thermo-e.m.f.
Immersion Type Thermocouples
SAMPLING HOLES
The Immersion type thermocouple is used to measure the

temperature of gases. It is typically used as the sensing
element of turbine engine gas temperature indicating
systems. The Chromel/Alumel hot junction and wires are
usually encased in ceramic insulation within a metal
protection sheath (typically Inconel), the complete
assembly forming a probe that can be immersed in the gas
stream at specific points where measurement is required.
There are two classifications of Immersion type
thermocouples known as Stagnation and Rapid Response
types. The classification depends upon whether the probe
is to be used with high velocity or low velocity gases.
In pure jet engines the gas velocities are high, so in these
engines Stagnation thermocouples are employed.
slower than pure jet
It will be noted from diagram (a) opposite, that the entry

and exit holes (known as sampling holes) are staggered
and unequal in size. This allows the gases to slow down
and stagnate at the hot junction, allowing the thermocouple
time to respond to the change of gas temperature. A typical
response time would be 1 - 2 seconds.
Page 44 of 71

Rapid Response thermocouples are typically used to
measure exhaust gas temperatures of turboprop engines.
Since the gas velocities of a turboprop engine are lower
than that of a pure jet engine a different type of probe is
used as shown in (b). It will be noted that the sampling
holes are directly opposite each other and are of the same
size. The gases flow directly over the thermocouple
allowing the couple to react more quickly. A typical
response time would be between 0.5 seconds and 1
second.
and its proximity to the guide vane, the couple response is

much slower than the rapid response type.
Some temperature probes are used to supply more than

one system in which case more than one element is
required as shown in (c). Insulation of the thermocouple
elements from each other is provided by compacted
magnesium oxide (MgO), which also serves to maintain
the elements in position.
Nozzle Guide Vane Thermocouple
A third type of thermocouple is designed to measure gas
temperatures between turbine stages. The hot junction is
housed inside a sheath, which is specially shaped to form
the leading edge of a stator guide vane and is therefore
usually referred to as a Nozzle-Guide-Vane thermocouple.
Gases flow over the hot junction, which is positioned
between sampling holes of equal diameter as in the rapid
response thermocouple. However, since the holes are
much smaller in diameter and, due to the mass of the
sheath
It is required, in some types of turbine engine to measure

the temperature of the engine cooling air. This requires a
different design of thermocouple from those discussed
previously. The temperature sensor in this case is also a
Chromel / Alumel thermocouple element, designed to be
positioned over a vent hole and between a mounting boss
on the engine and an overheat detector switch.
Page 45 of 71

Thermocouple Location
It is important to position probes correctly as the
temperatures measured relate to engine performance.
The ideal position for temperature measurement is either
at the turbine blades themselves or at the turbine entry but
this presents certain practical difficulties, consequently
thermocouple probes are located at the exhaust or jet pipe
unit, and between the turbine stages at one end of the
stator positions.
For accurate measurement it is necessary to sample
temperatures from a number of points evenly distributed
over a cross section of the gas flow. This compensates for
the fact that differences in temperature can exist between
various layers of airflow through the turbine and exhaust
unit.
The measuring system therefore consists of a group of at
least 5 thermocouples distributed evenly in the gas flow
and connected in parallel in order to measure the average
temperature condition. This arrangement is known as a
'Harness Assembly' as in the diagram opposite.
Thermocouple Harness Assemblies

A typical example of a thermocouple harness is shown in
the following diagram. The 5 probes in this case each
contain 2 thermocouple elements; one for temperature
indication and one for temperature control. In some
engines probes and thermocouple lead junction boxes may
be designed as separate units but in the illustration given
the probes are welded to stainless steel junction boxes
thus forming single items.
Page 46 of 71

The parallel-connected thermocouple leads pass through
Inconel conduits which are also welded to ferrules at the
junction boxes. The leads terminate at a main junction or
'Take off' box, to which the leads of the remainder of the
circuits are connected. This allows for easy replacement /
removal of the harness.
Cold Junction Temperature Compensation

Since the indicator of any thermocouple system forms the
cold junction part of the thermocouple then any change in
ambient temperature at the indicator will cause an
indication error. For example, if the hot junction
temperature remained constant and the ambient
temperature of the indicator increased then the
temperature difference would decrease resulting in the
indicator Under-Reading. Conversely if the ambient
temperature of the indicator were to decrease the
temperature difference between hot and cold junctions
would increase so the indicator would over-read.
There are two methods of compensating for cold junction
errors, mechanical and electrical. A typical example of a
mechanical method is the bi-metallic strip as shown in the
diagram below.
With the indicator disconnected from the thermocouple
system the bi-metal spring response to ambient
temperature changes at the indicator, an increase in
temperature causing the spring to unwind resulting in the
hairspring element assembly moving round to indicate an
increase in temperature. Conversely, temperature decrease
will result in the element indicating a lower temperature.
The indicator therefore acts like a direct reading bi-metal
type of thermometer.
Page 47 of 71

If the indicator is connected to the thermocouple system
and its temperature increases this reduces the
temperature difference which tends to make the indicator
under-read but the operation of the bi-metal spring off-sets
this and causes the indication to increase accordingly. The
electrical compensation method will be explained later in
these notes with the servo type indicator.
Practical Aircraft E.G.T. Measurement System

Thermocouples are fitted in the area where the
measurement is to be made They are connected in parallel
to give the mean e.m.f. from all the thermocouples, this
being an average of the temperature in this area. Extension
Leads, made from the same material as the
thermocouples, are used to connect the thermocouples in
parallel and thence to the main engine junction box.
A Ballast Resistor is selected on initial ground test, by the
engine manufacturer, to compensate for engine build
tolerances. It shunts away a portion of the signal
(sometimes called `Temperature Scatter') to give a
common temperature output signal at a reference engine
speed. Its value is stamped on the engine data plate and
recorded in the engine log book. If necessary, it must be
replaced by one of the same value and specification.
Page 48 of 71

The extension and compensating leads also increase their
resistance due to natural aging. To maintain the resistance
of the circuit external of the indicator a Trimming Resistor
is used to adjust this resistance to a pre-set, common
value, as specified in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
(Typically in the order of 15 0.01).
This trimmer is usually of the bobbin type, the unwound
portion being removed on adjustment. It may be fitted in
either lead, but it must be compatible with that lead. (e.g.
positive lead - Manganin wire; negative lead - Eureka
wire).
Compensating Leads, made from materials with the same
thermo-electric properties as the thermocouples, are used
to connect the signal from the thermocouples to the
indicator. They have a very low resistance and form an
integral part of the circuit resistance. They must never be
repaired or shortened, any excess lead being coiled up
and cleated in place: The level of signal from the
thermocouples is in the order of only 20 to 40 millivolts, so
differences in the circuit resistance would have a great
effect on the indicator readings.
Thermocouple components and leads are colour and size

coded. Be warned that U.K. and U.S. colour codings are
different (e.g. Chromel wires are coloured red under the
U.K. system, white in the U.S.). Terminations are also
differently sized and must be torqued to different values.
Page 49 of 71

Servo Operated Indicating System
Many systems these days use servo operated instruments
and these employ electrical temperature compensation.
The thermocouple is connected to a Signal Processing
Module whose main components consist of a Cold
Junction reference circuit (C J Ref) and an error signal
amplifier. The C J Ref Circuit is a bridge circuit and uses a
thermistor to compensate for cold junction temperature
errors as well as providing an error signal to the servo
amplifier. The bridge circuit is fed with a low stabiliser d.c.
voltage (typically 7V) which is also fed to a comparator and
feedback potentiometer to effect computation of the
thermocouple signal.
The output of the bridge circuit is compared with the d.c.

output from the wiper of the positional feedback
potentiometer, and since the wiper is geared to the main
pointer and digital counter of the indicator, then the
difference and the potentiometer d.c. represents an error
signal which is fed to the servo amplifier which feeds a d.c.
voltage to the armature winding of a d.c. motor to adjust
the indication accordingly. Since the motor also drives the
potentiometer wiper the motor will continue to drive until a
'null' is reached i.e. the output bridge is balanced. The
complete circuit is shown in the diagram at left.
It will be noted from the diagram that the output from the
first stage of the servo amplifier is also fed to a flag warning
circuit. This acts as a servo loop monitor which detects
any failure of the servo loop to back off the error signal
voltage. If such a failure should occur then the flag circuit
de-energises a solenoid controlled warning flag which
appears across the digital counter display. The flag will
also appear in the event of the 115V a.c. supply to the
indicator falling below 100V.
An overtemp tell-tale pointer is carried by the main pointer
as the reading increases. When the temperature reduces,
the main pointer moves, but the limit pointer is latched at
the maximum temp reached. It can only be returned to its
normal position by applying a separately switched 28V dc
supply to a reset solenoid within the indicator.
Page 50 of 71

14.2.2 Engine Speed
cage rotor which gives high torque for easy starting. The
pointer is fed through a permanent magnet and drag cup.
Engine speed is an important parameter. It allows accurate

control of the engine in gas turbines, this RPM will be
measured as a percentage as opposed to direct
revolutions per minute (RPM), and in most cases are
referred to as 'N' gauges rather than RPM gauges or
tachometers.
Electrical Tachometers
There are two types of tachometers. One is a tachogenerator which consists of an electrical generator,
mechanically driven by an engine gearbox, electrically
coupled to an indicator. The other is a tacho-probe, whose
output is pulsed proportional to rotational speed, and which
has several outputs and can, therefore, feed additional
system, such as a Flight Data Recorder and an engine
control system.
Tacho-generators can be DC or AC; but DC types have
commutators and brushes whereas the AC types have
purely inductive coupled connections. Modern small aircraft
therefore use AC tacho-generators. The AC generator
gives a 3 phase output which h is fed to the indicator. The
frequency of the output is proportional to engine speed,
and is used to drive an AC synchronous motor in the
indicator.
This
is
combined
with
a
squirrel
Page 51 of 71

Servo Operated Tachometer Systems
More modern aircraft can be fitted with servo operated
tachometers. The generator signals are initially fed to the
signal processing module where they are converted to
square waves by a squaring amplifier. The square
waveform is differentiated by the signal shaping circuit to
produce positive and negative triggering pulses, which are
fed to a monostable via a buffer amplifier. The output of
the buffer amplifier produces a train of pulses of constant
width and amplitude at twice the frequency of the
generator. This output is now fed to an integrator to
produce a dc output called the 'Demand Signal' which is
fed to the servo amplifier and monitor module.
The demand signal is compared with the dc output from
the wiper of a positional feedback potentiometer. Since
the wiper is geared to the main pointer of the indicator, its
output represents indicated speed. Any difference between
the indicated speed and the demand speed results in an
error signal, which is fed to the input of the servo
amplifier whose output is connected to the armature
winding of the servo motor. The indicator pointer and
digital counter are then driven to the demanded speed
position. At the same time, the feedback potentiometer
wiper is also re-positioned to provide a feedback voltage to
back-off the demand signal until the error is zero; at this
point, the indicator will now display the demanded speed.
The output voltage of the servo amplifier is also fed to a

servo loop monitor, which detects any failure of the servo
loop to back-up the error voltage. In the event of such
failure, the monitor de-energises a solenoid-controlled
warning flag, which appears across the digital counter
display.
An overspeed Tell-Tale pointer operates in a similar

manner to that already described in the servo temperature
indicator.
Page 52 of 71

Tacho-Probe & Indicator System
The pole pieces are in close proximity to the teeth of a

gear wheel driven at the same speed as the compressor
shaft or fan shaft as appropriate.
To ensure correct orientation of the probe, a locating lug is
provided in the mounting flange.
Commonly called a phonic wheel probe; this system is

also used in several types of large public transport aircraft,
but has the advantage of being able to provide separate
electrical outputs to other systems as well as tachometer
indicators. In addition there is the advantage that a probe
as shown above has no moving parts.
The stainless steel hermetically sealed probe consists of a
permanent magnet, a pole piece, and a number of cupronickel or nickel / chromium coils wound on a ferromagnetic core. Separate windings provide outputs to the
indicator and other equipment requiring engine speed data.
The diagram above illustrates how the permanent magnet

produces a magnetic field around the sensing coils. As
the gear teeth pass the pole, the intensity of the flux
changes, due to the change in the air gap between the
poles and the gear wheel teeth.
Page 53 of 71

The change in flux density generates an emf in the sensing
coils which is fed to the indicator. The probe and gear teeth
may therefore be considered as a magnetic flux switch that
induces emf's directly proportional to the gear wheel and
compressor or fan shaft speed.
14.2.3 Engine Thrust Indication: Engine Pressure
Ratio, Engine Turbine Discharge Pressure or Jet Pipe
Pressure Systems
Thrust Meters
The take-off thrust from a turbo-jet engine is normally shown
on the Thrust Meter, of which there are two basic types.
The first type measures turbine discharge or jet pipe
pressure. The most common type is the Percentage Thrust
Meter. The second type which is called an Engine Pressure
Ratio (EPR) Gauge, measures the ratio of jet pipe pressure
to compressor inlet pressure.
In both types of indicator an indication of thrust output is
given, although when the turbine discharge pressure only is
measured, correction is necessary for any variation in inlet
pressure. In addition both types may require corrections for
variations of ambient air temperature.
Page 54 of 71

Power monitoring is done by means of a direct reading
type of pressure ratio indication that indicates power in
terms of percentage over a range of 50 to 100%. In
addition it incorporates a manually controlled device
permitting the thrust indications to be compensated for
variation in ambient atmosphere conditions. The
compensation is accomplished by rotating a setting knob
which adjusts a counter of a three digit display each
number at which refers to an appropriate atmospheric
condition obtained from performance curves. At the same
time it rotates the mechanism and positions the 'bug' to a
new datum value on the instrument face.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
This method of indication used intake pressure and jet
pipe manifold pressure, the pressure ratio of which varies
directly with thrust (see diagram following).
In general, an EPR system consists of an engine inlet
pressure sensing probe, a number of pressure sensing
probes projected into the exhaust unit of an engine, a
pressure ratio transmitter and an indicator. The
interconnection of these components, based on a system
in current use, is schematically shown in the diagram on
the following page.
The inlet pressure-sensing probe is similar to a pitot

pressure probe, and is mounted so that it faces into the
airstream in the engine intake or, as in some power-plant
installations, on the pylon and in the vicinity of the air
intake. The probe is protected against icing by a supply of
warm air from the engine anti-ice system.
The exhaust pressure-sensing probes are interconnected
by pipelines which terminate at a manifold, thus averaging
the pressures. A pipeline from the manifold and another
from the inlet pressures probe, are each connected to the
pressure ratio transmitter which comprises a bellows type
of pressure-sensing transducer, a linear voltage differential
transformer (LVDT) a two-phase servomotor, amplifier and
a potentiometer.
The transducer bellows are arranged in two pairs at right
angles and supported in a frame which, in turn, is
supported in a gimbal and yoke assembly. The gimbal is
mechanically coupled to the servomotor via a gear train,
while the yoke is coupled to the core of the LVDT.
Page 55 of 71
Engine Pressure Ratio system schematic Diagram
Page 56 of 71

The servomotor also drives the wiper of the potentiometer
which adjusts the output voltage signals to the EPR
indicator in terms of changes in pressure ratio, alters the
potentiometer output signal to the indicator the pointer and
digital counter of which are servo-driven to indicate the
new pressure ratio. Simultaneously, the motor drives the
transducer gimbal and LVDT coils in the same direction as
the initial yoke movement so that the relative movement
now produced between the LVDT coils and core starts
reducing the signal to the servomotor, until it is finally
cancelled and the system stabilised at the new pressure
ratio.
Engine Oil Temperature Measurement

The construction of a typical sensing element commonly
used for sensing liquid temperatures is shown below.
14.2.4 Oil Pressure & Temperature

Oil within an engine plays the vital role of lubricating
bearings, some of which are highly stressed and are
required to operate at high temperatures. As the lubricating
efficiency of oil deteriorates at high temperatures, it is
essential that the oil is cooled and that the pilot receives an
indication that the system is operating satisfactorily. The
pilot also needs to know that the pressure at which the oil
is being delivered to the bearings is adequate.
In practice a Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the

change in resistance in oil and fuel temperature
measurement systems as shown opposite. Resistors A, B
and C are known values; that of the heat sensitive bulb D
changes with temperature. This causes imbalance in the
bridge and current flow from Y to X. The meter is calibrated
in degrees C.
Page 57 of 71
Engine Oil Pressure Measurement

Oil
pressure
is
sensed
by
an
electrical
transducer/transmitter also located upstream of the
bearings. A change in oil pressure causes a change in
current from the transmitter and hence the indicator
receives a change in current which is proportional to the
change in oil pressure. Oil pressure is sensed by an
electrical transducer/transmitter also located upstream of
the bearings.
Oil temperature is taken by a temperature sensitive

element fitted in the oil system upstream of the bearings.
Changes in temperature of the oil cause changes in
electrical resistance and hence alterations in the current to
the indicator. See previous notes on Temperature
Measurement.
A change in oil pressure causes a change in current from

the transmitter and hence the indicator receives a change
in current which is proportional to the change in oil
pressure.
Page 58 of 71

14.2.5 Fuel Pressure, Temperature and Flow
Fuel Flow Indicating Systems
Fuel Pressure and Temperature
As stated fuel flow indicating systems have two main units.

These are the fuel flow sender or transmitter and the
indicator itself. The systems are included in aircraft to
measure the rate of fuel flow to the engines. In order to
operate successfully the following criteria must be met:
Fuel Temperature and Pressure of the low pressure fuel

supply are electrically transmitted to their respective
indicators. They are similar in operation to those for oil
temperature and pressure, so no further description will be
given in these notes.
1. They must be able to indicate the rate of fuel flow

accurately.
Fuel Flow
2. The transmitter must not impede the flow of fuel.
Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight
may vary slightly between engines of the same type, fuel
flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory
operation of the engine and of the amount of fuel being
consumed during the flight. A typical system consists of a
fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted into the low pressure
fuel system, and an indicator, which shows the rate of fuel
flow and the total fuel used in gallons, pounds or
kilogrammes per hour. The transmitter measures the fuel
flow electrically and an associated electronic unit gives a
signal to the indicator proportional to the fuel flow (see
diagram following).
3. If a mechanical breakdown occurs, then the

maximum rate of fuel flow to the engine should be
provided.
4. They must include compensation for changes in fuel
temperature.
Page 59 of 71

Types of Fuel Flow Systems
The following notes describe three types of fuel flow
meters.
Rotating Vane Fuel Flow System Transmitter
The transmitter has 4 sections:
1.
The rotating vane, whose shaft determines the

electrical output.
2.
The damping section, with a fuel filled compartment

containing a damping vane to remove oscillations of
the moving vane, the damping vane also acts as a
counter-balance to the moving vane, this section
also houses the calibration spring.
3.
Information transmission section, - a ring magnet is

attached to the moving vane shaft and transmits
shaft movement to a bar magnet in the electrical
section. The use of a ring and bar magnet eliminates
the risk of fuel in the electrical section.
4.
The electrical section houses a bar magnet, whose

movement varies the output from a potentiometer
and therefore the output to the indicator.
Page 60 of 71

Indicator
The indicator is of the integrated type that indicates the
fuel flow rate and the total fuel consumed. It contains an
inverter circuit, which provides various signals to the circuit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Motor reference phase.

Tacho - generator feed-back reference phase.
Amplifier input.
Fuel flow transmitter potentiometer supply.
An anti-phase signal for the resetting of the total fuel
consumed counters.
The indicator consists mainly of a low inertia two-phase

induction motor, which provides 2 integrated outputs (the
instantaneous flow rate and the total fuel consumed). The
motor also drives a feedback tacho-generator, which
provides damping through a negative feedback to the
amplifier proportional to the motor speed. The fuel flow
pointer is driven via a magnetic drag cup assembly. The
total fuel consumed counters are operated by a mechanical
drive via a gearbox.
Page 61 of 71
Fuel entering the metering chamber is straightened before it impinges on the vane, which rotates against the tension of the
calibration spring. The chamber is non-linear in shape (involute) to produce a linear vane shaft movement, which is
conveyed to a potentiometer via ring and bar magnets.
The potentiometer output is fed to the amplifier to drive an induction motor coupled to a gearbox producing 3 outputs:
1.
A drive to a drag/disc assembly to operate the flow rate pointer.
2.
A mechanical drive to operate the total fuel consumed counters.
3.
A drive to a tacho-generator, which produces a negative feedback signal proportional to the rate of fuel flow.
Page 62 of 71

Impeller Fuel Flow System
This type of flow meter is designed to continually display
the rate of fuel flow, and the total fuel quantity consumed,
in terms of mass units. The function of the flow meter
transmitter depends upon the volumetric rate of fuel flow
and therefore if the system is measuring fuel mass, a
correction will have to be made for the density and
temperature of the fuel.
The output of the transmitter is fed to an integrator within

the indicator, to be amplified and shaped for the operation
of the fuel flow rate and total fuel consumed indicators.
The transmitter consists of a light alloy casting with guide

vanes and an electrical pick-off coil. Inside the casting
there is a helical vane rotor which has a magnet
embedded in it. When the impeller rotates (due to the fuel
flow) a sinusoidal signal, at a frequency proportional to the
speed of the rotor and hence the rate of fuel flow, will be
induced in the pick-off coil.
Temperature Correction
For a decrease in temperature, the fuel becomes denser,
giving a lower flow rate. This results in a decrease in the
signal frequency and therefore the indicator would underread. A temperature sensor output is fed to the indicator
and applied to the computed outputs from the transmitter
to give a temperature corrected indication.
Page 63 of 71

As alternatives to the basic counter and milliammeter the
signals can be fully digitised and then fed to electronic
digital display indicators. Further modifications to the
signal are carried out by temperature and density
compensators.
Impeller/Turbine Fuel Flow Indicating System
This type of fuel flow transmitter has 4 sections:
1.
A static frequency controller, which will maintain its

output to close tolerances - i.e. 0.3% frequency.
2.
An impeller, which is driven through reduction

gearing by a motor using the frequency controller
output - this keeps the impeller at a constant speed.
3.
A turbine that contains fuel-straightening vanes. The

turbine is mechanically independent of the impeller,
but is restrained by a spring.
4.
An electrical transmitter, whose output is controlled

by the position of the turbine.
The picture at on the following page shows an integrating

flow meter system as used in the Boeing 737 aircraft. The
constant speed impeller imparts an angular momentum to
the fuel, proportional to the rate of fuel flow. This angular
momentum of the fuel is applied to the straightening vanes
in the turbine, causing it to rotate until the calibrated
restraining springs balance
the force due to the
momentum of the fuel. The deflection of the turbine shaft
positions the LVDT to a position corresponding to the fuel
flow in the line. A signal voltage (up to 5V at maximum fuel
flow) is induced in the secondary of the LVDT and is
supplied to the indicator servomotor via the closed contact
of the reset switch and amplifier.
The servomotor rotates at a rate proportional to the flow
rate, driving the Flow Rate Pointer via a magnetic drag cup
and the Fuel Used counters via a mechanical gearbox.
The Reset Switch is located on a panel in the cockpit and,
when pressed, energises the reset relay, whose contacts
supply 115 V a.c. to the servo amplifier and motor, causing
it to drive the fuel used counters rapidly to zero. The
decoupling disc prevents any hydraulic coupling between
the impeller and turbine at low flow rates.
Page 64 of 71

combustion chamber. As you increase the throttle setting,
more fuel and air is flowing to the engine; therefore, MAP
increases. When the engine is not running, the manifold
pressure gauge indicates ambient air pressure (i.e., 29.92
in. Hg). When the engine is started, the manifold pressure
indication will decrease to a value less than ambient
pressure (i.e., idle at 12 in. Hg). Correspondingly, engine
failure or power loss is indicated on the manifold gauge as
an increase in manifold pressure to a value corresponding
to the ambient air pressure at the altitude where the failure
occurred.
14.2.6 Manifold Pressure

On airplanes that are equipped with a constant-speed
propeller and piston engine, power output is controlled by
the throttle and indicated by a manifold pressure gauge.
The gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air
mixture inside the intake manifold and is more correctly a
measure of manifold absolute pressure (MAP). At a
constant r.p.m. and altitude, the amount of power produced
is directly related to the fuel/air flow being delivered to the
Engine power output is indicated on the manifold pressure

gauge.
Page 65 of 71

The manifold pressure gauge is color-coded to indicate the
engines operating range. The face of the manifold
pressure gauge contains a green arc to show the normal
operating range, and a red radial line to indicate the upper
limit of manifold pressure.
For any given r.p.m., there is a manifold pressure that
should not be exceeded. If manifold pressure is excessive
for a given r.p.m., the pressure within the cylinders could
be exceeded, thus placing undue stress on the cylinders. If
repeated too frequently, this stress could weaken the
cylinder components, and eventually cause engine failure.
14.2.7 Engine Torque
In large supercharged piston engines most of the
propulsive force is produced at the propeller. This is also
true for turbo-prop engines, as only a small part of the
force is derived from the jet thrust. Measurement of this
propulsive force is carried out using a Torque meter
Indicating System measuring the torque developed at the
propeller. (Diagram on following page).
Pulse Probe Torque meter System
The torque meter assembly provides the means of
transmitting and measuring torque produces by the power
section.
A correct indication of torque is essential due to the fact

that torque will vary over a considerable range, as it is
affected greatly by ambient air conditions at the engine inlet,
and by turbine inlet temperature. Since this is a constant
speed engine from take-off to landing, engine rpm is not a
factor to be considered in the variation of torque.
The torque meter shaft assembly is the rotating portion of
the torque meter system. It includes two concentric shafts,
two sleeve bearings, and the engine to torque meter
coupling. The torque meter inner shaft (torque shaft) is a
solid steel shaft which carries the torsional load. It is bolted
to the safety coupling at the forward end and is splined
to the compressor extension shaft at the aft end. The
torque meter outer shaft (reference shaft) is connected to
the inner shaft by locating key at the aft end.
Concentricity between the two shafts is maintained by the
centre and front sleeve bearings. Both shafts rotate as a
unit.
The forward end of each shaft is flanged and has equally
spaced rectangular exciter teeth machined on these
flanges. As the amount of torque transmitted increases,
the torsional deflection of the inner shaft causes a
displacement between the exciter teeth of the two flanges.
The displacement is detected by electromagnetic pickups
mounted in the torque meter housing.
Page 66 of 71
The torque meter magnetic pickup assembly contains two

identical pickups. One pickup is located over the torque
meter inner shaft flange, and the other is located over the
torque meter outer shaft flange. When a load is applied,
the torque shaft twists, displacing the teeth on the
reference flange. This displacement causes a change in
the phase displacement between impulses produces at the
magnetic pickup mounted over the flange. The air gap
between the pickup assembly and the exciter teeth affects
pulse voltage.
Page 67 of 71

14.2.8 Propeller Speed
The following is a description of a typical Propeller
Speed System:
NP (Propeller RPM)
A separate speed indicating system is provided for each
propeller. Each system consists of a propeller speed (NP )
sensor connected electrically to the rpm indicator in the
cockpit. The propeller magnetic pickup speed sensor is
supplied as part of the basic engine. It is mounted on
the reduction gearbox and provides a signal (0 to 5
volts peak to peak), equivalent to 0 to 1,200 propeller
rpm. The signal is sent to the cockpit indicator.
The No. 1 and No.2 N P indicators are powered by
28V DC. Lighting for the instruments is powered from
the 5V DC lighting system.
Circuits in each indicator compute the AC signal from
its associated sensor and provide an equivalent
indication of NP . A 0 to 5 VDC signal, proportional to
propeller rpm, is relayed to the flight data recorder.
Page 68 of 71
INTENTIONALLY BLANK
A press-to-test button on the indicator, when pressed

with power on the indicator, causes the pointer to align
with a blue dot at 1,050 rpm on the dial and 1,050 to be
displayed in the digital display. In the event of indicator
failure, the needle moves off scale below zero, and the
digital display is blanked.
Page 69 of 71

14.3 Starting And Ignition Systems
INTRODUCTION
Two main systems are required to ensure that a gas
turbine engine will start satisfactorily. Firstly, provision must
be made for the compressor and turbine to be rotated up to
a speed at which adequate air passes into the combustion
system to mix with the fuel from the fuel spray nozzles.
Secondly, provision must be made for ignition of the
air/fuel mixture in the combustion system.
14.3.1 Operation Of Engine Starting Systems And
Components
During normal engine starting, the two systems must
operate simultaneously. It must also be possible to motor
the engine over without ignition for maintenance checks and
to blow out residual fuel after a failed start. In addition, it
must be possible to operate the ignition system for
relighting the engine during flight.
The functioning of both systems is co-ordinated during a

starting cycle and their operation is automatically controlled
after the initiation of the cycle by an electrical circuit. A
typical sequence might be as follows:
Start button pressed

Ignition ON
HP Fuel ON
Light-Up
Self-Sustaining
Starter Circuit OFF
Idle RPM
Methods of Starting
The starting procedure for all jet engines is basically the
same, but can be achieved by various methods.
Page 70 of 71

The type and power source for the starter varies with
engine and aircraft requirements. The power sources can
be electrical, gas, air or hydraulic and each method has its
merits.
The requirements for a military aircraft, for example, are
totally different to those for a commercial airliner. The
starter motor must, however, always produce a high
torque and then transmit this torque to the engine in a
smooth manner to accelerate it to self- sustaining speed.
The electrical supply voltage can be progressively

increased by the removal of resistances in the circuit as
the engine increases in speed. The ignition system is also
actuated and supplied at the same time as the start is
initiated. Once the engine is running, the starter supply is
cancelled by the drop in supply current or by the action of a
timer mechanism.
Either way, the starter slows down and the clutch or ratchet
mechanism ensures that the engine can accelerate free
from the starter drive shaft.
ELECTRIC STARTING
The electric starter is usually a direct current, (D.C.),
electric motor coupled to the engine through a reduction
gear and ratchet mechanism, or clutch, which will
automatically disengage once the engine is self-sustaining.
The diagram in figure 13.1 shows a simplified electric

starter circuit. It contains most of the components found in
many starter circuits such as master switch, start button
and main starter relay. Overspeed relays usually
disconnect the starter motor electrically, once the amount
of current being drawn falls below a value which can only
be reached if the engine is self - sustaining.
Page 71 of 71
Figure 13.1. Electric Starting Circuit
Page 72 of 71

AIR STARTING
Air starting is used on most commercial and some military
jet engines. It has many advantages over other starting
systems and is comparatively light, simple and economical
to operate.
An air starter motor transmits power through a reduction
gear and clutch to the starter output shaft, which is
connected to the engine. A typical air starter is a basic air
turbine that rotates at high RPM when HP air is passed
through it from the on board Auxiliary Power Unit, (APU), a
cross-feed from a running engine, or an external air supply.
The air supply, from whichever source, is controlled by an
electrically operated control and pressure-reducing valve
that is opened when an engine start is selected. It is
automatically closed at a pre-determined starter speed.
The clutch automatically disengages as the engine
accelerates up to idling RPM and the rotation of
the starter ceases.
Fig. 13.2. Air Start System
Figure 13.2 shows a typical air starting system and Figure

13.3 shows a cut-away of the actual starter motor showing
its rotor.
Page 73 of 71
Fig 13.3 Air Starter System and Cut Away Starter
Page 74 of 71
IMPINGEMENT AIR STARTERS

Some turbo-jet engines are not fitted with starter motors,
but use air impingement onto the turbine blades as a
means of rotating the engine. The air is obtained from an
external source, or a running engine, and is directed on to
the turbine blades.
Fig 13.4 Impingement Air Starter System
Page 75 of 71
GAS TURBINE
On a few turbo-jet engines, a small self-contained gas
turbine is used to start the engine. It is completely
independent of the aircraft systems, excluding the electric
starter. Once the small engine has started, its exhaust is
directed through nozzle guide vanes on to the turbine of the
main engine which will rotate through its own starting cycle,
until it reaches self-sustaining speed.
Fig 13.5 Self contained Gas Turbine Stater
Page 76 of 71

HYDRAULIC STARTING
14.3.2 Ignition Systems And Components
This form of starting is found, on occasions, fitted on to

small gas turbine engines. In most applications, one of
the engine mounted hydraulic pumps is utilised and is
known as a combined pump/starter. This unit is coupled to
the engine through the accessory gearbox and a reduction
gearing. The hydraulic power, which will drive the unit in its
starter mode, can come from external sources or on-board
accumulators.
High Energy Ignition Systems
Once the starter has powered the gas turbine engine to

self-sustaining speed, the unit changes from being a
starter and becomes a normal hydraulic pump. In this
form it acts as a normal pump throughout the remainder of
the flight.
Each HE ignition unit receives a low voltage supply,

controlled by the starting system circuit, from the aircrafts
electrical system. The electrical energy is stored in the unit
until, at a pre-determined value, the energy is dissipated as
a high voltage, high current discharge across the plug. A
choke is fitted to extend the duration of the discharge and
safety resistors are fitted to ensure dissipation of energy in
the capacitors.
High-energy (HE) ignition is used for starting all jet

engines and, excluding APUs, all have dual systems fitted.
Each system has an ignition unit connected to its own
Igniter plug, the two plugs being fitted in different positions,
(or Combustors), in the engine.
Page 77 of 71

These ignition units are rated in Joules. Each Joule is
equal to one Watt / Second, with a value of 12 Joules being
typical for a high output and 3 to 6 Joules for a low output.
A high output would be required for re-lighting at altitude
and certain ground starts, whilst a low output would only be
required during continuous operation in icing or wet
weather, giving longer Igniter and ignition unit life.
A typical, simple ignition system is illustrated in Figure 13.6

and shows how the inputs are modified, through several
stages, to give a high voltage, direct current to the HT
terminal of the Igniter.
To be able to operate at both levels, combined systems,

giving high and low level outputs are most popular. Such a
system would consist of one unit emitting a high output to
one Igniter plug and a second unit giving a low output to a
second Igniter plug. Some Igniter units have been
manufactured which contain both high and low outputs,
which means that two igniters can be operating at
either level depending on the conditions and the relevant
cockpit selection.
Fig 13.6 Typical Ignition System
Page 78 of 71
LETHAL WARNING
The electrical energy stored in the HE ignition unit,
(HEIU), is potentially lethal. Before handling the
component, the associated circuit breaker should be
tripped or the relevant fuse removed. Allow at least one
minute to elapse, after isolating the unit, before
touching the unit itself, the HT lead or the Igniter plug.
The normal spark rate of a typical ignition system is

between 60 and 100 sparks per minute. Periodic
replacement of the Igniter plug is necessary due to the
progressive erosion of the electrodes caused by each
discharge.
The Igniter plugs operate in the same way as sparking

plugs, except that they are only required to start the
engines, they are then switched off until the next start.
There are two basic types of Igniter plug, the air gap type
and the surface discharge type. The air gap type require a
potential difference in the region of
20,000 volts, whist the surface discharge type only requires
a voltage in the region of 2,000 volts.
As igniters are used for both low-tension D.C. systems and
high-tension A.C. systems and are NOT interchangeable,
care must be taken to use the correct item, as
recommended
by
the
manufacturer,
in
their
overhaul/maintenance manuals.
Page 79 of 71

The two illustrations one unit of a dual ignition system (left)
and a surface discharge igniter (right).
Page 80 of 71

RELIGHTING
The jet engine requires the facility for relighting should the
flame in the combustion chamber become extinguished
during flight. This relighting can only be safely
accomplished if the aircraft is at the correct speed and
below a certain altitude. Figure 13.9 illustrates the relighting
envelope for a specific aircraft. If the aircraft is too slow or
too fast, or if it is above about 25,000 feet, there is little
chance for the engine to relight. Within this envelope the
airflow will rotate the compressor at a speed satisfactory for
relighting.
Page 81 of 71

14.3.3 Maintenance Safety Requirements
It has already been mentioned that the HEIUs can deliver a
fatal shock if they are handled whilst still live. It is also
possible to be shocked if either the Igniter leads or the
igniters themselves are handled before 1 minute has
elapsed after removing all power from the system.
DO NOT depend on just the starter master switch
being placed into the OFF position as it is possible
someone may switch it to ON whilst you are working some
way from the cockpit, on aft mounted engines for
example. At least pull AND LABEL AS INOP, any circuit
breakers applicable to the HEIUs. Also, disconnect the
Low-Tension connectors on the Igniter box itself to be
doubly sure.
Exercise great care when handling some types of ignition

transformer units if they are damaged. They can contain
radioactive material on their air gap points.
Some Igniter plugs are manufactured from exotic

materials, which require special disposal arrangements.
Check to see whether the items you are removing for
disposal at life expiry are of this type.
Page 82 of 71

Acronyms and Abbreviations
ADC Air Data Computer
ARINC Air Radio Inc.
BCD
Binary Coded Decimal
BITE Built In Test equipment
CDU Control Display Unit
CU
Control Unit
ECAM Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring
ECU Engine Control Unit
EEC Electronic Engine Control
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
EHSV Elector-Hydraulic Servo Valve
EICAS Engine Indicating Crew Alerting System
EIMU Engine Interface Monitoring Unit
EPR Engine Pressure Ratio
FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control
FMS Flight Management System
FMV Fuel Metering Valve
HMU Hydro-Mechanical Unit
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LED Light Emitting Diode
LRU Line Replaceable Unit
MSU Mode Select Unit
PIMU
Propulsion Interface Management Unit
TLA Throttle Lever Angle
TMC Thrust Management Computer
TRA Throttle Resolver Angle
VBV Variable Bleed Vanes
VSV Variable Stator Vanes
Bibliography and Recommended Further Reading

FADEC for EASA Pt 66 by Total Training Support
Rolls Royce The JET ENGINE
ISBN 0 902 121 2 35
COBC Instrument Notes (Module 13)
Page 83 of 71
END OF MODULE 14
Page 84 of 71

EASA Module 14 B2 Propulsion Notes

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