Crime & Punishment Through Time

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ISBN: 9781471861727
Alec Fisher and Ed Podesta 2016
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PART 1: Crime and punishment in Britain, c.1000-present

H ow m u ch do you k n ow a b o u t cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent?
C h a pter 1 C ri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent i n B rita i n : T h e B i g Sto ry fro m c.1 000- p resent
C h a pter 2 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n m e d i eval E n g l a n d , c.1 000-c.1 500
C h a pter 3 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n ea rly m o d e rn E n g l a n d , c.1 500-c.1 700
C h a pter 4 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n e i g hteenth- and n i n eteenth -centu ry B rita i n
4
12
32
56
C h a pter 5 C ri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent i n m o d e rn B rita i n , c.1 900-present
84
C h a pter 6 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n B rita i n : Revisiti n g t h e b i g sto ries
1 06
PART 2: The historic environment: Whitechape1,

c.1870-c.1900: Crime, policing and the inner city
114
PART 3: Writing better history
164
Glossary
179
Index
182
PART 1: Crim.e and punishm.ent in

Britain, c.IOOO-present
How muc h do you know about cri me
and punis h ment?
Crime sells. It sells newspapers,
magazines, books, films and video
games. It is often featured in the
news. People seem both shocked and
fascinated by crime and it can lead to
heated debates.
Is crime becoming more violent?

Should punishments be harsher or
easier?
Does prison make a difference ?
Should w e send criminals t o prison for longer?
Should we bring back ca pital punishm ent (the death penalty) ?
Attitudes have had a huge effect in shaping the history of crime and punishment.
So let's find out about the attitudes of the different people in your history class. Work
through the survey below and share any differences of opinion you might have. You might
find that you have your own heated debate !
What are your attitudes to crime and punishment?
1 . What s h o u l d be the m a i n reason b e h i n d p u n i s h i n g
cri m i n a l s ?
2. S h o u l d c a p i t a l p u n i s h ment (the d e a t h pena lty) be

b ro u g h t back?
a) Retri b u t i o n - reve n ge to
satisfy the vict i m or t h e i r
fa m i l ies
b) Deterre nce - t o warn

others not to co m m it t h e
s a m e cri m e
a) Yes, for a l l m u rd e rs
b) Yes, for some m u rd e rs
c) Refo rm - to h e l p the
cri m i n a l i m p rove t h e i r
behavi o u r
d) Remova l - to keep
cri m i n a l s off t h e streets
c) Yes, for certa i n types of

s e r io us cri m e
d) No
3. S h o u l d physical p u n i s h m ents, such as w h i p p i ng, be

used a g a i nst cri m i n a l s ?
a) Yes
b) No
4 . S h o u l d t h e p o l i ce carry g u ns?
a) Yes, all t h e t i m e
b) No, u n less t h e re i s a
d a n g erous situation to
d e a l with
c ) O n ly i n s o m e a reas
d) Neve r
1 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n : T h e B i g Sto ry from c.1 0 0 0 - p resent
Often people simply voice their ideas and opinions without really knowing the facts about
something. This course should help you to avoid that. By studying the ideas and attitudes
of people in the past, you can come to a better informed view of the issues surrounding
crime and punishment that affect us today. So what do you know, or think you know,
about crime and punishment today? Carry out the crime survey below. Then check the
answers on page 182 to see if you were correct.
a) Risen d ra
b) Stayed rou g h ly t h e s a m e
3. Yearly n u m bers o f m u rders a n d ki l l i n gs a re :
a) A fe m a l e p e n s i o n e r
b) A m a l e p e n s i o n e r
c ) A fe m a l e u n d e r 2 9
d) A m a l e u n d e r 2 9
4. In the l a s t t e n yea rs, car cri me (theft of ca rs a n d

possess i o n s f r o m ca rs) has:
a) S l i g htly h i g h e r t h a n t h ey
were ten ye a rs a g o
b) Considerably h ig h e r than
they were ten years ag o
a) I ncreased d ra m atica l ly
b) I ncreased a l itt l e
c) S l i g htly lower t h a n t h ey
were ten ye a rs a g o
d) C o n s i d e ra b ly lower t h a n
t h ey w e r e ten years a g o
c) Decreased
d) Decreased d ra m atica l ly
5. Women a re more l ikely t h a n m e n to be attacked

by a stra nger.
a) True
b) F a l se
6. B u rg l a ry is:
a) I ncrea s i n g d ra m atica l ly
b) I ncrea s i n g a l itt l e
c) Decreasi n g
d) Decreasi n g d ra m atica l ly
7. What percentage of crimes a re violent?
b) 35 per cent
d) 3 per ce nt
Societies and law makers have struggled with the issues of crime and punishment for
thousands of years - it is no wonder that you may not be sure about things at this early
stage ! When you get to the end of this book, try answering these survey questions again.
You may find that you have changed your mind about some of your earlier answers.
Crim.e and punishm.ent in Britain:

The Big Story from. c.IOOO-present
There is over a thousand years of history in the
next 160 pages. But don't worry- by the end of this
chapter you will be able to tell, in outline, the whole
story of crime and punishment from AD 1000 until
the present day. Once you have that clear outline in
your mind, you can start to build up more detailed

knowledge as you progress through the book.
of a violent crime. You can also decide your own

religious beliefs (or lack of them), without running
the risk of being burnt at the stake.
On the other hand, some things seem to stay
the same. You, or perhaps someone you know,
may have had a mobile phone or a laptop stolen.
Although these particular items were only
The history of crime and punishment reveals a
invented in the late twentieth century, petty theft
tremendous amount of information about what
has remained the most common type of crime for
people in different societies in the past thought and
the last thousand years! So, it would appear that
how they lived. On the one hand, things seem to
the story of crime and punishment is one of both
have changed. Today, you are far less likely than
dramatic change but also significant continuity.
someone living in medieval England to be a victim
1.1 Becoming a master of c hronology

Lots of things you learned in Key Stage 3 history lessons are
going to be useful during your GCSE course. One example
is your knowledge of chronology - the names and sequence
of different historical periods. As you are going to study
such a long period - a thousand years - you will have to talk
and write confidently about a variety of historical periods.
Tom the 'tea- leaf'
IDENTIFYING HISTORICAL PERIODS

1
P l a ce the fo u r h isto rica l periods b e l ow in c h ro n o l og i c a l

o rder:
The twentieth ce ntu ry The M id d l e Ages The early
m o d e rn period The eig hteenth a n d n i n eteenth centu ries
2 Ro u g h ly what d ates d oes each period cove r?
3 Loo k the pictu res on this page. Which pictu re (A- D)
co mes fro m which ch ro n o l o g i c a l period? G ive o n e reason

fo r each cho ice.
a) What seems to be h a p p e n i n g i n each pictu re?
b) What can you work out fro m each pictu re about cri m e
a n d p u n is h m ent a t that ti m e? Th i n k a bout w h a t they
m ig ht reve a l a bout o n e or m o re of the fo l l owi n g :
d iffe re nt types of cri m e

m ethods used to enfo rce the law
m ethods used to p u n ish cri m i n a l s.
4 Pa rt of l e a rn i n g a bout h i story is h avi n g the confi d e n ce to
co m e u p with yo u r own hypoth esis, which you later test

a g a i nst the evi d e n ce. Loo k at the g ra p h above. Based
on what you know so fa r, w h e n do you t h i n k was the best
time to be a cri m i n a l ? P l ot yo u r thoug hts o n yo u r own
copy of the g ra p h . Don't worry if you a re n ot s u re - we wi l l
co m e back t o this l ate r o n !
.,
CHRONOLOGY
1
Loo k at the t i m e l i n e b e l ow a n d work out the m issi n g d ates.
11th
12th
13th
1100-99
2 Is
14th
15th
16th
17th
1400-99
18th
19th
20th
1700-99
1 829 in the eig hteenth or n i n eteenth centu ry? Can you exp l a i n why?
3 The tabard s b e l ow a re in the wro n g seq u e n ce. What is the correct ch ro n o l og i c a l seq u e n ce?
The B l ack Death
The Rena issance
The I n d u st r i a l Revo l u t i o n
The No r m a n C o n q u est
The F i rst Wo rld Wa r
The E n g l i s h C iv i l Wa r
4 Look at the two boxes b e l ow - Period A a n d Period B .
Tudors and Stuarts

The Victorian age
The Renaissance
The age of the Black Death
The twentieth century
Early modern period
The Industrial Revolution
The nineteenth century
a) O n e n a m e in each box is the odd o n e out. Exp l a i n which is the odd o n e out in each box,
a n d why.
b) The th ree re m a i n i n g n a m es in each box a re g iven to ro u g h ly the s a m e h isto rica l period,

but they m e a n s l i g htly d iffe rent t h i n g s . Exp l a i n the d iffe ren ces between th e m . You can
use dates to help you a n d check the tim e l i n e a b ove if it h e l ps.
PA RT 1 : C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n , c.1 0 0 0 - p resent
G etti n g bette r at histo ry - why we a re m a ki n g l ea rn i n g

visi b l e
We'll come back to chronology later o n - i f you take a look at the activity box o n page 7,
you'll see plenty more chronology activities. However, these two pages are only partly about
chronology, and are actually part of a much bigger topic - what do you have to do to get
better at history?
You have to build up your knowledge and understanding of the history of crime
and punishment. That might sound straightforward, but you will keep meeting new
information and sometimes you are going to feel puzzled, maybe even totally confused.
What do you do when you feel puzzled and confused? You have two choices :
Th i n k a bo u t w h y yo u're
p u zzled a nd identify the prob l e m .
M ud d l e o n , try to i g n o re o r
h id e t h e p r o b l e m a n d d o n't t e l l yo u r
T h e n a d m it t h e re's s o m eth i n g you d o n't
tea c h e r. Y o u may l o s e confid e n c e
u n d e rsta n d a n d t e l l yo u r tea c h e r.
a n d sto p wo rki n g h a rd .
T h e res u l t - yo u r tea c h e r h e l p s you s o rt
T h e res u lt - you m a ke m i sta kes i n

yo u r exa m s a n d d o bad ly.
o u t t h e p ro b l e m , yo u r c o n f i d e n c e i n c reases
00 0
and you d o we l l i n yo u r exa m s .
Choice A
Visible learning
it's O K to get th i n g s
wro n g . W e a l l d o . A n d
ofte n the th i n g s w e g et
wro n g i n itia l l y a n d t h e n
co rrect a re t h e t h i n g s w e
re m e m be r b e s t because
we've h a d to th i n k h a rd e r
a b o u t t h e m . Say i n g ' I
d o n 't u n d e rsta n d ' i s t h e
fi rst s t e p tow a rd s g etti n g
it right.
00 0
Choice B
Choice B is a lot smarter than the Choice A ! With Choice B you are taking responsibility for
your own learning and your own success. It may sound strange, but one crucial way to get
better at history is to admit when you're confused and getting things wrong - then you can
start to put things right.
We emphasised one very important word in Choice B - identify. You cannot get better at
history unless you and your teacher identify exactly what you don't know and understand.
To put that another way, you have to make that problem visible before you can put it right.
Throughout this book we will identify common mistakes that students make and make
them visible so that you can see them. Then you have a much better chance of avoiding
those mistakes yourself
T h e i m p o rta n ce of g etti n g the c h ro n o l o gy r i g h t
O n e of those very common and very important mistakes - a n issue that confuses students
every year- is chronology. It's so important that we decided it had to be made visible at the
very beginning of this book. If you get the chronology wrong you can end up writing about
completely the wrong things in an exam. There are plenty of examples of students being
asked about developments in one period of history but writing about an entirely different
period of history because they've confused the name or dares of the period. As an example,
lots of students have been asked about changes in crime and punishment in the nineteenth
century and written about events between 1 9 0 0 and 1999. That's a big mistake and a lot of
marks to lose.
Why is the chronology confusing? It's because the history of crime and punishment covers
a thousand years and so includes a number of different periods of history. What you need
to do is:
get the periods of history in the right sequence

know the approximate dates and centuries of the periods
know that some periods have more than one name.
So the purpose of the activity on page 7 is to help you identify [that word again ! ] what you
know, what you get wrong and what confuses you. That makes those mistakes visible and
you can put them right as soon as possible .
1.2 The Big Story of cri me and punis h ment

On the next two pages you can read about the entire history
of crime and punishment ! We are starting the book with
this Big Story to help solve another problem some students
have. Those students know the detail of individual events
and periods but they cannot 'see' the whole story - the overall
pattern of changes and continuities in the history of crime
and punishment.
The four boxes outline the Big Story. Each box has the same
sub -headings - and these sub-headings are in the triangle.
The triangle is hugely important because it shows the link
between what people thought about crime and how they
tried to enforce the laws and punish criminals. Ideas about
the causes and threat from crime are very important,
because they influence the methods used to enforce the law
and punish criminals.
IDENTIFYING THE KEY FEATURES OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
1
Read the fo u r boxes on pages 8-9 te l l i n g you a bout each

ti m e period to g et a fi rst i m p ression of the overa l l sto ry.
2 Create a n ew d ocu m e n t fo r each of the fo u r periods, then
n ote d own the m aj o r featu res of cri m e i n each period

under the t h ree b o l d headings b e l ow. Th i n k about the
q u estio n s u n d e rn eath the headings to help yo u :
Criminal activity
What was the n atu re of cri m e in each period?
C ri m es a g a i nst the person - fo r exa m p l e : m u rd e r, assau lt,

rape.
Cri m es a g a i nst p ro p e rty - fo r exa m p l e : th eft, ro bbe ry,
b u rg l a ry, poach i n g , s m u g g l i n g .
C ri m es a g a i nst authority - fo r exa m p l e : h e resy, treason,
i l l e g a l p rotest.
Methods used to enforce the law
What was the ro l e of authority a n d local com m u n ities in law

enfo rce m e nt?
What p o l i c i n g m ethods were used?

What tri a l s were used to esta b l ish g u i lt o r i n n oce n ce?
Methods used to punish criminals
What was the m a i n idea or p u rpose of p u n i s h m e nts?

e
Retri bution - reve n g e to satisfy the victi m or t h e i r fa m i l ies.

Dete rre n ce - to warn oth e rs n ot to co m m it the s a m e
cri m e .
Refo rm - t o h e l p the cri m i n a l i m p rove t h e i r behavi o u r.
Rem ova l - to kee p cri m i n a l s off the streets.
Com pensatio n - the victim o r society is paid back fo r the
tro u b l e caused by the cri m i n a l .
e
3 Across the t o p o f each p a g e write d own two o r th ree
s h o rt ph rases that s u m up cri m e a n d p u n is h m ent in that

period. Use at least o n e of th ese words in yo u r p h rases fo r
each period :
ch a n g e conti n u ity t u rn i n g point p rog ress
This is the core activity on this page. Yo u h ave up to two

m i n utes to te l l the outl i n e story of cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent.
Wo rk i n a g ro u p of t h ree to plan and te l l you r sto ry.
5 After you h ave to l d yo u r sto ry, write it down. This is
i m portant to help it stick i n yo u r m i n d . Th i n k about h ow to

m a ke it m e m o ra b l e by:
u s i n g h e a d i n g s u s i n g co l o u rs to ide ntify ch a n g es a n d
conti n u ities a d d i n g d rawi n g s
PA RT 1 : C r i m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n , c.1 0 0 0 - p resent
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN MEDIEVAL
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN EARLY
ENGLAND, C.1000-C.1500
MODERN ENGLAND, C.1500-C.1700
Criminal activity
Criminal activity
M ost cri m e was petty th eft - t h e stea l i n g of m o n ey, food

and b e l o n g i n g s . Violent cri mes a g a i n st people were j u st
a s m a l l m i n o rity of cases. The cri mes reg a rd e d as m ost
serious were those that were a d i rect th reat to the k i n g 's
a u t h o rity such as re be l l i o n , p rotest o r atta cki n g
roya l officia l s .
M ost cri m e was petty th eft.

tcubor 'tCimes
V i o l e n t cri m es a g a i n st
p e o p l e re m a i n ed a s m a l l
Wagnmt
m i n o rity o f cases. Re l i g i o u s
men nee
c h a n g es m a d e b y H e n ry VI I I
i n t h e 1 530s l e d to p rotest
a n d re be l l i o n a g a i n st t h e
a u t h o rities. Peo p l e w h o
d i s a g reed w i t h the re l i g i o u s
views of t h e m o n a rch were p e rsecuted, a ccused of he resy
or treason, a n d s o m et i m e s ki l l e d . Witchcraft a l so beca m e
a cri m i n a l offe n ce.

T h e re was n o p o l ice fo rce .
Law enfo rce m e nt was
based a ro u n d t h e l o c a l
co m m u n ity. Victi m s of
c ri m e ca l l ed on t h e i r fe l l ow
vi l l a g e rs to h e l p catch t h e
c ri m i n a l - t h ey r a i s e d t h e
h u e a n d cry.
Ad u lt m e n were g ro u ped i nto te n s ca l l ed tithings. If o n e
o f t h e m b ro ke t h e l a w t h e n t h e oth e rs h a d t o b ri n g h i m to
j u stice.
At fi rst, local j u ries decided g u i lt o r i n n ocence. If t h e j u ry
co u l d n ot a g ree, t h e n G o d was a s ked to d e c i d e u s i n g t h e
m ethod o f tria l by ordea l .
A s t i m e went o n , parish consta bles were chosen fro m
l e a d i n g v i l l a g e rs to h e l p kee p o rd e r. M aj o r cri m e s were
i nvestig ated by coroners a n d she riffs, a n d t h e accused
wou l d be b ro u g h t befo re roya l j u d g e s w h o trave l led
a ro u n d t h e co u ntry. Each m a n o r h a d its own co u rt h e l d
b y t h e l o c a l l o rd , ofte n o n ce a week, d ea l i n g with less
serious cases.

At fi rst, o n ly a few offe n ces carried t h e death p e n a lty.
C ri m i n a l s p a i d com pensation to t h e i r victi m s or t h e i r
fa m i l i es. T h i s w a s ca l l ed werg ild . By 1 1 00, p u n i s h m ents
were m o re about retribution and deterrence, with
executi o n s and corpora l punishments used m o re
freq u e ntly. P riso n s were n ot used a n d peo p l e were o n ly
l o cked u p w h i l e awaiti n g tria l .
Desp ite a d ro p i n t h e l ate 1 600s, m ost p e o p l e b e l i eved

cri m e was i n crea s i n g , a n d concern a b o u t vagabondage
i n c reased . S o m e cri m e s and cri m i n a l s beca m e we l l - k n ow n
d u e to p u b l i city fro m pa m p h l ets a n d broadsh eets (a type
of news p a p e r that had n ot existed i n the M i d d l e Ages) .

T h e re was sti l l n o p o l ice fo rce. T h e use of pa rish co n sta b l es
a n d t h e h u e a n d cry conti n u e d . I n t h e early 1 700s thief
takers e a r n e d a l iv i n g fro m t h e rewa rd s t h ey received fo r
b ri n g i n g cri m i n a l s to j u stice. H oweve r, t h e i r effo rts were
m a i n ly confi n e d to Lo n d o n , so c ri m i n a l s h a d l ittle fea r of
b e i n g ca u g h t by th e m .
T h e cou rt syste m w a s m a d e m o re efficient a n d t h e speed
at w h i c h cases we re h e a rd was i m p rove d . Roya l j u d g e s
conti n u e d to to u r t h e cou ntry h e a r i n g serious c a s e s a n d
manor cou rts sti l l d e a l t w i t h l o c a l , m i n o r cri m e s .

N e a rly eve ryo n e b e l i eved that t h e best way of d eterri n g
cri m i n a l s w a s t o h ave savage, terrifyi n g p u n i s h m ents that
wou l d fri g hten people away fro m cri m e, so co rpora l a n d
c a p ita l p u n is h m e n t were sti l l w i d e l y u s e d .
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN MODERN
EIGHTEENTH- AND NINETEENTH
BRITAIN, C.1900-PRESENT
CENTURY BRITAIN, C.1700-C.1900

Criminal activity
T h e re was a rise i n cri m e fro m 1 750 to 1 850, w h i c h is
exp l a i n ed by t h e huge i n crease i n t h e p o p u l ation fro m
1 1 m i l l i o n i n 1 750 to 42 m i l l i o n in 1 900. By 1 851 , t h e
m aj o rity o f t h e B ritish p o p u l ation l ived i n u rb a n a reas,
w h e re t h e re was m o re o p p o rt u n ity fo r cri m e . Petty th eft
re m a i n ed t h e m ost co m m o n type of cri m e . H oweve r, t h e
a u t h o rities were n ow less co ncerned a b o u t va g a bo n d a g e,
witc h c raft a n d h e resy. I n stead t h ey beca m e m o re worried
about cri m e s that d isru pted tra d e such a s hig hway
robbery a n d s m u g g l i n g.

T h e g rowth of tow n s created n ew o p p o rtu n ities fo r
c ri m e, wh ich ch a l l e n g ed existi n g p o l i c i n g m et h o d s . A
h u g e ch a n g e ca m e i n 1 82 9 with t h e setti n g u p of t h e
M etropol ita n Police- the co u n t ry's fi rst p rofess i o n a l
p o l ice fo rce . Alth o u g h u n po p u l a r at fi rst, b y t h e 1 850s t h e
p o l ice p l ayed a n i m po rta nt ro l e i n ca ptu ri n g cri m i n a l s a n d
i nvesti g ati n g cri m e s .

T h e i d e a of refo rm - that
cri m i n a l s co u l d beco m e
l a w a b i d i n g - beca m e
m o re w i d e s p read i n t h i s
period . H oweve r, t h e re
were s o m e w h o b e l i eved
in a recog n i s a b l e 'cri m i n a l
type', w h o h a d ce rta i n
physica l cha ra cte ristics a n d
were s o m e h ow l e s s evo lved t h a n oth e r p e o p l e . An oth e r
b i g ch a n g e i n t h i s period w a s t h e i n crea s i n g use o f prisons.
T h i s g e n e rated m u ch d e bate t h ro u g h o ut t h e n i n eteenth
centu ry. Some fe lt t h e p u rpose of p riso n s was to d eter
oth e rs fro m tu rn i n g to cri m e . Oth e rs wanted to refo rm
convicted c ri m i n a l s t h ro u g h m a k i n g i n m ates work h a rd .
Criminal activity
T h e re was a b i g i n crease in cri m e fro m t h e 1 950s to 1 995.
S i n ce then, the ove ra l l cri m e rate h a s s l owly d e c l i n e d .
N ew tech n o l og y h a s h e l ped t o create n ew types o f cri m e,
s u c h as d rivi n g offe n ces. Race crime a n d d rug crime h ave
a l so e m e rg e d as n ew types of cri m e . T h e re a re a l so n ew
o p p o rtu n ities fo r o l d cri m es, i n c l u d i n g n ew fo rms of th eft
and smuggling.

F i n g e r printi n g was i ntro d u ced i n 1 901 a n d m o re
recently t h e use of D N A s a m p les h a s h e l ped t h e p o l ice
to i nvesti g ate crimes and track down cri m i n a l s . The use
of ra d i o s and c a rs h a s a l l owed t h e p o l ice to res p o n d
m o re q u ickly t o eve nts. Speci a l ist u n its with i n the p o l ice
fo rce con centrate on
d iffe re nt types of cri m e .
A t a l o c a l co m m u n ity
l eve l , Neig h bou rhood
Watch d eve l o ped to
e n co u ra g e co m m u n ities
to work togeth e r to h e l p
d eter cri m e a n d a nti-soci a l
b e h avi o u r.

F i n es a re t h e m ost w i d e l y used p u n i s h m ent, especi a l ly
fo r d rivi n g offe n ces. P riso n s a re used fo r m o re serious
c r i m e s and fo r re peat offe n d e rs, and d iffe re nt types of
prison h ave d eve l o ped such a s open prisons and you n g
offe nders' institutions. De bate h a s conti n u e d ove r the
p u rpose of and effective n ess of p riso n s . S i n ce t h e 1 990s
e l ectro n i c ta g g i n g h a s been used a s a way of m o n ito r i n g a
cri m i n a l 's m ove m e nts a n d as a n a ltern ative to priso n . T h e
d eath p e n a lty was a b o l is h e d i n 1 96 5 .
THIS IS A SIMPLE OUTLINE. IT IS NOT THE COMPLETE STORY.

YOU Will lEARN MORE IMPORTANT DETAILS LATER IN THE BOOK.
1.3 W hy c hanges happened - and didn't happen

The Big Story on pages 7-9 gave you some idea of the changes and continuities in the
history of crime and punishment. However, it did not say much to explain those changes
and continuities. This page introduces the factors that explain them.
Fa ctors
Factors are the reasons or
causes of changes in crime
and punishment or of crime
and punishment staying\
the same.
Each factor is shown in one of the factor diamonds below. You will see and work with these
diamonds throughout the book because explaining why crime and punishment has changed
or stayed the same is central to its history. It is also central to doing well in your exams !
In the diagram below we have shown two groups of factors :
a) The factors above the triangle have had the most impact on crime and punishment
throughout history.
b) The factors below the triangle have been important in particular periods of history, but
not so consistently through time as the factors above the triangle .
STARTING TO THINK ABOUT THE ROLE OF FACTORS

1
it's ti m e to m a ke good use of yo u r Key Stag e 3 h i story

know l e d g e a g a i n .
a) Wo rk with a pa rtn e r a n d choose two o f the fa cto rs i n
the d i a g ra m .
b) F o r each facto r, decide when you th i n k i t h a d t h e m ost
effect o n cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent. Choose fro m :
The M i d d l e Ages, c.1 000-c.1 500
The early m o d e rn period, c.1 500-c.1 700
The eig hteenth a n d n i n eteenth centu ries,

c.1 700-c.1 900
c.1 900-present.
A good way to d o this is to b ra i n storm what you
a l ready know about each period i n g e n e ra l . For
exa m p l e, who g ove rned the co u ntry, what you know
a bout living and worki n g cond iti ons, etc.
.,
M a ke s u re you a re c l e a r about cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent

i n each period (see pages 8 and 9) and wheth e r each
period saw a l ittl e or a l ot of c h a n g e .
c) N ow s u g g est w h e n e a c h o f yo u r facto rs p robably h a d
the m ost i m pact a n d wheth e r they h e l ped cri m e a n d
p u n is h m ent ch a n g e o r stay the s a m e .
2 B e l ow a re th ree i m portant m o m ents i n the h i story of
cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent. Which facto rs a re infl u e n c i n g the

peo p l e and eve nts described i n each one? ( D o n 't worry if
you 're n ot certa i n - you wi l l fi n d out exactly why each one
too k p l a ce l ater i n the co u rse.)
3 N ow you h ave a n idea of the big pictu re, l et's return
to To m the 'tea- l eaf' who we m et back o n page 4. Yo u

a l ready p l otted h ow risky it was to be a cri m i n a l in each
d iffe re nt period . Loo k back at yo u r choices. Do you want
to revise the g ra p h i n a ny way?
THE GUNPOWDER PLOT, 1605

M a ny Cath o l i cs h a d h o p e d that the K i n g J a m es I wou l d be to l e ra n t of t h e i r re l i g i o n , but
i n stead h e d e c l a red h i s 'utte r d etestation of [th e Cath o l ic] s u p e rstitious re l i g i o n '. I n 1 605,
a g ro u p of Cath o l i c p l otte rs atte m pted to b l ow u p Ki n g J a m es I and h i s m i n iste rs d u ri n g
t h e o p e n i n g o f P a r l i a m ent. The p l otters were a n g ry t h a t J a m es h a d n ot a l l owed Cath o l ics
fre e d o m of wors h i p and made them pay h eavy fi n e s . T h e p l otters were ca ptu red a n d
p u b l icly p u n i s h e d i n t h e m ost b ruta l way possi b l e . T h ey we re h a n g e d , befo re b e i n g t a ke n
d ow n a l ive a n d t h e n castrated a n d disem bowelled . T h e i r b o d i e s we re cut i nto q u a rte rs
a n d sent to d iffe re nt tow n s to be d is p l ayed .
THE FIRST POLICE FORCE IS SET UP IN LONDON, 1829

I n 1 829, t h e g ove r n m ent esta b l is h e d t h e fi rst p o l ice fo rce i n Lo n d o n fo r seve ra l rea s o n s .
T h e re was a w i d e s p read b e l ief that c ri m e a n d especi a l l y v i o l e n t cri m e was o u t o f co ntro l . I n
Lo n d o n t h e re were t o o m a ny p e o p l e cra m m e d i nto closely packed h o uses a n d streets. T h i s
m a d e t h e o l d syste m o f pa rish consta b l es a n d watc h m e n seem i n a d e q u ate . M o reove r, i n
t h e yea rs afte r 1 8 1 5 t h e re were m a ny p rotests a bo u t u n e m p l oy m e n t a n d h i g h b read prices,
so t h e g ove r n m ent and rich l a n d ow n e rs wanted to p reve nt t h e poss i b i l ity of riot beco m i n g
revo l utio n . F i n a l ly, t h e g overn m ent h a d b e e n ra i s i n g m o re m o n ey i n taxes w h i c h m a d e a
fu l l -t i m e p o l ice fo rce affo rd a b l e .
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT I S ABOLISHED I N BRITAIN, 1965

By 1 965 m a ny peo p l e wa nted a n e n d to ca pita l p u n i s h m ent. O p i n i o n h a d been d ivided but
t h e to p i c was reg u l a rly d e bated o n te l evision a n d i n t h e n ews p a p e rs . Opinion polls were
r u n to m e a s u re t h e views of t h e p u b l ic. O n e a rg u m e nt was that execution was ba rba ric,
u n civi l ised and u n - C h risti a n ; a n ot h e r was that execution was n ot rea l ly a d eterre nt as m ost
m u rd e rs h a p p e n o n the s p u r of the m o m ent.
Crim.e and punishm.ent in m.edieval

England, c.IOOO-c.l500
2.1 Understanding medieval England , c.1000-c.1500
To understand crime and punishment in the Middle Ages, and the factors affecting it, we
need a clear picture of medieval society, as shown in the boxes below.
The ki n g
The n o b l es
M e d i eva l p e o p l e b e l i eved t h e i r k i n g s
were c h o s e n b y G o d . T h e k i n g was t h e m ost i m po rta nt
person i n t h e cou ntry a s h e contro l l e d t h e land a n d
decided h ow t o s h a re i t o u t . T h e m a i n tasks fa ci n g
m e d i eva l k i n g s were d efe n d i n g the cou ntry fro m attack
and e n s u ri n g t h e i r s u bjects we re p rotected by t h e l aw.
T h e n o b l e s were t h e
k i n g 's m a i n s u p p o rters
and advisers. In ret u r n fo r
l a n d , t h e n o b l e s p rovided
t h e k i n g with k n i g hts a n d
m i l it a ry service i n t i m e s
o f w a r. T h ey were a l so
expected to kee p law a n d
o rd e r i n t h e i r o w n l a n d s .
The Ch u rch
Peo p l e i n t h e M i d d l e Ages
saw this l i fe as p re p a ration
fo r the etern a l afte rl ife
afte r death . They b e l i eved
fi r m l y in H eaven a n d H e l l .
T h e refo re, t h e C h u rch was
a n i m po rta nt o rg a n isati o n
beca use it offe red ways to h e l p a p e rso n 's so u l g et
to H eave n . T h e re was a p riest i n every vi l l a g e a n d
eve ryo n e w a s expected t o atte n d ch u rch a n d l ive by
its ru l es . T h e C h u rch ra n its own co u rts fo r c h u rch m e n
a n d offe red sa nctu a ry t o c ri m i n a l s w h o t o o k refu g e i n
a ch u rch b u i l d i n g . T h i s s o m et i m e s b ro u g h t t h e Ch u rch
i nto confl i ct with kings w h o wanted to enfo rce roya l
j u stice on eve ryo n e without i n te rfe re n ce.
The peasa nts

M ost peo p l e i n m e d i eval
E n g l a n d were peasants
- fa r m e rs w h o worked
the l a n d and l ived in
vi l l a g e s . For pa rt of each
week t h ey worked o n t h e
l a n d of t h e l o c a l l o rd . I n
their re m a i n i n g t i m e peasants wo rked o n their own
land to fe ed their fa m i l i es. Peo p l e l ived i n close-knit
co m m u n ities and knew their n e i g h b o u rs we l l . As t h e re
was n o p o l ice fo rce, t h ey were expected to l o o k o u t fo r
o n e a n ot h e r a n d e n s u re t h e vi l l a g e was a l awfu l p l a ce.
Medieval society
1 Who was responsible for upholding the laws in medieval England?
2 Why might the Church and the king have argued over upholding the law?
What advantages do you think criminals had in medieval England?
Visible learning
When were the Middle Ages?

This book d e a l s with a thousand yea rs of h isto ry. By fa r, the b i g g est ch u n k of this time was
taken up by the med ieva l period. Alth o u g h the m e d i eva l period beg a n a ro u n d c.400, w h e n
the Ro m a n s l eft B rita i n , w e focus o n the yea rs c . 1 OOO-c.1 500. H oweve r, 500 yea rs is sti l l a
l o n g ti m e ! The refo re, to m a ke t h i n g s clea re r, we d ivide the period i nto An g l o-Saxon E n g l a n d
(befo re 1 066), N o r m a n E n g l a n d (c.1 066-c.1 1 00) a n d the l ate r M i d d l e Ages (c.1 1 00-c.1 500).
And o n e m o re t h i n g - h istorians a l s o ca l l the med ieva l period the M i d d l e Ag es !
2 Cri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n m e d i eva l En g l a n d , c.1 0 0 0 - c . 1 50 0
ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN THE

MIDDLE AGES
Lea r n i n g to ask good q u esti o n s is an i m portant h istorica l s ki l l . S o m e q u esti ons a re ' b i g g e r'
m o re i m portant - th a n oth e rs.
1 Which of these fo u r q u esti o n s a re the b i g g e r o n es fo r u n d e rsta n d i n g the h i story of cri m e
a n d p u n i s h m e nt? W h a t m a kes t h e m b i g g e r?
Who was the m ost powe rfu l person in m e d i eva l soci ety?
H ow can we exp l a i n the increase in h a rsh p u n i s h m ents d u ri n g the ea rly modern period?
What yea r was the fi rst pol ice fo rce set u p?
Why d i d it take so l o n g fo r the fi rst pol ice fo rce to be set u p?
a)
b)
c)
d)
2 M a ke a l ist of the q u estions you want to ask a bout cri m e a n d p u n is h m ent in the M i d d l e
Ag es. Divide yo u r l ist i nto ' b i g ' a n d 'l ittle' q u estions. U s e t h e q u esti o n sta rte rs b e l ow to
h e l p yo u .
When . . . ?
H ow . . . ?
What effects . . . ?
Who . . . ?
What h a ppened . . . ?
H ow s i g n ificant . . . ?
Did they . . . ?
Why . . . ?
W h e re . . . ?
Did it rea l ly . . . ?
What . . . ?
You r E n q u i ry Question
Like you, we thought of lots o f questions about crime and
punishment in the Middle Ages. However, the one
we settled on was :
We chose this question for three reasons. First, it's a 'big'
question because it helps you understand a period of 500
years, half of all the chronology we cover in this course.
Second, it helps you to understand how medieval society
functioned and the different roles people played.
Who had the m o st

i nfl u e n c e o n law a n d
o rd e r i n t h e M id d l e A ges
- th e C h u rc h , the k i n g o r
loca l c o m m u n ities?
Good historians usually start answering a question by suggesting an initial hypothesis - a

first draft answer. A hypothesis helps you to stay on track as you continue working, but
remember that you can change it or add to it as you learn more.
1
Based on what you have found out so far using pages 4-12, who do you think would have
had the most influence on law and order in the Middle Ages - the Church, the king or
the local community?
The next step is to research this topic and collect evidence that helps you to answer the
Enquiry Question. We are going to use a Knowledge Organiser. This is to help you avoid
the common mistake of making notes so detailed that you cannot see the main points that
you need.
2 Make your own large copy of the chart below. You will be instructed to add detail to it
as you work through the rest of this section on the Middle Ages.
I nfluence from the
C h u rch
Enfo rc i n g the l a w :
p o l i c i n g m et h o d s
Enfo rc i n g t h e l a w : tri a l s
P u n is h m e n t o f cri m i n a l s
I nflue nce from the

king
I nflue nce from

loca l com m u n ities
Pa rt 1 : C r i m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n , c.1 0 0 0 - p resent
2.2 Cri minal moment in ti me : Saxon village, c.1000

After t h e Ro m a n s with d rew fro m E n g l a n d i n c.400, waves of sett l e rs fro m G e rm a ny
beg a n to sett l e . Th ese A n g les a n d Saxo n s b ro u g h t t h e i r own l aws a n d custo m s as t h ey
esta b l i s h e d l oca l k i n g d o m s a cross E n g l a n d . Th ese ea rly An g l o-Saxon k i n g s a l l owed
victi m s of cri m e to p u n i s h t h e c ri m i n a l s t h e m s e lves. I f s o m e o n e was m u rd e red, the
fa m i ly of t h e victi m had t h e right to track d ow n and ki l l t h e m u rd e re r. This syste m , k n own
as 'blood feud ', was a l l about retri bution and ofte n l e d to m o re vio l e n ce . Fu rth e r m o re, it
offe red n o j u stice fo r those u n a b l e o r u n wi l l i n g to use vio l e n ce t h e m s e lves.
Yo u r G C S E stu dy beg i n s i n c.1 000, by which time E n g l a n d had been u n ited i nto a s i n g l e
A n g l o-Saxon ki n g d o m a n d b l ood fe u d h a d l o n g b e e n re p l a ced b y m o re effe ctive ways
of u p h o l d i n g the l aw. An g l o-Saxon society was based on close-knit fa rm i n g co m m u n ities
who s h a red respo n s i b i l ity fo r m a i n ta i n i n g law and o rd e r i n t h e vi l l a g e . By fa r t h e m ost
co m m o n c r i m e s were a g a i n st prope rty, u su a l ly in the fo rm of petty th eft.
M aybe t h i s w i l l tea c h you to
sto p stea l i n g . T h i s is t h e fifth
t i m e you h a ve been c a u g h t !
May t h i s be a l e s s o n to a l l o f
yo u n ot to stea l .
'
2 Cri m e''a n d p u nis h m e n t i n m e d i eva l En g l a n d , c.1 00 0 - c . 1 50 0
Saxon law and order: A n overview
1 Work in pairs or small groups. You have five minutes.

What evidence can you find in the picture of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
If someone shouted ' Thief! '
un.p.o"'-'h'- ' they raised the 'hue and
cry' and everyone in the
village had to stop what
they were doing and chase
after the criminal or they
would have to pay a fine .
different types of crime (against the person,

property or authority; see page 7)
different punishments
different forms of policing and/or crime prevention
different trials.
Let's return to the Enquiry Question we came up with
on page 13. Revisit the hypothesis you made in answer
to the Enquiry Question. Do you want to make any
changes to it in light of the evidence you have found?

List any questions that these two pages raise about
the nature of Anglo-Saxon law enforcement and
punishment. You will be able to answer these as you
work through the next few pages.
Each man over the age of twelve had to belong to a

group of ten men . They were responsible for keeping
each other out of trouble . If one of them broke the law,
they all had to make sure he went to court .
2.3 Was Anglo-Saxon justice violent and superstitious?

Novels, films and television often depict medieval justice as violent, cruel and
superstitious, based only around retribution and deterrence. They give the impression of
savage punishments based on 'an eye for an eye' and terrifying public executions to set
an example. On these pages you will investigate Anglo-Saxon methods of enforcing the
law and punishing criminals. Once you have made a judgement about whether these were
violent and superstitious, we can return to the Enquiry Question on page 13 and use the
information to formulate an answer.
MAKING A JUDGEMENT
You a re g o i n g to use a
j u d g e m e n t m atrix to h e l p
y o u decide h ow h a rsh a n d
s u p e rstitio u s A n g l o-Saxon
j u stice rea l ly was. This is
a n other effective Know l e d g e
O rg a n iser which h e l ps
you s u m m a rise i m portant
information and show yo u r
t h i n k i n g i n a visu a l way.
1
Rational
?,
D raw yo u r own l a rg e r copy

of the m atrix on the right.
2 Use the i nfo rmation o n
p a g e s 1 7-1 9 t o m a ke yo u r
Superstitious
own s u m m a ry ca rds o n
each of t h e m ethods the
A n g l o-Saxo n s used to
kee p law a n d o rd e r (tith i n g s ; h u e a n d cry; tri a l by loca l j u ry; tri a l by o rdea l ; werg i l d ; capita l
a n d co rpora l p u n i s h m ent) . S u m m a ry card s a re meant to be clear a n d to the point. Loo k at
the exa m p l e b e l ow fo r g u i d a n ce.
Tithings
How it worked
Why they used it
3 Discuss each card ca refu l ly with a pa rtn e r. Where s h o u l d it be p l a ced on the j u d g e m ent
matrix?
Tith i n g s
Anglo-Saxon England lacked anything that we would describe a s a police force. People
lived in small villages and knew their neighbours well. Law enforcement was based around
the local community.
By the tenth century, Anglo-Saxon kings had set up a self-help system known as a tithing.
Every male over the age of twelve was expected to join a tithing. This was group of ten men
who were responsible for each others' behaviour. If one of them broke the law, the other
members of the tithing had to bring him to court, or pay a fine.
What do you think

the advantages and
disadvantages of the
tithing system were? Why
might it be difficult to use
such a system today?
H u e a n d cry
If a crime was committed the victim or witness was expected to raise the 'hue and cry'. This
was more than just calling out for help. The entire village was expected to down tools and
join the hunt to catch the criminal. If a person did not join the hue and cry then the whole
village would have to pay a heavy fine.
Tri a l by l oca l j u ry
The Anglo-Saxons used two types of trial. The first of these relied on the local community
and used a form of trial by jury. The jury was made up of men from the village who knew
both the accuser and the accused.
The accuser and the accused would give their version of events and it was up to the jury to
decide who was telling the truth. If there was no clear evidence such as an eyewitness to the
crime, the jury decided guilt or innocence based on their knowledge of the people
concerned. If the jury felt that the accuser was more honest than the accused, they would
swear an oath that the accused was guilty. This oath taking was called com p u rgation .
H e l o o k s l i ke a g o o d l a d .
W e s h o u l d be a bl e t o
..A. The tithing system in action
Yes, u n l i k e s o m e o n e e l s e I c o u ld n a m e .
H e's g o i n g to ca u s e tro u bl e s o o n if we
d o n't keep a c l o s e eye on h i m .
Tri a l by o rd e a l
The Saxons were a very religious society. I f a local jury could not decide guilt o r innocence,
then the Saxons turned to trial by ordeal in the hope that God would help them. The
diagram below helps you understand the different types of trial by ordeal and the role
religion played in the process.
T r i a l b y h o t i ron
Usua l ly taken by wom e n .

T h e accused p icked u p a red -hot wei g ht
and wa l ked t h ree paces with it
The h a n d was bandaged and
u nwrapped th ree days late r .
The accused w a s i n n ocent if the wo u n d
was hea l i n g clea n ly or g u i lty if it was
fester i n g .
Trial by blessed bread
Trial by hot water
U s u a l ly taken by m e n .
T h e accused put h i s h a n d i nto boi l i n g
water to pick up an object .
T h e h a n d or arm w a s banda ged a n d
u nwra pped three days later.
The accused was i n n ocent if the wo u n d
was hea l i n g clea n ly, but g u i lty if it was
fester i n g .
Ta ken by priests .
A priest prayed that the accused wo u l d
choke on bread if they lied .
The accused ate b read a n d was fo u n d
g u i lty if he choked .
Trial by cold water
U s u a l ly taken by m e n .
T h e accused was t i e d w i t h a knot above
the wa ist a n d lowered i nto the water
on the end of a ro pe.
If the accused sa n k below God's ' p u re
water' then he was j u d ged i n n ocent.
If the accused floated, then he had
been ' rejected ' by the p u re water a n d
w a s fo u n d g u i lty .
We rg i l d
The Saxons relied heavily o n a system o f fines called wergild. Wergild was compensation
paid to the victims of crime or to their families. The level of fine was carefully worked out
and set through the king's laws.
Wergild, unlike blood feud, was not about retribution and so made further violence less likely.
However, it was an unequal system. The wergild for killing a noble was 300 shillings; the
wergild for killing a freeman was 100 shillings; while the fine for killing a peasant was even
lower. Perhaps most outrageously, the wergild paid for killing a Welshman was lower still !
Wergild was also used to settle cases of physical injury, with different body parts given their
own price. For example, the loss of an eye was worth SO shillings, whereas a broken arm
could be settled with payment of only 6 shillings to the victim.
Ca p ita l a n d co rpora l p u n is h m ent
Some serious crimes carried the death
penalty in Anglo-Saxon England - treason
against the king or betraying your lord.
This harsh capital punishment was
intended to deter others and show people
the importance ofloyalty to the king, who
Saxons believed was chosen by God.
Re-offenders were also punished
harshly if they were caught. Corporal
punishment for regular offenders
included mutilation, such as cutting off
a hand, ear or nose or 'putting out' the
eyes. This was intended to deter them
from further offences.
USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
ORGANISER
We l l d o n e so fa r! You h ave lea rnt a l ot

about An g l o-Saxon j u stice but that d oes
n ot m e a n you can fo rget a bout o u r
E n q u i ry Qu esti o n . U s e you r co m p l eted
j u d g e m ent m atrix a n d the i nfo rmation
o n pages 1 7-1 9 to start to add key
poi nts to yo u r Know l e d g e O rg a n iser.
You may want to reconsider o r revise
yo u r o rig i n a l hypoth esis.
Prisons were rarely used in
Anglo-Saxon England because they

were expensive to build and to run .
Gaolers would have to be paid and
prisoners fed. This was impossible at a
time when kings only collected taxes for
war. Therefore , prisons were only used
for holding serious criminals before trial
so that they could not escape.
2.4 How far did t he Normans c hange Anglo-Saxon

justice?
Put yourself in the shoes of William, Duke of Normandy. It is 1066 and, victorious after
the Battle of Hastings, you have replaced King Harold as ruler of England. The diagram
below gives you an idea of the main issues that you, as the new king, have to consider.
I have the s u p po rt
I n eed m o n ey afte r
my victory a n d m u st
T h e people of
E n g l a n d have l i ved u nd e r
S a x o n contro l fo r m a ny yea rs.
c o m e u p with new ways

of ra i s i n g reve n u e .
I m u st s h o w t h e m I a m the
of the Po pe a n d tha n k
God fo r m y victo ry ! I wa nt
to e n s u re t h a t E n g l a n d
re m a i n s a g od ly rea l m a n d I
wi l l trust i n the Lord
rig htf u l heir to Edwa rd the
I h a ve o n ly
7, 000 N o r m a n s in a
Co nfessor* a n d that
c o u ntry of n ea rly 2 m i l l io n
I res pect h i s legacy.
E n g l i s h . I m u st f i n d ways o f
kee p i n g the w h o l e c o u ntry

u n d e r contro l .
I wa s t o u g h o n
la wbrea kers ba c k i n
N o r m a n dy. I bel i eve that
* Edward t h e C o n fess o r
crimes a re c o m m itted
( Ki n g Edwa rd )
King of Engl and from 1 042
a g a i n st the k i n g 's peace

rat h e r than a g a i n st
to 1 06 6 .
Wil liam claimed that H arold
t h e i n d ivid u a l .
took the throne i l l egal ly

and he was Edward's
rightful successor.
WHAT SHOULD THE NORMANS DO?

H ow m ig ht the issues faci n g Wi l l i a m h ave affected the way the N o r m a n s d e a l t with j u stice?
1
Loo k back at the ca rds and j u d g e m ent m atrix that you m a d e o n page 16 s h ow i n g the
A n g l o-Saxon syste m of j u stice. D iscuss what Wi l l i a m m i g ht h ave wa nted to ch a n g e and
what h e m i g ht h ave wa nted to kee p the s a m e . G ive yo u r reaso n s .
2 M a ke a p red ictio n (yo u wi l l fi n d out if you were right later o n ) a bout the a m o u nt of ch a n g e
the N o r m a n s m a d e t o Saxon j u stice :

a) C o m p l ete c h a n g e : the N o rm a n s wiped out the o l d syste m .
b) S o m e c h a n g e b u t a l so some i m portant conti n u ities.
c) C o m p l ete conti n u ity: the N o rm a n s l eft the old syste m u n ch a n g e d .
d) Yo u r o w n m o re deta i l e d theory.
What d i d the N o rm a n s actua l ly do?

There is n o doubt that the Normans made lasting changes t o England. Castles sprung up
all over England and many churches were built or rebuilt in the Norman style. Even the
language changed. However, when it came to crime and punishment things were not quite
so clear.
S o u rce A : Fro m t h e Laws of W i l l i a m t h e C o n q u e ro r, 1 0 6 6
I command that a l l shall obey the laws of King Edward with the addition of those decrees I have
ordained for the welfare of the English people .
The following boxes 1-10 give a n outline o f the Norman approach t o justice.
So how far did the Normans change existing definitions of crime, adapt law
enforcement and alter punishments ? Read the information carefully to help
you with the tasks on page 22.
1 . T h e N o r m a n s b u i lt many castles to
h e l p contro l t h e l a n d . S o m et i m e s A n g l o
Saxon h o m es were destroyed t o m a ke
roo m . T h e re was m u ch a n g e r a n d s o m e
Saxo n s fo u g ht b a c k , ki l l i n g N o r m a n
s o l d i e rs . W i l l i a m m a d e a law that if a
N o rm a n was m u rd e red, a l l t h e peo p l e of
that reg i o n h a d to j o i n tog eth e r a n d pay
an expen sive M u rd r u m fine.
2. William
decided t o kee p
t h e m aj o rity of
A n g l o -Saxon
l aws as t h ey
were. T h e
tra d iti o n a l l aws
of p revi o u s
Saxon k i n g s we re reta i n e d .
4. Wi l l ia m i ntro d u ced the m u ch - h ated

Forest Laws. This c h a n g e d the defi n ition of
cri m e a n d m a d e p revi ously l e g a l activities
i nto serious offe n ces. Trees co u l d n o l o n g e r
be c u t d own fo r fu e l o r fo r b u i l d i n g a n d
p e o p l e i n fo rests were fo rbid d e n t o own
d o g s or bows and a rrows. Anyo n e c a u g h t
h u nting d e e r w a s p u n ished b y h avi n g
t h e i r fi rst two fi n g e rs chopped off. Repeat
offe n d e rs were b l i n d e d .
6. Wi l l i a m u s e d c a p ita l p u n i s h m ent fo r
serious c r i m e s a n d fo r re-offe n d e rs .
9. T h e A n g l o-Saxo n s
g ave wo m e n a l m ost
e q u a l rig hts in law
with m e n . N o rm a n l aw
was m u ch h a rs h e r o n
wo m e n . A N o r m a n
l e g a l text s a i d ,
'Wo m e n 's a u t h o rity n i l .
Let h e r i n a l l th i n g s b e
s u bject t o t h e ru l e of
m e n .'
How does Source A on page 20 give the
impression of both change and continuity?
3. Loca l co m m u n ities
were a l ready effective
at p o l i c i n g t h e m s e l ves.
T h e refo re, t h e
N o r m a n s kept t h e
tith i n g s a n d t h e h u e
a n d c ry.
5. T h e N o r m a n s kept t h e re l i g i o u s
ritu a l o f tri a l b y o rd e a l , but a l so
i ntrod u ced trial by com bat. The
accused fo u g h t with t h e accuser u nt i l
o n e was ki l l ed o r u n a b l e t o fi g h t o n .
The loser was t h e n h a n g e d , a s G o d
h a d j u d g e d h i m t o be g u i lty.
7. N o r m a n - Fre n ch
beca m e t h e offi c i a l
l a n g u a g e used i n
co u rt p roce d u res
a n d a l l co u rt reco rds
were kept in Lati n .
M ost E n g l is h p e o p l e
u n d e rstood n e i t h e r.
8. W i l l i a m used fi n e s fo r l esser cri m es.

H oweve r, t h e N o r m a n s ended werg i l d
- i n stead W i l l i a m o rd e red that fi nes
s h o u l d n o l o n g e r be p a i d to t h e
victi m o r t h e i r fa m i ly, but to the ki n g 's
officia l s .
1 0. T h e
1 1 . Med ieva l ch ron icles say
Normans
i ntro d u ced
Ch u rch cou rts
(see p a g e
2 8 ) . These
were sepa rate
cou rts used fo r
ch u rch m e n a n d
te n d e d t o b e
m o re l e n ient.
E n g l a n d was a safe r a n d m o re law

a b i d i n g p l a ce afte r the N o r m a n
Co n q u est. H oweve r, m a ny
o rd i n a ry people were p repared to
b reak the Fo rest Laws. This is what
h istorians ca l l a 'social crime'. The
loca l co m m u n ity we re w i l l i n g to
turn a b l i n d eye to peo p l e h u nting
o r co l l ecti n g fi re wood from the
Ki n g 's fo rests as they reg a rded the
law as u nfa i r.
IDENTIFYING CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES

1
D raw yo u r own l a rg e version of the Ve n n d i a g ra m b e l ow. Read the boxes on page 21 a n d

m a ke n otes o n t h e d i a g ra m showi n g t h e t h i n g s t h e N o r m a n s d i d . Be ca refu l, s o m e o f the
things they d i d were pa rtly ch a n g e and p a rtly conti n u ity. Put these i n the ove r l a p .
2 N ow it is ti m e t o weig h - u p the ove ra l l a m o u nt o f c h a n g e versus conti n u ity. This is n ot as
easy as s i m p ly co u nting the n u m be r of exa m p les i n each p a rt of yo u r Ve n n d i a g ra m .

S o m e exa m p l es a re m o re i m portant t h a n oth e rs. P u t a n other way, s o m e exa m p les ca rry
m o re 'we ig ht'.
a) D raw yo u r own l a rg e copy of the sca les b e l ow.
b) Loo k a g a i n at yo u r co m p l eted Ven n d i a g ra m . U n d e r l i n e the d iffe re nt exa m p l es on

USING YOUR
KNOWLEDGE
ORGANISER
What key d eta i l s about the
Normans co u l d you add to
the Know l e d g e O rg a n iser
you sta rted o n page 13 to
h e l p you with the E n q u i ry
Qu esti o n ?
yo u r d i a g ra m u s i n g the key b e l ow :
l aws p o l i c i n g m ethods tri a l s p u n i s h m ents
c) N ow you m ust decide h ow m u ch we ight you wi l l assign to the fo u r a reas a b ove. For
exa m p l e, the N o r m a n s ke pt the traditi o n a l l aws of p revi ous Saxon kings. This was a
big a n d i m portant conti n u ity so you m i g ht g ive LAWS a wei g h t of 5 befo re p l a c i n g it
on the l eft side of the sca les. H oweve r, some l aws such as the Forest Laws were n ew.
H ow m u ch weight wo u l d assign to LAWS o n the ch a n g e side of the sca l es? M a ke s u re
you a n n otate each we ight on each side of the sca les to exp l a i n yo u r t h i n k i n g .
d) Write a s h o rt co ncl usion to the q u esti o n : H ow fa r d i d the N o r m a n s ch a n g e A n g l o
Saxon j u stice? Use yo u r a n n otated weig h i n g sca les t o h e l p y o u m a ke a d ecisi o n . Don't
sit on the fe n ce !
2.5 How far did kings c hange justice during later

medieval England?
As we have seen, Anglo-Saxon and Norman kings had two main responsibilities during the
Middle Ages. These were to keep the country safe from invasion and protect the people
from lawbreakers. During later medieval England (c. l lO O to c.lSOO), medieval kings took
an even closer interest in laws, policing, trials and punishments. Let's start with a murder
and find out what happened next ...
Murder in a medieval village

John the Shepherd's house looked empty. Roger Ryet had already walked past it once, glancing
through the shutter, just out of curiosity. There wasn't much to see - a well swept floor, a
couple of benches, a table. Hanging over the benches was a piece of cloth. 'Nice piece of cloth,'
thought Roger. 'It will make someone a nice tunic.' He continued his journey, hoping that
today he would get work on the lord of the manor's land and be able to buy his own
new tunic.
Roger failed to find work that day. There were many idle hands in his village that year, all
clamouring for work. By the time he arrived, others were already turning away disappointed.
Roger cursed, knowing that his own scrap of land did not produce enough food for him to
live on.
Now Roger was walking back past the John the Shepherd's house. The shucter stood invitingly
open, the cloth still hung on the bench. There was no one nearby. The cloth was within arm's
reach. Roger leant in, grabbed the cloth and started running.
'Thief! ' shouted a man's voice. Roger reeled in shock. Where had the man come from? He had
been sure there was no one about.
The man blocked Roger's path, and now he heard the footsteps of a woman at his heels. Roger
hesitated as he gripped the cloth tightly. He had to move. He had to get away. In his other
hand he held his knife. He moved forward, desperate to escape . . .
Seconds later, John the Shepherd lay dead. His wife, Isobel, knelt screaming by his side.
WHAT HAPPENED NEXT?
1 This story a b ove is based on a rea l m u rd e r that too k p l a ce in N o rfo l k in the early
1 300s. You r fi rst task is to specu l ate o n what h a ppened after Rog e r Ryet ki l l ed John the
S h e p h e rd . The state m e nts b e l ow l ist some poss i b l e ways that Rog e r m i g ht h ave been
ca u g ht, put o n tri a l and p u n is h e d . O n ly some of them a re co rrect. M a ke yo u r p red iction
by choos i n g the state m ents you th i n k a re true. Keep a n ote of th ese, as the n ext few
pages wi l l revea l if you were right.
a) The local m e n chased Rog e r i n the hue and cry led by the pa rish con sta b l e .
b) The N o rfo l k co ro n e r h e l d a n i n q u i ry i nto the d eath a n d the j u ry d e c i d e d there was
e n o u g h evi d e n ce to accuse Rog e r i n cou rt.
c) A m essage was sent to the local s h e riff who too k Rog e r off to priso n .
d ) When t h e king's j u d g es a rrived i n N o rfo l k, Rog e r went befo re t h e cou rt.
e) Rog e r fa ced tri a l by o rd e a l , p l u n g i n g his h a n d i nto boi l i n g water.
f) Rog e r paid lsobel the werg i l d of 200 s h i l l i n g s fo r h e r h u s b a n d .
g) Rog e r w a s h a n g ed b y o rd e r o f the j u d g es.
FINDING OUT ABOUT THE LATER MEDIEVAL ENGLAND

1
Extra cting d eta i l fro m written accou nts is an i m portant ski l l fo r G C S E . You can m a ke
this easier by worki n g in g ro u ps of th ree a n d d ecid i n g who is res p o n s i b l e fo r fi n d i n g
i nfo rmation i n the story about:
D p o l i c i n g m ethods
D tri a l s
D p u n i s h m ents.
.,
As you read t h ro u g h the rest of the story o n pages 24-27, write each piece of re l evant
information you fi n d o n a sepa rate slip of paper o r sticky n ote.
2 Co m p a re yo u r g ro u p's fi n d i n g s with oth e rs i n the class. Who extracted the m ost
information in the time ava i l a b le?
Escape
'Keep running, don't stop, can't breathe . . . must breathe, got to keep on running,' thought
Roger. He didn't know how long he'd been running, but it seemed like a very long time.
Looking down he saw the cloth, still gripped tightly in his hand, but now spattered with the
drying blood of John the Shepherd. He stopped to catch his breath in the woods north of the
village. How had it come to this?
Hue and cry

Roger already knew what would be happening back in the village. Isobel's screams would have
alerted others and the hue and cry would have been raised. Every villager would have downed
tools immediately in order to join the hunt for him. No one wanted to risk the fine for not
joining in. They all knew Roger. These people were his neighbours; they lived and worked
alongside both Roger and John.
The parish constable

Now deeper into the woods and leaning against a large oak tree, Roger stopped to catch his
breath. He could hear the sounds of the villagers now, the crack of branches underfoot and
voices raised in anger. One voice could be heard above the rest - it was Waiter, the parish
constable. Waiter was a blacksmith by trade but had volunteered to be constable for that year.
He was well-respected in the village and people looked up to him - the right man for the job.
Waiter had to keep the peace in his spare time, keeping an eye out for any crime that might
take place, leading the hue and cry when it was needed. Roger's spirits sank. Waiter took
these responsibilities seriously, even though constables were unpaid. Roger knew it was only a
matter of time before he would be caught.
But Roger was lucky. He heard the hue and cry start to move off in the wrong direction. He
relaxed a little and sensed, for the first time, the deep hunger that had been with him these
past few days. How could he have been so stupid? If only he hadn't acted in haste, he might be
sitting down to a modest meal at home.
The coroner and the sheriff

Back at the village, eating was not a priority for Waiter. The hue and cry had failed to track
down Roger so now he had to inform the coroner about John the Shepherd's death (since
1 190 all unnatural deaths had to be reported to the coroner). In this case it was clear what had
happened and the coroner would be able to confirm events with Isobel, who had witnessed the
whole thing. The coroner would then have to inform another royal official, the sheriff of the
county, that a man had been murdered. If the hue and cry had still not found Roger then the
sheriff would organise a posse to track down and capture him.
<1111 A painting thought t o b e

o f King Edward I , c. l300.
Edward I introduced
parish constables in
1 2 8 5 . The parish was
the smallest unit of
local government in the
country. Every parish was
centred on a church.
Sanctuary
The sun was beginning to set and the daylight sounds of the woods gave way to the hoots
of owls and other signs of approaching darkness. Roger had a plan. His best hope of escape
was to reach the cathedral in Norwich. He would reach the church door and bang on the
sanctuary knocker. Once a criminal had reached sanctuary, even the sheriff could not take
him by force from a church. Roger would then have the choice to stand trial for his crime or
leave the country within 40 days. He'd go to France he thought. Yes, that is what he'd do.
Sleep
On the second day Roger hid until nightfall. He moved slowly so no one could hear him,
avoiding the country paths, crossing ditches and fields under the cover of darkness. The
landscape seemed unfamiliar on this moonlit night and Roger soon felt himself hopelessly
lost. Regrets flooded his mind. If only he had more land to grow enough food. If only he
hadn't drawn his knife. If only he hadn't seen the damned cloth in the first place. There in the
bracken Roger drifted off into a fitful sleep.
Rude awakening
'Get up cur! On your feet! He's over here - come quick!' Roger woke with a start. Looking up,
he saw a finely dressed man, who must be the sheriff, cowering above him. He was accompanied
by several other men who had been summoned as part of the sheriff's posse to track Roger down.
He recognised one of them as his cousin, a lanky boy of 15. Roger smiled to himself. He couldn't
blame the lad - all men of that age could be summoned to join a posse.
It was light as they took Roger away, his hands bound with rope. On the horizon Roger
spotted the tell-tale spire of Norwich Cathedral. He'd been so close ro claiming sanctuary!
The royal court

Roger was accused of murder. After
a week in the local gaol he was taken,
by his tithing, before the royal court.
The royal court dealt with the most
serious crimes. As he walked in he saw
a row of five judges raised up high
and dressed in fine red robes. Just
below them were the scribes, writing
everything down on long scrolls of
parchment. To his left Roger spotted
the jury. Their faces were known to
him as they had been selected from
the villages in the local area.
'If only she'd not seen me,' thought
Roger as he spotted Isobel weeping
in the courtroom. Roger had been
well-liked and trusted by his fellow
villagers. Without any evidence
against him they might have sworn
an oath of innocence based on his
good character. Isobel now stood and
gave her eyewitness testimony. It was
not surprising that the jury trusted
!so bel's description of events. Some
of them even recalled hearing !so bel's
screams when Roger had stabbed her
husband. The jury swore an oath that
Roger was guilty.
<Ill Royal courts like this one would

have been similar to the one Roger
attended. Royal judges were
appointed by the king and visited
each county two or three times
a year to hear the most serious
cases . Most other cases continued
to be heard in manor courts before
local juries who usually set fines as
punishment (see page 8) .
The noose
As a boy, Roger had listened to his grandfather scare him with stories of boiling cauldrons of
water and God's divine judgement. Trial by ordeal had finally been abolished in 1 2 1 5 . 'At least
I avoided that,' thought Roger. Then reality came crashing back into Roger's thoughts. Just
last year he had witnessed one acquaintance being whipped and another placed in the pillory
just for being drunk! Selling weak beer could land you a night in the stocks so what hope did
he, a murderer, have? Roger knew he was bound to swing for his crime, to set an example and
serve as a warning to others.
Of course, there were some ways of avoiding death but Roger could not afford to buy a pardon
from the king. Nor was he able to read, which made claiming benefit of the clergy (see page
28) impossible. That would have involved him reading a verse from the Bible and being tried
by the Church courts, who never executed people. 'If only there was a war on. I could avoid
all of this by fighting in the army as my punishment,' thought Roger as the hangman tied the
noose around his neck.
It was his very last thought before he convulsed, legs kicking into thin air at the end of the rope.
CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES IN LATER MEDIEVAL ENGLAND

1
Look back at the p red ictio n s you m a d e on page 23. We re you correct?
2 Law enfo rce m e n t a n d p u n is h m ent clea rly d i d ch a n g e d u ri n g the later M i d d l e Ag es.
U s i n g the i nfo rmation that you co l l ected fro m the activity o n page 24, sort th ese i nto
ch a n g es a n d conti n u ities a n d use them to fi l l in yo u r own co py of the table b e l ow.
No p o l ice fo rce
Tith i n g s were o rg a n ised to b r i n g a ccused to co u rt
H u e a n d cry used to catch c ri m i n a l s
Loca l j u ries decided g u i l t o r i n n oce n ce
If j u ry co u l d n ot d e c i d e t h e n o rd e a l was used - G o d
was j u d g e
Roya l cou rts fo r serious cases. M a n o r co u rts fo r
oth e rs
T h e N o r m a n s e n d e d we rg i l d a n d fi nes were p a i d to
king
S e r i o u s c r i m e s a n d re-offe n d e rs were p u n i s h e d by
death
3 Which of the state m e nts b e l ow d o you think best s u m s u p h ow fa r law enfo rcement and
p u n is h m ent changed d u ri n g the l ater M i d d l e Ages?
a) By the end of the M i d d l e Ag es law enfo rcement and p u n is h m ent had c h a n g e d very
l ittle s i n ce 1 1 00.
b) Key pa rts of l aw enfo rce ment a n d p u n i s h m ent h a d re m a i n ed the s a m e s i n ce 1 1 00 .

H oweve r, tri a l s a n d p o l i c i n g m ethods h a d been i m p rove d .
c) B y the e n d o f the M i d d l e Ag es law enfo rcement a n d p u n is h m ent h a d been a l m ost

tota l ly ch a n g e d . They were u n recog n i s a b l e .
4 W h a t key d eta i l s about the l ate M i d d l e A g e s co u l d y o u a d d to the K n o w l e d g e O rg a n iser
you sta rted o n page 13 to help you with the E n q u i ry Qu esti o n ? Refe r back to yo u r i n itial
hypothesis a n d decide w h ether you need to revise it i n any way.
2.6 Case study: Did t he Churc h help or hinder justice in

t he early t hirteent h century?
You have already begun to discover how the Church and religious beliefs played an
important part in medieval law and order. God was firmly at the centre of trial by ordeal
(see page 29) but this was not the only way in which the Church influenced justice. This
influence had previously brought the Church into conflict with the king. The most
infamous example of this came in 1 1 70 with the brutal murder of Archbishop of
Canterbury Thomas Becket. Becket had fallen out with King Henry II over the issue of
Church courts, which Henry believed were allowing criminals to get off too lightly.
A d e s c r i p t i o n of eve n t s
i n J u ly 1 1 74 , w r i t t e n a
few yea rs later by t h e
m o n k R a l p h D i ceto :
King Henry made a
hastyjourney across
England. When he reached
Canterbury he leaped from
his horse and took off his
royal clothes. He put on
simple clothes and went
into Canterbury Cathedral.
There he lay down and
prayed for a long time. Then
King Henry allowed each of
the bishops to whip him five
times. And after that the
monks who were there [and
there were a large number)
each whipped the king
three times.
As you can see from the illustration above, Henry was eventually forced to seek forgiveness
for the death of Becket and the power and influence of the Church continued. In the eyes of
Henry and some later kings, this challenged royal authority and hindered effective justice.
How far was this still true in the early thirteenth century?
Ch u rch cou rts

The Church claimed the right to try any churchman accused of a crime in its own courts.
This would be presided over by the local bishop. Unlike ordinary courts, Church courts
never sentenced people to death, no matter how serious the crime committed. Church
courts also dealt with a range of moral offe nces including failure to attend church,
drunkenness, adultery and playing football on a Sunday.
Benefit of the clergy

B enefit of the clergy was when an accused person claimed the right to be tried in the more
lenient Church courts. In theory, this right was intended only for priests. In practice,
anyone loosely connected with the Church, such as church doorkeepers or gravediggers,
used it to escape tougher punishments. To get around this problem, the Church used a test
requiring the accused to read a verse from the Bible. The idea was to weed out the non
churchmen who, unlike priests, were usually unable to read. However, others learnt the
verse by heart and it soon became known as the 'neck verse' because it could literally save
your neck from the hangman's noose !
<11111 The sanctuary knocker
Sa nctu a ry
at Durham Cathedral . A
criminal would grasp the
knocker and hammer on
the door to be let in. A
church bell would be rung
to alert the townspeople
that someone had claimed
sanctuary.
If someone on the run from the law

could reach a church, he or she could
claim sanctuary. Once a criminal
reached sanctuary, they were under
the protection of the Church. Even the
county sheriff could not remove them
by force. The criminal then had 40 days
to decide either to face trial or to leave
the country. Those choosing to leave
had to make their way, barefoot and
carrying a wooden cross, to the nearest
port and board the first ship heading
abroad.
Tri a l by o rdea l
Although it was ended by Pope
Innocent Ill in 1215, trial by ordeal
had long been used to judge guilt or
innocence in the eyes of God (see page
18). It was used when juries could not
reach a verdict and was based on the
legally unreliable idea that God would
decide a case. As such, it was possible
that some guilty men and women
escaped punishment while some
innocent people were found guilty.
HELPED OR HINDERED?
D raw yo u r own copy of the spectr u m b e l ow to s h ow h ow m u ch of a h e l p or h i n d ra n ce to

med ieva l j u stice each type of C h u rch i nvolvement was. We h ave d o n e trial by ordeal fo r you
as an exa m p l e to g et you starte d . Use the information o n these two pages to m a rk a n d
a n n otate Church cou rts, benefit o f t h e clergy a n d sanctua ry.
T r i a l by o r d e a l
HINDERED
H E LP E D
Tri a l by ordeal p rovi ded a n o u tco m e if
a l oca l j u ry co u l d not reach a verd ict.
H owever, this o utco m e seemed to be
based o n l uck rat h e r than real g u i lt o r
i n n oce nce. T h e refore, g u i l ty cri m i n a l s
sometimes esca ped p u n i s h m e n t w h i l e
i n n oce nt peo p l e co u l d be p u n i s h e d .
USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE ORGANISER

What key d eta i l s about the C h u rch co u l d you a d d to the
Know l e d g e O rg a n iser you sta rted o n page 13 to help you
with the E n q u i ry Qu esti o n ?
2.7 Com municating your answer

Now it's time to write your answer to the Enquiry
Question and ...
Wo rd Wa l l
STOP ! We have forgotten something very important.

Revise your hypothesis and get your summary answer clear
in your mind before you begin writing.
This is a vital stage because a big mistake students make is
starting to write without having the answer clear in their
minds. The activities below help to clarify your thinking
and work better if you do them with a partner.
1
Compare the information in your Knowledge Organiser

(page 13) with your partner's. Make any necessary
additions.
2 Rank the Church, kings and local communities in order
of the influence they had in each of the following areas :
enforcing the law: policing methods
enforcing the law: trials
e punishing criminals.
Now it's time to write an answer to our question.

Who had the most influence on law and order in the
Middle Ages - the Church, kings or local communities ?
Use the following plan t o help you structure your answer:
Paragraph 1 - Describe how policing methods worked

and explain what, ifany, role the Church, kings and local
communities played.
Paragraph 2 - As above but consider trials.
Paragraph 4 - Your conclusion should weigh up which

group had the most influence overall.
Norman
h u e a n d cry
understand the meaning of technical words and phrases

communicate clearly and precisely when you describe or
explain historical events - this definitely helps you do
well in your exams
spell these important words correctly (marks are lost in
exams for poor spelling) .
Here are some words and phrases to help you think about
the Enquiry Question and medieval England. Make your
own copy on a large sheet of paper and leave plenty of space
so you can add to it.
Red - words re l ated to the history of cri m e a n d

p u n is h m e nt.
Black - wo rds that m a ke you r a rg u m ents a n d
ideas answers c l e a r t o a rea d e r
Golden - words that help you t o u s e evidence, explain and
link your answer to the question being asked.
Practice q u estions
Exp l a i n why the Ch u rch s o m et i m e s h i n d e red j u stice i n

t h e period c.1 000-c.1 500.
'The N o rm a n Con q u est saw l ittl e c h a n g e to law
enfo rce m e n t and p u n is h m e n t i n E n g l a n d .' H ow fa r d o
y o u a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swe r.
Paragraph 3 - As above but consider punishments.
tith i n g
Blue - h isto rica l periods.
N ow it's time to write yo u r a n swe r
An g l o -Saxon
A Word Wall identifies words that are useful for writing

an answer. They also help you to think and talk about
your answer. Add to your Word Wall each time you finish
studying a new time period. This helps you to :
Some of you r exa m questions (such as q uestion 4, 5 and 6

in the exa m paper) will suggest two topics you cou l d use in
you r answer. You can see exam ples on page 1 65. We have n ot
incl uded topics in the practice questions in this book to g ive
teachers the opportun ity to change th ese from yea r to yea r.
!,E.y, ordeal
-.tria
Ch u rch cou rts
:anct u a ry
consta b l e
coro n e r
benefit of
the clergy
m a n o r cou rt
she riff
l itt l e
q u ite
very
i m porta .nt
cha n g e
influential
Mi dle
med ieva l
I
rr
cont i n u ity
reason
ges
_D;:
fo r exa m p l e
m o reove r
t h is meant
t h is led to
seco n d ly
fu rt hermore
t h is s u g g ests
this resu lted i n
fa ctor
ove ra l l
2 .9 Visi b le lea rn i n g : Revise a n d re m e m b e r

Just when you thought you might relax after answering the Enquiry Question, you
discover there is something just as important still to do ! The most successful
students realise that revision is not something that you only do towards the end of the
course and the start of your exams. By getting ready for revision now, you make life much
easier for yourself later on. Here are some ideas how to revise so you can get started.
Tech n i q u e 1 : Using m em o ry m a ps
Tech n i q u e 2 :
Test you rself
A m e m o ry m a p is a n ot h e r fo rm of K n ow l e d g e O rg a n i ser that h e l ps you focus

o n t h e key featu res with o u t g etti n g l ost i n too m u ch u n n ecessa ry d eta i l .
Step 1 : U s e p l a i n A 3 p a p e r ( o r b i g g e r if yo u h ave it) . Tu rn i t l a n dscape t o a l low

s o m e space and to sto p t h e w h o l e t h i n g l o o k i n g cra m pe d .
Step 2 : Ad d i nfo rmation to
t h e map u s i n g yo u r n otes a n d
l o o ki n g back at pages 1 2-29 if
n ecessa ry. Use p e n c i l so you
ca n m a ke corrections late r.
Re m e m ber:
Policing
Trials
methods
'\_
\.
Use key words o r ph rases.

Do n ot write i n fu l l
sente n ces.
e Use p i ctu res/i m a g es/
d i a g r a m s to re p l a ce or
e m phasise word s . T h i s
h e l ps t h e i nfo rmation to
'stick'.
e P R I N T i m po rta nt words to
m a ke t h e m sta n d out.
Step 3 : W h e n you h ave

fi n is h e d , red raft yo u r m e m o ry
m a p to m a ke s u re eve ryth i n g
is c l e a r.
M a ki n g a m e m o ry m a p is itse lf
a way of revi s i n g , but you can
a l so use it to test yo u rself. Try
cove ri n g up pa rts of t h e m e m o ry
m a p . T h e n try to d raw that
m is s i n g p a rt of t h e m e m o ry m a p
fro m m e m o ry. Check t h i s a g a i n st
t h e orig i n a l a n d see what you
h ave m isse d .
Tech n i q u e 4: Writi n g
the Big Sto ry
it's rea l ly i m p o rtant that you
kee p t h e B i g Sto ry of cri m e
a n d p u n is h m e n t c l e a r i n yo u r
m i n d , as t h i s is a g reat h e l p i n
t h e exa m . U s e t h e n otes i n yo u r
b o o k o r l o o k back ove r pages
1 2-29 and w rite a b rief story of
cri m e and p u n i s h m e nt i n the
M i d d l e Ag es. Yo u s h o u l d i n c l u d e
t h e words u s e d i n Tech n i q u e 3 a s
we l l a s the fo l l owi n g :
Big idea
7
/ """
C h a n g e An g l o-Saxo n s
T h i s m e a n t that . . . Conti n u ity
Tech n i q u e 3 : Playi n g a g a m e
I n t h i s g a m e t h e contesta nt i s g iven a n a n swe r a n d t h e i r task i s t o co m e u p
with t h e m atch i n g q u esti o n . We h ave p rovided s o m e a n swers b e l ow b u t it
i s yo u r job to co m e u p with s u i ta b l e m atch i n g q u esti o n s . Try to m a ke each
q u esti o n a s d eta i l ed as possi b l e so that you a re u s i n g yo u r k n ow l e d g e to h e l p
y o u word it.
Tithing
Benefit of
the clergy
S h e riff
Trial by
ordea l
Coroner
The
Normans
We rg ild
Oath of
compurgation
1 1 00
Sanctuary
The period 1500-1700 saw some important changes to society, the way the country was ruled and in
people's religious beliefs. First, this was a time of increasing wealth but also of increasing poverty for
different groups of people. Second, rich landowners wanted a bigger say in the way the country was
being run and had a growing influence on the making of laws. Consequently, there were tougher laws
for crimes against property. Third, England became a Protestant country and this caused much conflict
and confusion- having the wrong religious beliefs could lead to execution . As a result, tougher laws
emerged dealing with crimes against royal and Church authority. As you work through the chapter you
will understand how and why these changes had a big effect on crimes, punishments, trials and policing.
3.1 Cri minal moments in ti me, 1600
The law of trea son had been strengthened.

lt was treasonable to rebel, speak out
or write against the m o n a rc h . The
pun ishment for treason was h a n g i n g ,
d rawi ng a n d qua rteri n g . T h e victi m's body
pa rts were di s played as a wa rn i n g .
3 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n e a r l y m o d e r n En g l a n d , c.1 500-c.1 700
c ry sti l l existed i n s m a l l e r
c o m m u n ities but were less
The stocks were used for
those who could not afford
effective i n town s w h e re
there were m o re people.
to pay fines, often i m posed

for m i n o r crimes. The pillory
wa s used to p u n i s h crimes
such as selling u nderweight
or rotten goods or
cheating at ca rds. Both
LAW AND ORDER 1 60 0 - 1 7 0 0 : OVERVIEW

Wo rk in p a i rs or s m a l l g ro u ps . Yo u h ave five m i n utes.
What evid e n ce can you fi n d i n the pictu re of:
a) d iffe rent types of cri m e (agai nst the perso n ,
p roperty o r autho rity)
b) d iffe rent p u n i s h m ents
c) d iffe rent fo rms of policing a n d /o r cri m e
p reve ntion
d) d iffe rent trials?
2 What c h a n ges and conti n u ities can you see w h e n you
co m p a re this cri m i n a l m o m e nt i n time with the A n g l o

Saxon sce n e o n p a g e s 1 4-1 5?
3 List a ny q u esti ons that th ese two pages ra ise about
the n atu re of law enfo rce ment a n d p u n i s h m ent i n the

period 1 500-1 700. Kee p th ese safe and tick them off
w h e n you a n swer them as you work t h ro u g h the rest
of this cha pte r.
3.2 W hic h social c hanges affected cri me and

punis h ment, c.1500-c.1700?
Many aspects of crime and punishment had not changed since the Middle Ages. The theft
of food, money or low-value belongings remained the most common crimes. No police
force existed and there was a continued belief that savage, terrifying corporal and capital
punishments deterred people from committing crime. However, there were also some
important changes in the period 1500 -1700.
1 The amount of crime seems to have gone up during the 1500s and early 1600s.
2 There was an increased fear of crime. By the late 1600s, there is evidence that crime was
actually falling. However, most people continued to believe that crime was
rising rapidly.
3 In the 1680s, even minor crimes could result in execution as punishments became even
harsher. The number of crimes carrying the death penalty (capital punishment) was
greatly increased.
HOW DID SOCIAL CHANGES AFFECT CRIME AND
PUNISHMENT?
Af)
Read the soci a l ch a n g es boxes b e l ow a n d on page 35 a n d use th ese to h e l p you a n swer the
fo l l owi n g q u estions.
1 Which ch a n g es help exp l a i n the i n crease i n cri m e d u ri n g the 1 500s a n d early 1 600s?
2 Which ch a n g es h e l p exp l a i n the i n creased fea r of cri m e i n this period?
3 Which ch a n g es help exp l a i n to u g h e r laws su rrou n d i n g cri m es a g a i nst prope rty?
4 Which ch a n g es h e l p exp l a i n the to u g h e r laws su rrou n d i n g cri mes a g a i nst roya l a n d
C h u rch autho rity?
5 Which ch a n g es h e l p exp l a i n the i n creased use of ca pita l p u n is h m ent fo r even m i n o r
cri m es fro m t h e 1 680s?
Po p u lation g rowth
Economic cha n g es
Printi n g
D u ri n g t h e sixteenth a n d
seve nteenth ce nturies t h e re w a s a
steady i n c rease i n t h e p o p u lati o n .
M o re p e o p l e m e a n t it w a s h a rd e r
fo r s o m e t o fi n d work.
E n g l a n d was beco m i n g wea lth i e r

ove ra l l a n d s o m e p e o p l e
beca m e richer. H oweve r, t h e
ove rw h e l m i n g m aj o rity o f peo p l e
re m a i n ed poor. T h i s m a d e t h e m
v u l n e ra b l e to r i s e s i n t h e p rice
of fo od caused by bad h a rvests.
A fa l l - off in tra d e co u l d lead to
u n e m p l oy m e n t a n d h a rd s h i p
fo r m a ny.
After p ri nti n g was i nvented i n the

fifteenth ce ntu ry, m o re books,
broadsh eets and pa m p h l ets sta rted
to appear. A favou rite topic for
pa m p h l ets was cri me, pa rticu la rly
witchcraft and vag a bondage.
Pa m p h lets we re usua l ly i l l u strated
a n d frequently read out loud to
oth e rs. Even those u n a b l e to read
co u l d sti l l u n d e rsta n d the g e n e ra l
message they contained.
Re ligious tu rmoil
Pol itica l cha n g e
Re l i g i o u s ch a n g es m a d e b y H e n ry
VI I I d u ri n g t h e 1 530s caused m u ch
u n rest and confu s i o n . This was
fo l l owed by a period of re l i g i o u s
u p h eava l as t h e cou ntry switched
fro m P rotestant to Cath o l i c
m o n a rchs a n d b a c k a g a i n . As
re l i g i o u s a rg u m e nt conti n u ed,
both s i d es accused t h e oth e r of
being i n l e a g u e with t h e Devi l .
T h i s h e l ped i n crease p u b l i c
b e l i ef i n evi l a n d s u p e r n a t u ra l
exp l a n at i o n s fo r eve nts.
T h i s period a l so saw t h e g reatest

re be l l i o n of a l l - the E n g l is h
Civi l Wa r (1 642-1 649) i n wh ich
Pa r l i a m e nt fo u g h t and beat t h e
K i n g 's fo rces . T h i s cu l m i n ated i n
t h e execution o f K i n g C h a rles I .
To m a ny peo p l e t h e w a r a n d t h e
d eath o f t h e k i n g fe lt l i ke t h e
'wo r l d t u r n e d u ps i d e down'. T h i s
created a fee l i n g of i n secu rity
a n d fea r that l a sted decades.
La n d owners'
attitu d es
La n d ow n e rs were beco m i n g rich e r

a n d g rowi n g i n i n fl u e n ce d u ri n g
t h i s period . They e n co u ra g e d
l aws that defe n d e d t h e i r rig hts,
power and p ro p e rty a g a i n st
those t h ey reg a rd e d as a th reat.
I n crea s i n g l y l a n d ow n e rs reg a rd e d
t h e poor w i t h s u s p i ci o n . T h ey
fe lt th reate n e d by t h e i r g rowi n g
n u m b e rs a n d wanted t o kee p the
poor fi r m l y i n their p l ace.
KNOWLEDGE ORGANISER: FACTOR CARDS

Yo u a re g o i n g to m a ke some facto r
ca rds to g et the big pictu re of the
period 1 500-1 700 and to help you
with you r revision. H e re a re some
factors you should co nsider:
M a ke yo u r own copy of the card

b e l ow a n d fo r a ny oth e r facto rs
you t h i n k were i m portant d u ri n g
1 500-1 700. Don't wo rry i f you
h ave to l eave pa rts of yo u r card s
b l a n k - y o u s h o u l d be a b l e t o add
m o re information as you work t h ro u g h this cha pte r. A N D d o n 't worry if you can't use a l l of the
fa ctors, they m i g ht n ot be i m portant i n this period but they wi l l cro p u p later!
Factor: Science and technology

Effect on crimes:
Effect on law
enforcement:
Effect on
p u n i s h ments:
New technology of
Printing increased
printing increased
fear of crime so
fear of crimes like
government
vagrancy and
introduced harsher
witchcraft as
punishments to
more people were
deal with it.
reading a bout it.

.....____,
--
3.3 An execution : Early 1600s

The main picture on this spread shows a particularly grim execution that took place in the
early 1600s. You found out in Chapter 1 that good historians pose their own big questions
or enquiries. On these pages we would like you to pose much smaller questions about the
picture below. By posing and then answering your own small questions, you will
understand a big change that took place in the period 1500 -1700.
POSING USEFUL QUESTIONS
Qu estions l i ke, 'What is it a l l a bout? ', a re too big. Focus

instead on the basics and the deta i l s with i n the pictu re. Avoid
q u estions that can be answered with a simple yes or no.
1 Wo rk i n p a i rs o r s m a l l g ro u ps to co m p i l e a l ist of
q u estio n s about this pictu re. Then co m e togeth e r as a

class to m a ke a l ist of a l l of the q u estions you h ave co m e
u p with .
2 Read C l ues 1 -3 . Discuss which q u estions they m i g ht
h e l p you beg i n to a n swer. Don't wo rry if you a re n ot

s u re ! Use the tentative l a n g u a g e at the botto m on these
pages to h e l p yo u .
3 N ote a ny fu rth e r q u estions that a rise fro m C l u es 1 -3 a n d
add these t o yo u r l ist.
Clue 1 A d e s c r i p t i o n of the sava g e p u n is h m e n t for t r a i t o rs ,

t a ke n fro m a n A c t of Pa rli a m e n t i n 1 8 0 0 .
Tha t the offender be dragged to the gallows; that he be hanged
by the neck and then be cut down alive; that his en trails be
taken out and burned while he is yet alive; tha t his head be cut
off; tha t his body be divided in to four parts and that his head and
quarters be at the King 's disposal.
C l u e 2 An e i g ht ee n t h - c e n t u ry d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e sym b o l i c
m e a n i n g o f t h e exe c u t i o n .
H e was dragged to the scaffold because h e was 'not worthy any
more to tread upon the earth whereof he was made '.
He was hanged 'by the neck between heaven and earth, as
deemed unworthy of both, or either.
He was drawn [disembowelled] because he 'inwardly had
conceived and harboured [hidden] in his parts such
horrible treason '.
He was beheaded because here he had 'imagined the mischief'.
C l u e 3 P a r t of a n a n o ny m o u s lette r s e n t i n 1 6 0 5 .
fvfy lord, I have care for your safety. Therefore, I would advise
you devise some excuse to miss your attendance at this
Parliament. For God and man have come together to punish the
wickedness of the time . . . they shall receive a terrible blow this
Parliament - and they shall not see who hurts them.
Svrl'J:J(;II1Jiil.
t.w...a. i i. &n.r.anU&t
r-.rt J' '"" i!?l ....,;,..-,.. <I> n
'...,.. l'"'f'ur ... D!"!' t " ""' .sr'

'\{'-""""'- ''"" r<AhJf. c6f.lllLfiL:t"1 lt;p';dUttll. t
i!f"..:.iCfn'!ll
.,...41 vn
if 'fl! ....
Why we re the G u n powde r Plotte rs p u n ished so h a rsh ly?

M o nths befo re the execution
When James I (r.1603-1625) became king, many Catholics were hopeful that they would be
allowed to worship more freely. However, many powerful members ofJames' council were
strongly anti- Catholic and believed that more than one religion caused disunity. Therefore,
in 1604 James declared his 'utter detestation' for the Catholics ! Laws against them were
tightened and more harshly enforced than before. Although disappointed, most Catholics
had little choice but to accept the changes. However, a few determined gentlemen had ideas
of their own.
thirteen plotters ,
Guy Fawkes , filled
a vault beneath
the Houses of
Parliament with
36 barrels of
gunpowder, more
than enough
to destroy the
building and
everyone in it .
Parliament in order to kill the King and put a

Catholic on the throne .
4 . The vaults
beneath Parliament
were searched and
Fawkes was
arrested. He was
tortured until he
revealed the names
of the other plotters
and signed a
confession .
.A. 3. An anonymous letter warned Lord Monteagle
not to attend the opening of Parliament as it would ,

'receive a mighty blow'. He took it straight to
Robert Cecil - the King's Chief Minister.
BEGINNING TO ANSWER YOUR

QUESTIONS
Loo k back at the l ist of q u estio n s you a n d yo u r classm ates

ca m e up with . Which q u estions can you n ow a n swer
o r beg i n to a n swer? Use the te ntative l a n g u a g e at the
botto m of page 37 to help yo u .
2 Are there a n y furth e r q u estio n s that a rise fro m the
i nfo rmation o n this page? H e re is a q u estio n to get you

started : Why we re Cath o l ics n ot a l l owed to wors h i p
freely, even befo re J a m es beca m e k i n g ?
.A. 5 . The rest o f the plotters escaped. However, 2 0 0
government soldiers caught up with them a t Holbeach

House . Catesby and a number of his fellow plotters
were killed in the fighting. The others were returned to
London before being found guilty and sentenced to be
hanged, drawn and quartered .
Yea rs b efo re the executi o n

I n the early sixteenth century everyone i n England belonged t o the Catholic Church and
followed the authority of the Pope in Rome. This had been the case for hundreds of years.
If you did not have the same religious beliefs you were called a heretic and could be
punished or even executed for heresy.
'
I n 1 534, afte r t h e Pope refu sed to a p p rove h i s d ivo rce,

H e n ry VI I I ( r.1 509-1 547) s p l it with the Cath o l i c C h u rch
and m a d e h i m se l f H ea d of t h e C h u rch i n E n g l a n d .
Those w h o refu sed t o a cce pt t h e s p l it with t h e Cath o l i c
C h u rch were executed . H e n ry u s e d P rotestant i d e a s to
j u stify h i s d ivo rce, but in h i s h e a rt was sti l l a Cath o l i c.
Religion Swingometer
E l izabeth I
H e n ry's son Edwa rd ( r.1 5 47-1 5 5 3 )

conti n u ed t h e s p l it w i t h t h e Cath o l i c
C h u rch a n d , d u ri n g h i s re i g n , l aws
were m a d e req u i ri n g the p e o p l e
of E n g l a n d t o wors h i p i n a m u ch
m o re P rotestant way. Even t h e way
c h u rches were d e co rated beca m e a
m atte r of l aw.
W h e n Edwa rd d i ed he was
s u cceeded by h i s e l d e r siste r M a ry
( r.1 553-1 5 5 8 ) . S h e was d ete r m i n e d
t o m a ke E n g l a n d a Cath o l i c
cou ntry o n ce m o re. S h e o rd e red
t h e execution of n e a rly 300
P rotestants w h o refu sed to ch a n g e
t h e i r b e l i efs . M a ry reg a rd e d t h e m
as h e retics a n d t h e tra d iti o n a l
p u n i s h m e nt fo r h e resy w a s t o b e
b u rnt at t h e stake.
E l izabeth ( r.1 5 5 8-1 603) resto red E n g l a n d to P rotesta ntism .

Cath o l ics were fi n e d fo r n ot atte n d i n g ch u rch a n d co u l d be
l ocked u p fo r ta ki n g p a rt i n Cath o l i c services. Th ese l aws were
i nte n d e d m o re to fri g hten Cath o l i cs, a n d we re n ot too strictly
enfo rce d . As her re i g n conti n u e d , E n g l a n d beca m e i nvo lved in
confl i ct with Cath o l i c S p a i n . T h e Pope d e cl a red that E l iza beth
was n ot the rig htfu l ru l e r and that it was the d u ty of Cath o l ics
to re b e l a g a i n st h e r. T h e re were various p l ots to ki l l her a n d
re p l a ce h e r with a Cath o l i c ru l e r. E l iza beth's advisers b e l i eved
that Cath o l ics posed a serious d a n g e r to h e r g ove rn m ent.
Alto g et h e r, a ro u n d 250 Cath o l ics were executed as tra ito rs
d u ri n g E l iza beth's re i g n .
ANSWERING YOUR QUESTIONS
1 You s h o u l d n ow be a b l e to a n swer m ost of the q u esti ons you a n d yo u r classm ates ca m e
u p with . U s e t h e tentative l a n g u a g e a t t h e botto m o f p a g e 37 t o h e l p you .
2 Write a b rief exp l a n ation o f why t h e G u n powd e r P l otters were p u n ished s o h a rs h l y a n d i n
s u c h a g ruesome way. You s h o u l d i n c l u d e the reasons h a n g i n g , d rawi n g a n d behead i n g

were u s e d a n d w h y the p l otte rs were p u n ished fo r treason rath e r than h e resy.
3 Loo k back at the facto r cards you m a d e on page 3 5 . What i nfo rmation ca n you add to
yo u r existi n g cards, or what n ew facto r card can you m a ke?
3.4 A /rascally rab balagel ? Were vagabonds really a

t hreat to respectable society?
In the Middle Ages people usually lived and worked close to where they were born. By the
150 0s, a rising population and fewer jobs meant more people were moving around looking
for work. Therefore, people started to become very concerned about vagabonds, or vagrants
as they were sometimes known. These were tramps, beggars and others who wandered the
country without a settled job. Concern about vagabondage intensified during times of
poverty and hardship, when the numbers of unemployed people increased.
We h a ve been ta u g ht that g ood

C h ristia n s s h o u l d wo rk h a rd .
After a l l , t h e B i b l e says, 'th e
Devil m a kes work fo r i d l e h a n d s'
so t h o s e n o t wo r k i n g m ig ht be
tem pted to c o m m it s i n s .
Vag ra nts com m it m a ny d ifferent

crimes such a s thefts, assau lts a n d
even m u rders. i t s e e m s o bvi o u s to
m e that these vagabonds ca rry out
crimes a s a way to g et their h a n d s
o n m o n ey without work i n g .
T h e better-off a m o n g u s a l ready pay
poor rates to s u p p o rt the g e n u i n e
M o st of u s wa nt to h e l p t h e
p o o r from o u r o w n pa r i s h . T h ey c a n
g e n u i n e ly p o o r, t h e o l d a n d t h e
u s e t h i s t o b u y foo d . I d o n't wa nt to
s i c k , but w e get s u s p i c i o u s o f
s p e n d m o re of my h a rd - e a r n e d c a s h
o u t s i d e rs a s k i n g fo r h e l p. W h y
payi n g fo r t h e p oor a n d i d l e fro m oth e r
s h o u l d we a id t h o s e w h o a p pea r
a reas. T h e s e wa n d e r i n g p o o r s h o u l d
fit a n d h ea lthy e n o u g h to work?
be m a d e to ret u rn to t h e i r o w n town s
a n d v i l la g es.
_. The main reasons people worried about vagabondage in the 1500s.

S o u rce A Fro m W i l l i a m H a r r i s o n 's
Description of England, p u b li s h e d i n
1 5 7 7.
They are all thieves and extortioners. They
lick the sweat from the true labourer's
brow and take from the godly poor wha t
is due t o them. i t is not yet sixty years
since this trade [vagabondage] began but
how it has prospered since tha t time is
easy to judge for they are now supposed
to amount to above 10, 000 persons as I
have heard reported. Moreover they have
devised a language among themselves
which they name can ting such as none but
themselves are able to understand.
S o u rce C Extract f ro m Crime a n d

Punishment i n England, by J o h n B r i g g s ,
pu blished i n 1 996.
Plays a n d chap-books {short, cheap
pamphlets widely distributed} about
these 'cony-catchers [vagabonds] were
as popular with the Elizabethans and
Jacobeans as detective novels and television
soap operas about the police are today.
<1111 Source B The title

page of a book by
Thomas Harman ,
warning of the
dangers of vagabonds ,
published in 1567.
Harman described
2 3 different types
of vagabonds and
described highly
organised gangs of
criminals who would
regularly meet up .
H ow did the g ove r n m e nt treat vag a b o n ds?

Throughout the sixteenth century, the government took different measures against
vagabonds. The box below right summarises the main ones.
Many ordinary citizens did live 'in terror of the tramp' and the harshness of the laws
against vagabonds tells us landowners and the government also believed they were to
blame for many different crimes. Harman, and other pa m p h l eteers, helped stoke
government and public fear of vagrancy even further. However, was respectable society
really under threat from this 'rascally rabbalage' as Thomas Harman called it?
1 531 : U n e m p l oyed m e n o r wo m e n fo u n d
beg g i n g , o r va g a bo n ds, were w h i pped u nt i l t h e i r
b o d i e s 'be b l oody' a n d t h e n retu rned t o t h e i r
b i rth p l aces o r p revi o u s res i d e n ce.
1 547: F i rst offe n ce - two yea rs s l ave ry. Seco n d
offe n ce - s l avery fo r l i fe o r executi o n .
1 55 0 : T h e 1 547 Act w a s repealed as t o o h a rs h .
T h e 1 53 1 Act w a s revive d .
1 57 2 : Fi rst offe n ce - w h i p p i n g a n d b u r n i n g
t h ro u g h t h e g ristle o f a n e a r w i t h a n i n ch -th ick
h ot i ro n . Seco n d offe n ce - executi o n .
1 576 : Houses o f Correction were b u i lt i n every
co u nty to p u n is h a n d e m p l oy p e rsistent beg g a rs .
1 593: The 1 572 Act w a s re pealed as t o o h a rs h .
Vag a b o n d s were treated as they h a d b e e n i n 1 53 1 .
\.
1 598 : Va g ra nts we re w h i pped a n d sent h o m e . If

t h ey did n ot mend their ways t h ey co u l d be sent
to a H o use of Co rrecti o n , be b a n i s h ed fro m the
cou ntry o r eve n execute d .
Source D A vagabond being hanged. Repeat
offenders could face execution. Thomas Maynard,

Oswald Thompson and John Barres were caught in
March 1576 and were severely whipped before being
burned through the ear. They were caught again in
June and then hanged.
IDENTIFYING ATTITUDES
1
Loo k back at the facto r ca rds you m a d e o n

page 3 5 . I d e ntify which o f th ese facto rs affected
attitu des towa rd s vag a b o n d a g e a n d d iscuss h ow.
To g et you started, th i n k a bout the i m pact that
'co m m u n ications and trave l ' h a d .
2 W h y d o yo u th i n k the a uthorities vi ewed
vag a b o n d a g e as such a serious th reat? Write a

b rief exp l a n ation in yo u r book.
Source E Sixteenth-century print of a beggar being whipped

through a town.
Vag a bonds - the rea l ity

The information and all of the sources on these two pages will help you decide the truth
of Harman's and other pamphleteers' claims about the threat that vagabondage posed to
society in the sixteenth century.
EVALUATING THE THREAT FROM VAGABONDS
1
D raw yo u r own co py of the ta b l e b e l ow a n d fi l l it in u s i n g the i nfo rmation on pages 40

and 41 .
Fears surro u n d i n g vagabondage
Ag ree/partly ag ree/
disagree
Reason fo r choice
Va g a b o n d s were a l l p rofessi o n a l
cri m i n a l s w h o chose t o be i d l e
Va g a b o n d s fo rmed h i g h ly
o rg a n ised c ri m i n a l g a n g s a n d
eve n s p o ke t h e i r o w n secret
language
Va g a b o n d a g e w a s a big p ro b l e m
t h a t w a s con sta ntly i n crea s i n g
W h o we re t h e va g a b o n d s?
Some vagabonds were demobilised soldiers no longer needed in the army after wars ended.
No doubt others were hardened criminals, and there is some evidence that pickpockets, a
relatively skilled group of criminals, did tend to move about. However, the great majority
of vagabonds were unemployed people looking for work wherever they could find it, as
Source F and other information below shows.
Sou rce F Extract f ro m
Crime in Medie va l England
1550- 1 750, by J . A . S h a r p e ,
p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 99.
Most of those arrested for

vagrancy [va g a bo n d a g e ]
tended to be travelling alone
or in very small groups
for company. There is no
evidence of JPs [see p a g e
4 8 ] having t o deal with
large numbers of vagrants
travelling together in an
organised group. lt is true
that some criminals in
London spoke in a secret
language called the 'canting
tongue. Words like 'nipper'
(meaning boy) and 'cove '
(meaning man) are still
known today. However, this
was not the case across
the rest of the coun try and
there is little evidence of its
use outside of the capital.
A m a n fro m H e n l ey- o n
T h a m es h a d n o s ki l led
tra d e but h a d co m e
t o Wa rwick t o fi n d
l a bo u r i n g work afte r
b e i n g u n s u ccessfu l
e l sew h e re.
An i n n - keeper fro m
S o uthwa rk w h o h a d
fa l l e n i nto d e bt a n d s o
l eft Lo n d o n t o avo i d
b e i n g l ocked u p i n
de btor's prison.
...
A ski l led s i l k-weave r had tried various p l a ces to fi n d work

and was o n the way to Lo n d o n .
..... Explanations given by

a selection of vagabonds,
adapted from records for the
town of Warwick .
Why did p e o p l e b e co m e va g a b o n d s?
The biggest problem facing those looking for work in this period was the steadily rising
population. Simply put, an increased population meant more people with not enough work
to go round. The result was rising unemployment.
Sou rce G Extract fro m

Crime in Early Modern
England 1550 - 1 750,
by J . A .
S h a r p e , p u b li s h e d i n 1 9 99.
Most of those apprehended
do not seem to have been
professional rogues . . .
but were unremarkable
represen tations of the
lower. and hence more
vulnerable, strata of socie ty.
In medieval England people had not needed, or had not been very free, to move around
from place to place. However, by the 150 0s, unemployment was forcing people to travel
beyond the local area to look for work.
In normal years vagrancy was not a big problem. The city with the greatest number of
vagrants was London. It was the only large town in England during this period and so
many people thought they might find work there. For some, it also offered better
opportunities for crime. Even so, in 1560 the London Bridewell (an early example of a
House of Correction) only dealt with 69 vagabonds.
<0111 Source H Sixteenth

century woodcut illustrating
different types of beggar,
including a wandering
beggar or vagabond in the
centre.
However, periods of hardship could lead to a growth in the number of vagrants. In the
1 5 70s, following a series of bad harvests, the number of vagabonds increased considerably.
The late 1590s were years of even greater poverty with wages at their lowest point since
the year 1200. It was not surprising that by 1600 the number of vagabonds in London had
swollen to 555.
In normal years Oxford Justices of the Peace (JPs) dealt with around 12 vagrants per year.
In Salisbury they dealt with 20 or less. However, in 1598 these towns were forced to deal
with 67 and 98 cases of vagabondage respectively.
EXPLAINING ATTITUDES TOWARDS VAGABONDS
1
If va g a b o n d a g e was n ot as big a t h reat as the g ove r n m e n t a n d the p u b l i c perceived, why

was it p u n ished so very h a rsh ly?
2 Look back at the facto r cards you m a d e o n page 35. What i nfo rmation ca n you add to
yo u r existi n g card s or what n ew fa cto r card ca n you m a ke?
Sou rce I Extract f ro m

Crime in Early Modern
England 1550 - 1 750,
by J . A .
S h a rp e , p u b li s h e d i n 1 9 99.
Once misfortune sent such
people on a downward
path . . . begging, stealing
and working must have
been regarded as equally
useful aids to survival.
3.5 Case study: Was Matt hew Hop kins the main reason
for t he witc h - hunt of 1645 -1647?
Historians can't be sure
why Hopkins started on
his witch-finding journey.

Discuss what you think
his motivation was.
Aye J o h n , t h e re is wo rk fa r u s
Perhaps, when you were younger, you wore a witch, ghost or monster costume to celebrate
Halloween. Nowadays we worry less about witches meeting at midnight and more about
bothering our neighbours for sweets ! However, nearly 400 years ago witchcraft was taken
very seriously indeed. Between 1645 and 1647, around 250 cases of witchcraft came before
the authorities in East Anglia. This unprecedented number of accusations has been
described as a 'witch-hunt.'
At the centre of the majority of cases was Matthew Hopkins, a man who became known as
the Witchfinder General due to his 'ability' to spot witches. This is his story and the story
of those unfortunate people who crossed his path.
bath h e re . T h e Devil a bo u n d s
1 645 : Yea r of the Witchfi n d e r G e n e ra l
.& In 1645, for reasons we do not know, Matthew Hopkins
.& Hopkins named 36 women as witches and collected
and his assistant John Stearne started searching East Anglia

for witches. Hopkins , who had previously been unsuccessful
as a lawyer, was just twenty-five years old.
evidence against them. They were charged with using

harmful magic against their neighbours or their livestock.
The majority of the women accused by Hopkins were old
and poor, the most vulnerable in their villages .
.& Hopkins exhausted his suspects by keeping them standing
.& If a mouse , fly or spider found its way into the room ,
and on the move. He also kept them awake for days at a time
to weaken their resistance. Both methods were particularly
effective on old people. Worn down, many of them confessed .

Hopkins claimed it was a ' familiar' , a creature created by

the Devil to do the witch's bidding.
.A. Any scar, boil or spot was regarded as proof of a 'Devil's
mark ' from which familiars sucked the witch's blood.

These were not difficult to find as a lifetime of poor diet and
hardship usually left marks on people's bodies.
.A. Fear spread and this led other towns and villages across
the region to summon Hopkins to rid them of their witches .
Hopkins charged for his services , demanding a fee plus
expenses for his time .
.A. Most of those accused by Hopkins were women, but at
.A. Hopkins disappears from the records in 1647 and most
Brandeston , the local vicar was charged with witchcraft

and ' swum' in the castle moat (see page 47) . 'Devil marks'
were found in his mouth, probably ulcers in this time of poor
nutrition, and he was hanged.
likely died from an illness. Between 1645 and 1 647, East

Anglia witnessed at least 100 executions for witchcraft ,
possibly more . Nineteen of these victims were women from
Manningtree.
ASSESSING HOPKINS' ROLE

There is little doubt H opkins played a sign ificant ro le i n the 'witch- h u nt' between 1 645
and 1 647. However, the key question remains wheth er H opkins created the pan ic, or
was simply ta ki ng advantage of beliefs and attitudes a l ready in place at the time.
1
M a ke yo u r own co py of the rad a r g ra p h (rig ht) i n the centre of a l a rg e sh eet

of paper. Each axis re p resents a reason fo r the 'witc h - h u nts'. We h ave l a b e l led
two of them fo r yo u .
2 Read t h e i nfo rmation on pages 44-47 a n d decide on headings for t h e rem a i n i n g
axis. T h e n add bite-sized ch u n ks o f i nfo rmation a ro u n d the ova l o f each axis

s u m m a rising that reaso n .
3 W h e n y o u h ave a d d e d a l l the inform ation y o u can, d iscuss w h a t score you
wo u l d g ive each reason axis (1 : N ot i m po rtant; 3: Qu ite i m po rtant; 5: Ve ry

i m po rtant) to show h ow i m portant you t h i n k it was.
4 Was M atthew H o pkins the m a i n reason fo r the witch - h u nt of 1 645-1 647? Write
a brief exp l a n ation in yo u r book.
Vi l l a g e te nsions
Accusations were a sign o f increased tension between the poor and those richer than them.
In times of hardship, the poor would ask for help more often, which sometimes left
wealthier villagers feeling threatened by their demands. Poor elderly women, who had once
been cared for, were now regarded differently. Most people believed it was possible to injure
or even kill others by using harmful magic. This sometimes led to vulnerable women being
scapegoated as witches if something went wrong. The cartoon shows a typical scene that
may have taken place.
lllfi":'I!C f"" - -.-..,
JJ.. A villager, an old widow, asks for
help from a better-off neighbour, but

is refused. Often this followed years
of suspicion and tension between the
widow and the neighbour.
JJ.. The widow walks away muttering
and cursing quietly, maybe even

uttering a threat . Both feel angry. The
neighbour feels guilty.
I s u spect witch c raft - what else could
If s h e i s a witc h , we m u st stop h e r
have ca u sed this sudden i l l ness?
before s h e ca n d o a ny m o re h a r m .
JJ.. Some time afterward , something
terrible happens to the neighbour or

her family - an illness to her children
or animals. Perhaps even a death.
Source A A pamphlet from 1689,
JJ.. The neighbour looks for an
explanation of this terrible event .

She knows the widow's reputation as
a strange woman and the rumours
that she is a witch. She suspects these
events could be a witch's evil work.
1
JJ.. She mentions her thoughts t o friends
who tell her about other examples of

things that have gone wrong when
they refused to help the widow. They
decide to accuse the widow before
any more harm is done .
showing three women hanging after

being accused and found guilty of
witchcraft . Printed pamphlets like
these were extremely popular and
people particularly enjoyed reading
about cases of witchcraft .
How might pamphlets like Source A have affected ideas about witchcraft? What are the
strange animals shown?
2 Do you think witchcraft was a crime against the person or against property?
.
Cha n g es to the law

Cases of witchcraft were nothing new in the 1640s. There had been accusations of
witchcraft in the Middle Ages, but these were dealt with by Church courts (see page 28)
which were more lenient. However, in 1542, during the religious changes that took place
under Henry VIII (see page 39), the law changed and witchcraft became a criminal offence.
Queen Elizabeth also made tough laws against witches and, in 1590, the future King James
I wrote an important book on the horrors of witchcraft. Stricter laws meant witches were
tried in ordinary courts and could be punished by death.
There was no sudden flood of witchcraft cases after the laws changed, but over the next
200 years up to 1,000 people (mainly women) were executed as witches. Most accusations
were not the work of witchfinders like Hopkins, but of ordinary villagers accusing others of
using magic to harm them in some way.
U n ce rta i n times
There is some evidence that the number of accusations for witchcraft increased during
rimes of uncertainty and unrest. The religious changes that took place under the Tudors
(see page 39) meant that old practices and beliefs were being transformed. Protestants
preached that the Devil and his servants were tempting good Christians away from God.
This heightened talk of the Devil made people fearful and more likely to look for harmful
magic as an explanation for unseen events.
The witch-hunt in East Anglia during the 1640s took place against the backdrop of the
English Civil War ( 1642-1649 ) . This had a hugely unsettling effect on the country, and to
many people the world felt as if it had been 'turned upside down'. In many areas, there was
some breakdown in the proper rule oflaw. The Civil War meant that assize judges (see
page 49) were less able to travel and so locals often took the law more into their own hands.
H ow we re witches tried?
The accusers would present their charge and bring witnesses t o support it. The accused
would have to defend themselves. However, around 80 per cent of those accused were
elderly widows or unmarried women with no husband to speak up for them. That meant
they would be tested further.
THINKING ABOUT
FACTORS
Loo k back at the facto r

card s you m a d e on page
3 5 . What information ca n
you add to yo u r existi n g
cards, o r w h a t n ew facto r
card can you m a ke?
<1111 Source B This woodcut is from a pamphlet
in 1600. It shows the ' swim test ' used to

identify witches. This was similar to medieval
trial by ordeal (see page 18). The accused
had their hands bound and a rope was tied
around their waist . They were then lowered
into the water. It was believed the innocent
would sink and the guilty would float . If they
floated, the accused would be examined
for the 'Devil's marks' as a final proof of
witchcraft .
3.5 How effective was law enforcement 1500-1700?

Between 1500 and 1700 various measures were taken to try to improve law enforcement.
Your task on these pages is to make an overview of policing and trials so that you can weigh
up whether there was more change or continuity when comparing this period to
medieval England.
Po lici n g
Policing took many forms but still relied largely o n the actions o f the local community.
T h e h u e a n d cry
The hue and cry was still used. If the alarm was raised, citizens still had to turn out and
look for the criminal. The constable was expected to lead the hue and cry. The local posse
could also be called out to search for criminals.
P a r i s h co nsta b l es
Parish constables remained the main defence against crime. This was a part-time job and
constables had no weapons or uniform. They spent most of their time dealing with everyday
matters such as begging without a licence. They did not go out on patrol. Constables had the
power to inflict some punishments, such as whipping vagabonds. They were expected to take
charge of suspects and make sure they were held in prison until their trial.
T Source A A seventeenth
century image of a night

watchman patrolling
the London streets ,
accompanied b y his dog and
carrying his lamp and bell .
Tow n watch m e n a n d sergea nts

Town watchmen were employed in larger towns to patrol the streets during the day and
night. They were poorly paid and often of little use. They were expected to arrest drunks
and vagabonds. They were allowed to peer into windows to make sure that people were not
breaking the law. S ergeants were employed in towns to enforce market reg u lations by
weighing goods and collecting fines if traders were behaving badly.
Citize n s
Citizens (ordinary people) were expected t o deal
with crime themselves. If someone was robbed
it was his or her responsibility to get an a rrest
wa rra nt from a magistrate, track down the
criminals themselves and deliver them to
the constable.
Rewa rd s
Rewards were offered for the arrest of particular
criminals. These tended to be for more serious
crimes. The rewards involved could be very high
indeed - even the equivalent to a year's income
for a middle-class family.
J u stices of t h e Peace (J Ps)
The system of Justices of the Peace (J Ps) had been
set up in the later Middle Ages, but it was during
Tudor times that they became a key part oflocal law
enforcement. They were people oflocal importance,
usually a well-offlandowner, who took the job
for the prestige it offered. JPs judged manor court
cases. They could fine people, send them to the
stocks or the pillory, and order them to be whipped.
They were usually assisted by the constable .
Tria l s
Most cases were still dealt with at a local level, much a s they
had been during the Middle Ages. However, some changes
were introduced in order to make the system more efficient.
C o u rts
There were a variety of courts in use and all relied on a local
jury. Manor courts dealt with local, minor crimes such as
selling underweight bread and drunkenness.
THE ARMY
The a rmy was used to put down p rotests, d e a l with riots
and to ca ptu re m o re o rg a n ised cri m i n a l g a n g s . The use of
the a rmy when d ea l i n g with p rotests was very u n po p u l a r
with o rd i n a ry p e o p l e . lt g ave t h e i m p ression t h e
g ove r n m e n t w a s i g n o r i n g t h e i r co n ce r n s a n d s i l e n c i n g
t h e m b y fo rce .
]Ps dealt with minor crimes on their own but, four times a
year, would meet with the other ]Ps in the county. At these
Quarter Sessions JPs would judge more serious cases, and
even had the power to sentence someone to death.
Royal judges visited each county twice a year to deal with the
most serious offences. These were known as Cou nty Assizes.
B e n efit of t h e c l e rgy
Church courts remained in use and dealt with crimes
committed by churchmen and anyone who could claim
benefit of the clergy (see page 28). However, by the 1600s,
many more ordinary people were able to read the 'neck verse'.
Therefore, the law was changed and prevented those accused
of serious crimes from claiming benefit of the clergy.
H a beas C o r p u s
.&.
Reco nstruction of a seventeenth ce ntury soldier.
The Habeas Corpus (meaning 'you have the body') Act was
passed in 1679. It prevented the authorities from locking a
person up indefinitely without charging them with a crime. Anyone who was arrested had
to appear in court within a certain time or be released. People no longer had to fear being
seized and locked up without trial. However, it did not stop governments from making up
evidence at trials as an excuse to lock up their critics.
WEIGHING UP CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES

1
D raw yo u r own co py of the Ve n n d i a g ra m b e l ow a n d

add deta i l s u s i n g the information o n p a g e s 48-49. Use
one co l o u r fo r p o l i c i n g m ethods and a n other fo r tria ls.
You wi l l need to refe r back to what you a l ready fo u n d
o u t a b o u t med ieva l E n g l a n d o n pages 1 2-29.
2 In which a rea does t h e re seem to h ave been the m ost
ch a n g e in the period 1 500-1 700 : p o l i c i n g m ethods

o r tria ls?
3 Re m e m be r To m the 'tea
l eaf' o n page 4? Which

period d o you th i n k he
wou l d h ave p refe rred
to l ive his cri m i n a l life
i n : the M i d d l e Ages o r
1 500-1 700?
G ive reasons.
3.6 How can we explain t he development of the

Bloody Code?
Source A A public hanging
at Tyburn in London, around

1680. Tyburn had long
been used for the execution
of London criminals. The
Tyburn gallows had three
posts and so was known
as the ' triple tree'. It could
hang up to nine people at a
time . It could take up half an
hour to die and sometimes
relatives or friends would
have to pull the condemned
man's legs to finish them
off. To add insult to injury,
London hospitals sometimes
claimed the bodies for
student doctors to dissect .
In the seventeenth century capital punishment was still used for major crimes such as
murder, treason, arson and cou nte rfeiting . Execution was also used for the theft of goods
worth more than one shilling. Each year hundreds of people were executed. This was
carried out in public to serve as a deterrent to those who might be thinking of committing
a similar crime. All of these things were as they had been in the Middle Ages. However,
when it came to punishments, some things were beginning to change.
The B l oody Cod e

I n 1688 there was a big change to the law. The number o f crimes carrying the death penalty was
increased. There were further increases throughout the eighteenth and into the early nineteenth
centuries, a period we consider in the next chapter of this book. In 1688 the number of crimes
punishable by death was 50. In 1765 it was 160 and by 1815 it had risen again to 225 ! Even
minor crimes against property such as poaching or cutting down trees were punishable by
death - it is no wonder that these laws became known as the 'Bloody Code'.
CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN PUNISHMENTS
lt is very i m portant that you ca n spot both ch a n g es a n d conti n u ities betwee n

d ifferent time periods. N ot o n ly d o e s this h e l p y o u with the big pictu re, it is
a l s o vita l ly i m portant to help you i n the exa m ! In this secti o n we wo u l d l i ke you
to co m p a re p u n i s h m ents i n the M id d l e Ages a n d i n the period 1 500 to 1 700.
1
M a ke yo u r own co py of the Know l e d g e O rg a n iser b e l ow a n d use yo u r

n otes o r t h e information o n pages 1 2-29 t o h e l p you fi l l i n t h e fi rst co l u m n .
2 Use t h e i nfo rmation on pages 50-51 t o h e l p you com p l ete the second a n d
t h i rd co l u m ns. A d d a sentence or two o f d eta i l descri bing each p u n i s h m ent.
Other p u n i s h m e nts
Before we look at the reasons why the
Bloody Code began in the 1680s, we
need to understand the other types
of punishment in use between 1 5 0 0
and 1 7 0 0 . These ranged from corporal
punishment, intended to inflict pain, to
public humiliation, fines and even the
removal of the criminal altogether.
3 C ri m e and p u n is h m e n t i n early m o d e r n En g l a n d , c.1 500-c.1 700
F i n e s were perhaps t h e
m ost co m m o n type of
p u n i s h m ent a n d were used
fo r m i n o r offen ces such as
swea ring, g a m b l i n g ,
d r u n ke n n ess a n d fa i l u re to
atte n d ch u rc h .
The p i l l o ry was i ntended to

s h a m e a n d h u m i l iate. lt was
used to p u n ish cri m es such
as ch eati n g at cards,
persistent swea ri n g a n d
se l l i n g u n d e rweight bread . I f
the crowd disapproved of
the cri m e they wou l d pelt
the offender with stones.
Cri m i n a l s convicted of sexu a l
cri m es we re sometimes
ki l l ed in the p i l l o ry.
W h i p p i n g was a fo rm of
co rpora l p u n is h m e n t
i nte n d e d t o c a u s e g reat
pa i n . lt u s u a l ly took p l a ce
on m a rket day w h e n t h e re
was a crowd to watch a n d
so h a d t h e seco n d a ry
effe ct of h u m i l i ati n g t h e
cri m i n a l . lt was used fo r a
vari ety of offe n ces such as
va g a bo n d a g e, reg u l a r
d r u n ke n n ess a n d t h e th eft
of l ow-va l u e g o o d s .
Prisons conti n u e d to be
used fo r those awaiti n g
tri a l a n d fo r p e o p l e i n
d e bt. H oweve r, p riso n s
were v e r y r a r e l y used as a
p u n is h m e n t i n t h e m s e l ves.
By the l ate 1 500s, m a n y

town s were b u i l d i n g
H o uses o f Correcti o n to
p u n is h a n d refo rm
offe n d e rs . Th ese beca m e
known as B ri d ewe l l s afte r
t h e fi rst o n e that was b u i lt
i n Lon d o n . Va g a bo n d s,
u n m a rried m ot h e rs a n d
re peat offe n d e rs were
sent to B r i d ewe l l s .
I n m ates we re s o m et i m e s w h i p ped but a l so m a d e to d o
h a rd labour. The a u t h o rities b e l i eved s o m e offe n d e rs
m i g ht m e n d t h e i r ways if ta u g ht t h e va l u e of h a rd work.
Ca rti n g m e a n t b e i n g
p a r a d e d ro u n d t h e streets
o n a ca rt fo r a l l to see a n d
a i m ed t o s h a m e t h e
cri m i n a l . it w a s u s e d fo r
va g ra n cy, a d u ltery a n d
ru n n i n g a b roth e l .
Wo m e n w h o a rg u e d with
o r d i s o b eyed t h e i r
h u s b a n d s co u l d be
convicted as sco l d s . The
p u n i sh m e nt was t h e
d u cki n g sto o l i n t h e l o c a l
rive r o r p o n d . Wo m e n
w h o a rg u e d i n p u b l i c o r
swo re co u l d be p u n is h e d
i n t h e s a m e way.
Fro m t h e 1 660s, cri m i n a l s

beg a n t o be sent
( 'tra n s p o rted') t h o u s a n d s
o f m i les away t o t h e
A m e ri c a n co l o n ies.
Tra nsportation fo r l ife
was used fo r m u rd e re rs
w h o esca ped t h e d eath
p e n a lty. O n ce in A m e rica,
s o m e priso n e rs suffe red
co n d itions cl ose to
s l ave ry. H oweve r, s o m e i n E n g l a n d sti l l viewed i t as a
soft opti o n w h e n co m pa red to t h e death p e n a lty.
Cri m e rate
The introduction of the 'Bloody Code' might give you the impression that England was
riddled with crime. It seems logical that punishments became harsher to try to reduce the
growing amount of crime by acting as a deterrent. We need to take a look at the overall
level of crime in this period and decide if this was really the case.
We should remember it is only possible to know the level of reported crimes. Many offences
went unreported and so do not show up in the figures. Nevertheless, records from across
the country suggest that crime rose in the 150 0s, and then fell steadily from the early 1600s
(see the graph below) . Therefore, it is important to understand that punishments became
bloodier at a time when the crime rate was falling ! That leaves us the puzzling question
- why, then, was the Bloody Code introduced?
Sou rce B F i g u res for C h e s h i re , 1 5 8 0 - 1 7 0 9, s h ow i n g n u m b e r of re p o rted cases o f A) t h eft a n d o t h e r p r o p e rty offe n c e s a n d
B ) m u rd e r.
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MAKING A LINK MAP TO SHOW CAUSES

Read t h e i n fo r m ation on pages 5 2-53
very ca refu l ly. N ow look at t h e l i st of
fa cto rs b e l ow.
1
Which of the facto rs p l ayed a p a rt in

causing the i ntro d u ction of the B l oody
Code? Write each one o n a l a rg e piece
of paper a n d space them out. Ad d a
sente n ce or two exp l a i n i n g h ow each
facto r was a cause.
2 D raw l i nes between any of the fa cto rs
that you t h i n k l i n k in some way o r

i n fl u e n ced o n e a n other. Write a
sente n ce exp l a i n i n g this l i n k a l o n g the
co n n ecti n g l i n e .
3 Loo k ca refu l ly at yo u r co m p l eted l i n k
m a p. I s it possi b l e t o i d entify the facto r

that had the m ost i m po rt a n ce?
4 Loo k back at the facto r card s you m a d e o n page 35. What information can you
add to yo u r existi n g cards, o r what n ew facto r card can you m a ke?
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Co ncerns a bout cri m e

Whatever the period, it seems i t i s human nature to see crime a s a serious problem.
However, as we saw when we looked at vagabondage (page 40), public perceptions and
attitudes do not always reflect the true picture. Even if crime was not rising, there was
plenty of evidence around to suggest it was !
Pamphlets often gave horrific and lurid details about robberies, murders, vagabonds and
the evil doings of witches. Executions were carried out in public, which had the effect
of publicising crime even further. Even the speeches made by those about to hang were
published for the public to read. We know today how sensational media reports of just one
awful crime can convince the public that crime is out of control.
Peo p l e on the m ove

Since the end of the Middle Ages, towns were growing in number and in size. This made
it harder to enforce the law using the traditional methods of the hue and cry and parish
constables. Such methods were based around village life and the idea that a person would
know all the people in their local area. In towns the streets were more crowded so it was
easier for criminals to commit crime and then escape detection.
In the Middle Ages, it was sometimes difficult for ordinary people to travel. By the time the
Bloody Code was introduced, better roads and cheaper horses meant more people were on
the move. This meant that ideas and news could travel with them and so spread
more quickly.
Protecting property
The MPs who passed the laws that made up the Bloody Code were all wealthy landowners
who were keen to protect their lands and privileges. They also felt that they had the most
to lose from crimes against property. As a result they passed laws that made punishments
for such crimes even harsher. This is not to say that all landowners were acting purely from
self-interest. Many of them believed that everyone, including the poor, suffered when laws
were broken.
Trad itio n a l views on p u n is h m e nt

For hundreds of years since Anglo-Saxon times, the trend in punishment had been to make
it ever harsher. The big idea was always that severe punishments were the most effective way
of controlling crime by acting as a deterrent. It was the only method that had been tried
and so remained a popular choice throughout this period.

It should be clear from this chapter that crime and
punishment in the period 1 5 0 0 -1700 shows both change
and continuity when compared with the Middle Ages.
However, sometimes the exam will ask you to think about
crime and punishment across more than just one time
period. For example :
'Punishments were terrifying and harsh in order to
deter criminals throughout the period c.1000-c. 1700.'
How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
Answering a question like this requires you to select

relevant information and to get a 'big picture' of the
thinking behind punishments.
Ste p 1 : Reca l l - class sticky- note re lay

cha l l e n g e
Split into small groups o fn o more than four. Your task
is to work together and come up with a list of all the
punishments used between c.lOOO and c.170 0 that you have
learnt about so far.
Write each punishment on its own sticky note and stick it
to the board or an area allocated by your teacher. Everyone
must take a turn writing a sticky note and sticking it up.
Only one member of the group can be out of their chair at
any one time. Your teacher will give you a time limit and the
group with the most sticky notes (no repeats) wins !
Step 2 : Knowledge Organiser

classifying the ideas behind punishments
Next, you need to organise your knowledge to help you
answer the question. If we stop and think about the
possible big ideas behind punishments over time, we might
come up with a list like this :
To
e To
e To
e To
deter
h u m i l iate
remove the cri m i n a l fro m society
reform (try a n d ch a n g e the cri m i n a l fo r the bette r)
_w_..y-
1 -1 -
Come together as a class and make a list of all of the

punishments you came up with and write these in your
books. Your list will be looking pretty long !
2 Now use the key to classify the different punishments
to show the big idea b ehind each one. Don't worry if
you need to underline some in more than one colour
and don't worry if you have used one colour more than
the others !
Ste p 3 : Writi n g yo u r a nswe r

Make sure you mention punishments that were meant to
deter but also any punishments intended to have other effects.
Remember that a good answer will make a judgement at the
end - was the main idea of punishments to deter
c.1000-c.170 0 ?
You are now ready t o answer the question. We have given
you a good deal of help, but you will find more guidance in
Writing Better History on pages 164-178 . And remember
add to and use your Word Wall!
Wo rd Wa l l
Here are some extra words you can add to the Word Wall
you made on page 30. They will help you write accurately
and with confidence. Look over your notes for the period
1 5 0 0 -1700 and see if you could add some red words of
your own.
Exp l a i n why the a u t h o rities took va g a bo n d a g e so

seriously i n t h e period c.1 500-c.1 700.
' L a n d ow n e r's attitudes were t h e m ost i m po rta nt fa cto r
affecti n g t h e d eve l o p m e n t of the B l oody Code i n t h e
1 680s.' H ow fa r d o you a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer.
Exp l a i n o n e way in w h i c h p u n is h m e n t i n m e d i eva l
E n g l a n d was s i m i l a r to p u n i s h m e nt in t h e seve nteenth
centu ry.
2
3
--1rl_j
---T T
B l oody Code
fi n es
h u m i l iation
tra nsportatio n
d eterre n ce
re move
retribution
corpora l
p u n ish ment
early modern
L.-
.L.-
ca pita l
p u n is h m e nt
stocks
I
sixteenth ce ntu ry
p i l l o ries
wh i p p i n g
refo rm
- com pensation
seventeenth ce ntu ry
3. 8 Visi b le lea rn i n g : Revise a n d rem e m be r

This i s the second time you have come across a page to do
with revision. We know that it is tempting to skip it and
worry about revision later ! However, take a look at these
two graphs. They should convince you that leaving revision
until just before your exam is not the way to success.
1 00
1 00 %
After
"'
day
54%
"'
u
QJ
"'
w a s re m e m bered.
u
QJ
a::
After
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week
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weeks
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21%
F i n ish l e a r n i n g
was re m e m be red .
35%
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Time
Lea r n a
to p i c
Graph 1 The Ebbinghaus Curve of Forgetting. That

sounds impressive but the graph is alarming. We forget the
detail of what we study very quickly.
.6.
.6.
Graph 2 How do you stop yourself forgetting?
Tech n i q u e 1 :
Re peat yo u r
m e m o ry m a p
Tech n i q u e 2 :
Set you r own q u estions
a n d test each oth e r
I n C h a pte r 2 you d rew a

m e m o ry m a p to h e l p you
reco rd t h e m a i n featu res of
cri m e a n d p u n i s h m e nt in t h e
M i d d l e Ages (see page 3 1 ) .
D raw a s i m i l a r m e m o ry m a p
fo r t h e period 1 5 00-1 700. T h i s
t i m e, use t w o d iffe re nt co l o u rs
to s h ow w h at were ch a n g es
a n d w h at were conti n u ities.
G o back ove r the work i n you r exe rcise

book (and pages 32-53) if n ecessa ry.
Write ten to fifteen knowledge-based
q u iz q u esti ons fo r someone e lse. M a ke
s u re that you a l so reco rd the a n swers
somewhere ! Yo u r q u estions co u l d be
m u ltiple choice, m u lti p l e sel ect, true or
fa lse, o r even req u i re s h o rt sente n ces as
a n swers. Use a m ix of q u esti o n types.
J u st by co m posi n g these q u esti o n s you
a re a l ready revis i n g key content. Swa p
yo u r q u esti o n s with s o m e o n e e l s e i n
yo u r class. H ave a g o a t t h e i r q u iz a n d
t h e n m a rk e a c h othe r's a n swers.
Tech n i q u e 3 :
Revise yo u r Big
Sto ry of cri m e a n d
p u n is h m e nt
it's rea l ly i m portant that you
kee p the Big Sto ry of cri m e a n d
p u n is h m e nt c l e a r i n yo u r m i n d .
Revise the story y o u to ld a t t h e
e n d o f C h a pter 2 o n p a g e 3 1 ,
b u t t h i s ti m e m a ke s u re you
b r i n g it up to d ate with what
you h ave l e a rned about cri m e
a n d p u n is h m ent 1 500-1 700.
,' 4
,Crim.e and pu nishm.ent in e i ghte e nt

a n d n i n etee nth- c e nt u ry Brit a in
T he p e rio d 1 7 0 0- 1 9 0 0 s aw s o m e massive changes to c r i m e
an d
pu nishm ent
I n the years a fte r 1 7 5 0 , Britain b e c a me the firs t c ou n t r y in t he w o rld to
i ndu s tr ia lis e . This not o nly chang e d the w a y p e o ple worke d , bu t it also had
a
huge e ffe c t on s o c iety itse lf. As you hav e
c hang e
so
seen
p rev iou s ly, when s o c ietie s
do p e o ple ' s attitudes tow ards crime and pu n i s h me nt .
C e ntu rie s -o l d ideas a bout u s ing s av age
to dete r w e re cha llenged a n d
corporal a n d
c ap it a l pu nis hments
dis cu s s ion b egan ab out t he b e st w ay to deal
w ilt h c rim inals . A ls o, fo r the fir s t time in his tory,
fu ll-time a nd pro fes s io n a l
p olice fo rce was e s ta b li s hed. S o what had b rou ght a b ou t the s e revohl tionar y
c hang es in c rime and pu nishment ?
inal moments
exec u t i o n s a ny m o re . I re m e m be r a
few yea rs a g o we'd see t h e m a l l of

t h e t i m e . N ow, h a rdly a ny c r i m e s
a re p u n i s h a b l e b y d eath .
People flocked to industrial

cities from rural villages. One
of the reasons for the high
crime rate was that it was
much easier for criminals to
go unrecognised in a crowd
of strangers.
..
4 C r i m e a n d pu n i s h m e n t in e i g h te e n t h - a n d n i n ete e n th - century Brita i n
LAW AND ORDER 1 7 0 0- 1 9 0 0 : OVERVIEW
1 Wo rk in p a i rs or s m a l l g ro u ps. Yo u h ave five m i n utes. What evi d e n ce ca n you fi n d in the
pictu re of:
a) d iffe rent types of cri m i n a l activity
b) d iffe re nt p u n i s h m ents
c) d iffe re nt fo rms of policing a n d/or cri m e p reve ntion
d) d iffe rent trials?
2 What c h a n g es and conti n u ities can you see w h e n you co m p a re this cri m i n a l m o m ent in
t i m e with the seve nteenth-centu ry sce n e o n pages 32-33?
3 Use yo u r existi n g know l e d g e of the n i n eteenth centu ry fro m Key Stag e 3, to s u g g est
poss i b l e reasons fo r the c h a n g es.
4 List a ny q u esti ons that these two pages raise about law a n d o rd e r i n the period 1 700-
1 900. Keep these safe and tick them off when you a n swer them as you work t h ro u g h the
rest of this secti o n .
Royal judges visited

counties four times a year.
They were experts in the
law. They judged serious
crimes. At the royal courts,
a jury was still used.
Prisons became an
important form of
punishment. Prisoners
either worked in silence,
or were kept separate
from each other. They
were given religious
instruction. The
authorities hoped that this
would help them reform.
4.2 Problem cri me 1 : W hy did hig hway rob bery

become suc h a serious cri me?
You have already discovered how the authorities feared heresy, vagabondage and witchcraft
in the period 1500 -1700. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries this had changed.
First, the religious uncertainty of the Reformation had passed with the last execution
for heresy in 1612. Second, the period 170 0 - 1 9 0 0 saw a general increase in wealth and so
fear of vagabondage greatly decreased. Finally, although belief in witches did not totally
disappear among ordinary folk, most educated people (who usually judged cases of
witchcraft) were less likely to believe such accusations and in 1736 the witchcraft laws were
finally repealed.
Cha n g i n g d efi n itions of cri m e

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the authorities became worried about
other types of crime, such as highway robbery and smuggling, which disrupted trade. Any
activities that threatened the interests of landowners or employers also came under close
scrutiny. The age-old crime of poaching became punishable by death, and even joining a
trade union was a risky business.
H ig hway ro bbery: I ma g e versus rea l ity

Highway robbery was not a new crime. It had its beginnings in the chaos caused by the
Civil War (1642-49), but by the early 1700s it had become infamous and in some areas
reached epidemic proportions.
Source A William Powell

Frith's 1860 painting, Claude
Duval. Claude Duval, a
famous highwayman, was
finally caught and hanged
at Tyburn (see page 50) in
1670. Duval was reportedly
polite and even charming
to his victims. His supposed
gentlemanly conduct
and fashionable clothes
made him a hit with the
ladies. In this picture he
encourages the wife of one
of his victims to dance and
in return lets her husband
keep a small amount of his
money. Although this idea
of 'gentleman' of the road
became popular in printed
pamphlets and broadsheets,
it was very far from the
reality.
Highway robbers were greatly feared by ordinary travellers and were regarded by the
authorities as a major disruption to trade. The worst areas for highway robbery were
around London on the main routes into the capital. Most highwaymen were ruthless and
nothing like the romantic image portrayed in the picture below. One highwayman cut out
a woman's tongue to stop her reporting him after his mask slipped!
4 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n e i g htee n t h - a n d n i n ete e n t h - ce n t u ry B rita i n
Why did hig hway ro bbery g row and then decl i n e?

Highway robbery grew as certain developments created more opportunity for the robbers.
However, later developments meant highway robbery declined just as quickly as it grew. The
boxes below give reasons for its growth and decline.
Road su rfa ces b e g a n to
i m p rove a n d coaches
beca m e m o re fre q u e nt
a s speeds i n creased .
M o re p eo p l e were
trave l l i n g i n t h e i r own
coaches.
H a n d g u n s h a d beco m e
easier t o o bta i n a n d
q u icke r t o l o a d a n d fi re.
O pen l a n d a ro u n d
London a n d oth er towns
was b u i lt on as the
popu lation expa nded.
T h e re we re m a ny
l o n e ly a reas outside of
towns a n d ro u g h roa d s
w h e re coaches h a d to
s l ow d own .
After wars e n d e d ,
s o m e d e m o b i l ised
s o l d i e rs stru g g l e d to
fi n d h o n est ways to
m a ke a l ivi n g .
H i g hwaym e n co u l d
h i d e a n d se l l t h e i r
sto l e n l o ot i n tave rns.
J Ps refu sed to
l i ce nse tave rns that
were fre q u e nted by
h i g hway m e n .
THE RISE AND FALL OF HIGHWAY ROBBERY

D raw yo u r own co py of the table b e l ow.
Reasons for g rowth of

hig hway robbery
Horses beca m e cheaper
to buy. Therefore, robbers
co u ld afford to set
th emse lves up to a m b ush
The b a n k i n g syste m
beca m e m o re
s o p h isticated ove r
t i m e a n d t h e n u m be r
o f b a n ks g rew. Fewe r
trave l l e rs carried l a rg e
a m o u nts o f m o n ey.
Stagecoaches were
i ntro d u ced with reg u l a r
sta g i n g posts w h e re
t i red h o rses co u l d be
c h a n g e d and trave l l e rs
co u l d rest fo r t h e n i g ht.
M o u nted patro l s
were s e t u p a ro u n d
Lo n d o n a n d h i g h
rewards e n co u ra g e d
i nfo r m e rs to re p o rt
on t h e activities of
h i g hway m e n .
Reasons fo r decl i n e
There was n o pol ice

force and loca l
consta bles did not track
criminals across cou nties.
H o rses beca m e
c h e a p e r t o buy.
2 Look at the information boxes on this page and use them to
fi l l in the table. Try to add a sentence of exp lanation to each

one. We h ave included a n exa m p l e to h e l p get you started.
3 Loo k ca refu l l y at the reasons i n yo u r co m p l eted table.
Which fa ctors we re m ost s i g n ificant i n b ri n g i n g about:

a) the g rowth of h i g hway ro bbery
b) the decl i n e of h i g hway ro bbery?
m o ving targets and m a ke

q u ick geta ways.
4.3 Problem cri me 2 : Was t he law too hars h

on poac hers?
Many historians describe poaching as a 'social crime' - an offence that many people do not
really regard as a crime. In other words, poaching was against the law but widely tolerated
by large sections of the community who thought the law unfair. However, the authorities at
the time took a very different view. The 1 723 Black Act made hunting deer, hare or rabbits a
ca pita l crime (punishable by death) . Anyone found armed, disguised or with blackened
faces in a hunting area was assumed to be poaching and could be executed. It is not
surprising that during the eighteenth century, some of the most unpopular laws were those
dealing with poaching.
The law i s u n fa i r ! lt i s t h e re
Poa c h i n g is a h a r m l e s s s p o rt, a
s i m ply to p rotect t h e i nterests
c o ntest to o u twit g a m ekeepers
of wea lthy l a n d ow n e rs .
u s i n g l o c a l k n owledge.
Poa c h ers a re j u st po o r fo l k w h o
ta ke t h e occa s i o n a l ra bbit o r
b i rd t o a d d to t h e pot.
s e l l i n g t h e occa s i o n a l ra bbit
j u st to m a ke e n d s m e et?
The p u bl i c h a ve sym pathy fo r

poa c h e rs a n d reg a rd t h e d eath
p e n a lty a s too h a rs h .
Source A Traditional claims made in defence of poaching.
CLAIMS AND COUNTER-CLAIMS

I m a g i n e y o u a re a n eig hteenth -centu ry j u d g e a n d h ave b e e n asked t o i nvestig ate the cri m e
o f poach i n g , as m a n y p e o p l e th i n k the l aws a re too h a rs h .
Use the i nfo rmation on page 61 to j u d g e the truth of each of the c l a i m s m a d e in the speech
b u b b l es above. M a ke yo u r own copy of the pictu re and leave space a ro u n d the outside. I n
o n e co l o u r, a d d su pporti n g evi d e n ce, then use a d iffe re nt co l o u r fo r evid e n ce that c h a l l e n g es
the c l a i m s .
The law
Why did they poach?
O n ly l a n d ow n e rs wh ose l a n d was
wo rth m o re than 1 00 a yea r co u l d
h u nt a n d t h ey co u l d h u nt a nywh e re.
1 0 0 was a huge s u m of m o n ey
a n d wo u l d h ave t a ke n a l a b o u re r
t e n years t o e a r n . La n d ow n e rs with
l a n d worth less than 1 0 0 a yea r a n d
te n a nts w h o rented co u l d n ot h u nt,
eve n on t h e i r own l a n d . Possess i n g
d o g s o r sna res t h a t m i g ht be u s e d
fo r h u nt i n g w a s p u n i s h a b l e b y a 5
fi n e o r t h ree m o nths i n p riso n .
S m a l l l a n d h o l d e rs a n d tena nts
fre q u ently i g n o red the law a n d
h u nted o n t h e i r o w n l a n d . M a ny
poached the odd rabbit fo r the
coo k i n g pot o r sold the occasi o n a l
p h easant t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e i r l ow
wages. T h e re was a l s o a m i n o rity
of bette r-off poachers who
h u nted fo r sport a n d t h e i r own
e nterta i n m e nt.
Who we re the
poach e rs?
M ost were p o o r, if o n ly
because m ost o rd i n a ry p e o p l e
we re p o o r at t h i s t i m e . T h e
m aj o rity of poach e rs c a u g h t by
g a m e keepers we re described
as l a b o u re rs, weavers, col l iers,
servants o r wo rkers i n oth e r
l ow- p a i d jobs.
The b lack ma rket

Fea r a n d loat h i n g
Faced with a rm e d g a m e ke e p e rs a n d t h e poss i b i l ity of
t h e death p e n a lty, s o m e poach e rs used vio l e n ce. I n
1 786, a Staffo rd s h i re fa rm l a b o u re r horsewhi p ped a
g a m e ke e p e r w h o tried to take h i s h a re . I n 1 792, two
poach e rs s h ot a g a m e keepe r's h o rse a n d t h e n a i m ed
t h e i r g u n s u p at h i s w i n d ow. Fortu n ate ly, t h e kee p e r
fa i l e d t o wa ke a n d l o o k o u t !
G a m e ke e p e rs a n d those who i n fo r m e d o n the poach e rs
fo r t h e rewards were g e n e ra l ly h ated . Vi l l a g e rs
fre q u e ntly p rovided a l i bis a n d l i e d i n co u rt to p rotect
poach e rs fro m convicti o n .
C o u rt reco rd s a re fu l l of m e n such as J o h n Lig htwood,

a Staffo rd s h i re l a b o u re r, w h o k i l led n e a rly 80 h a res in
1 764 befo re se l l i n g t h e m fo r 3 s h i l l i n g s a p i ece. S u c h
i n d ivid u a l s m a d e m o re fro m poach i n g t h a n t h ey e a r n e d
i n t h e i r day jobs.
Lig htwood was acti n g a l o n e a n d his effo rts were small
com p a red to the org a n ised g a n g s of poach e rs who
suppl ied the black market. Th ese g a n g s favou red
t h e deer pa rks a n d g a m e rese rves owned by wea lthy
l a n d owners. D e m a n d for g a m e g rew as the popu lation
i n creased and as people's d iet beca m e m o re
soph isticated. By se l l i n g their catch in the towns a n d cities,
cri m i n a l g a n g s of poach e rs cou l d m a ke very h i g h p rofits.
WEIGHING UP THE EVIDENCE - ARGUMENT TUNNEL

H istorians m u st be a b l e to see two sides of an a rg u ment before reach i n g a co n c l u s i o n .
Arg u m ent tu n n e l s a re a fu n w a y o f p ractisi n g this ski l l .
1
Form an a rg u ment tu n n e l with the people in yo u r class (two seated rows of e q u a l n u m bers
fa c i n g each a n other) . O n e row m u st a rg u e that poach i n g l aws were too h a rsh w h i l e the
oth e r m ust a rg u e the op posite. After 60 seco n d s of a rg u m e nt, o n e side m oves to the n ext
seat w h i l e the oth e r stays put so each has a n ew opponent to a rg u e with . Do this as m a ny
times as yo u r tea c h e r te l l s you or u ntil you a re back to the beg i n n i n g .
N ow m a ke yo u r own j u d g e m e nt a n d decide wheth e r t h e l a w was too h a rsh o n poachers.
F i n a l ly, which facto rs were m ost s i g n ificant i n i nfl u e n ci n g :
a ) t h e laws s u r ro u n d i n g poach i n g
b ) p u b l i c attitudes towa rd s poach i n g ?
4.4 Problem cri me 3 : W hy was smuggling la long ti me

uncontrolled / in t he eighteent h century?
Smuggling in the eighteenth century was a massive problem in coastal areas. Smugglers
brought tea, cloth, wine and spirits into the country without paying any import tax
(customs duty) on them. At a time when there was no income tax and duties were the main
source of government income, the authorities took smuggling very seriously indeed. Under
the Bloody Code (see pages 50-51) smuggling carried the death penalty.
Sou rce B Re p o rt to t h e
D u ke of R i c h m o n d , 1 749.
The sm ugglers reigned a
long time uncon trolled . . .
I f any of them happened to
be taken . . . no magistrate
in the county durst commit
him to gaol. If he did he was
sure to have his house or
his barns set on fire, if he
was so lucky to escape with
his life.
Source A Smugglers were often ruthless and were prepared to use violence to hold on
to their cargo or to escape capture . This picture shows the Hawkhurst gang seizing back
smuggled tea from the customs house at Poole in 1 747. In 1 748, a gang of smugglers in West
Sussex seized and murdered two customs officers. Both were tied to horses and dragged.
One of the unfortunate men had his 'nose and privities' cut off before the smugglers broke
'every bone in his body'. The second man was thrown into a well and then stoned to death .
A
The g ove rn m e nt response to s m u g g l i n g

I n 1748, the Duke o f Richmond was asked to smash the smuggling gangs. Thirty-five
smugglers were hanged for their crimes and a further ten died in gaol. Yet this came
nowhere near solving the problem, as it was reckoned there were at least 20,0 0 0 active
smugglers. Smuggling continued to flourish, partly because of the fear smugglers created
to deter any interference. However, there were other reasons why smuggling proved so hard
to stamp out.
WHY WAS SMUGGLING SO HARD TO STAMP OUT?
1
?,
Read the i nfo rmation on pages 62-63 a n d l ist as m a ny reasons as you can why the
g overn m e n t fo u n d it so d ifficult to sta m p s m u g g l i n g out. Use the headings b e l ow to h e l p
y o u o rg a n ise yo u r n otes :
Fet! Y of smLotgg Leys
The tlttYCICtOI!\.S
f SmLotgg LI!\.g
Oygt I!\.Sec;l g t l!\.gs
PLotbLc ttttLotc;les
lt was clear that the B l oody Code d i d l ittle to d ete r the s m u g g l ers. What advice wo u l d you
h ave g iven to the D u ke of Rich m o n d as the best way to red u ce s m u g g l i n g ?
I n 1 748, 1 03 p e o p l e were officia l ly 'wa nted ' a s

s m u g g l e rs. Over 7 0 p e r cent o f t h e m were l a b o u re rs ;
fewer t h a n 1 0 p e r c e n t were s m a l l l a n d ow n e rs a n d t h e
rest we re tra d e s m e n , such a s butch e rs a n d ca rpenters.
Wea lthy p e o p l e a l so t o o k p a rt i n s m u g g l i n g . Even

respecta b l e g overn m e n t m i n isters were k n ow n to h ave
s m u g g l e d w i n e i nto t h e co u ntry.
For l ow- p a i d l a b o u re rs, s m u g g l i n g was a q u i ck a n d

excit i n g way t o e a r n s i x o r seven t i m e s t h e d a i l y w a g e
i n j u st o n e n i g ht. I n S u ssex, w h e re tra d iti o n a l jobs such
as c l oth - m a k i n g a n d fis h i n g we re i n d e c l i n e, s m u g g l i n g
offe red a n a ltern ative l ivi n g .
O rd i n a ry peo p l e us u a l ly t u r n e d a b l i n d eye to
s m u g g l i n g . T h ey were h a p py to pay l ower p rices fo r
g o o d s a n d d i s l i ked t h e expe n s ive d uties i m posed by
t h e g overn m ent. Loca l s w h o h e l ped t h e s m u g g l e rs
carry g o o d s fro m s h i p to s h o re co u l d expect to earn
n e a rly twice the average l a b o u re r's daily wage.
S m u g g l i n g gangs co u l d be as l a rg e as 50 to 1 00 m e n .
T h e g a n g s were we l l a rm ed a n d h a d l itt l e fea r o f t h e
custo m s offi ce rs o r t h e a rmy.
The g a n g s co u l d m ove the g o o d s at speed a n d

s u p p l i ed a n etwo rk o f tra d e rs w h o were w i l l i n g t o se l l
tea, b r a n d y a n d oth e r s m u g g l e d g o o d s t o the p u b l ic. lt
was esti m ated that 3 m i l l i o n pounds w e i g h t of tea was
s m u g g l e d i nto B rita i n each yea r.
T h e re were very few customs office rs to enfo rce t h e

law a n d t h e g ove rn m e n t co u l d n ot affo rd to i n crease
t h e i r n u m b e rs.
THINKING ABOUT FACTORS
1 Which facto rs were m ost sig n ificant i n i nfl u e n ci n g :
a ) t h e g rowth o f s m u g g l i n g
b ) p u b l i c attitu d es towa rds s m u g g l i n g ?
2 Why m ig ht s m u g g l i n g , l i ke poach i n g , h ave been reg a rded as a soci a l cri m e by some
h istorians?
4.5 Problem cri me 4 : W hy were t he Tolpuddle Martyrs

punis hed so hars hly?
After the French Revol ution in 1789, when the French monarchy was overthrown and
thousands of people guillotined, the government became terrified of the same thing
happening in Britain. Fearful landowners and politicians viewed every protest as a
potential riot or uprising. Therefore, the authorities were on the lookout for signs of
conspiracy and for groups whose ideas they considered suspect.
They were particularly anxious about the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
(GNCTU), which aimed to bring all workers together to fight for better conditions. It was
not illegal to belong to a union, but employers disliked the idea of working people co
operating. Employers believed that by demanding better pay and conditions, unions
threatened their businesses and harmed their interests. The story of the Tolpuddle Martyrs
reveals much about these attitudes and how the definitions of crime were changing.
UNDERSTANDING THE STORY OF THE TOLPUDDLE MARTYRS

1
Why d i d the m e n of To l p u d d l e fo rm a u n io n in the fi rst p l a ce?
Af)
2 H ow were the men p u n ished and treated?
3 Which facto rs d o you think were m ost s i g n ificant i n infl u e n ci n g g ove r n m ent attitu des to
the To l p u d d l e M a rtyrs?
4 Why d i d the g ove rn m e nt c h a n g e the defi n ition of a cri m e to i n c l u d e the oath swo rn by the
To l p u d d l e M a rtyrs?
1 . Life was tough for

farm labourers in
the Dorset village
of Tolpuddle . Local
labourers , led by
George Loveless,
asked their employers
to increase their
weekly wage after it
had been cut several
times. The farm
owners refused,
before cutting wages
again!

<11111 2 . In 1833, the

labourers set up a
union, the Friendly
Society of Agricultural
Labourers . Each
man was blindfolded
and swore an oath of
secrecy and support
for the union.
4 C ri m e and p u n is h m e n t i n e i g htee n t h - and n i n ete e n t h - ce n t u ry B rita i n
T 4 . Even though joining a union was

not against the law, and they had not
threatened anyone or gone on strike ,
Loveless and five others were arrested.
They were sentenced to seven years'
transportation to Australia (see page 5 1)
A 3. Despite the oath of secrecy, the
local farm owners heard about the

union and set about breaking it up.
They used a law originally meant
to keep discipline in the navy. It
said that for sailors taking secret
oaths was illegal, as it could lead to
mutiny. The Government used the
law to include all secret oaths, thus
changing the definition of crime for
its own purposes.
.& 6. On 17 August, after a voyage of
1 1 1 days, the Tolpuddle men arrived

in Sydney harbour. They were forced
to walk to the farms where they
would work. One of the men, Thomas
Standfield, was aged over 50 and had to
walk 150 miles!
A 5 . The trade union movement

was badly hit by the sentence
and the GNCTU was broken up .
Speaking up for workers' rights
was clearly a risky business.
Employers celebrated.
T 7. In Britain, there was widespread

outcry at sentence. The men were
regarded as martyrs for union rights
and a campaign was organised against
their unfair treatment . At one meeting
in London, 2 5 ,000 people attended
and a petition demanding their
release was signed by 250,000 people .
.& 8 . Eventually, in March 1836, the
Government granted all six men a

pardon . However, it was another
two years before all the men were
able to return home . It was another
20 years before the trade union
movement began to recover.
4.6 How did society c hange in t he industrial period?

Britain experienced more social change during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
than at any other previous time. Although most of these changes were gradual, they
completely altered the way people lived their lives. It was only natural that this industrial
and social revolution had an effect on punishments and policing. The boxes on these pages
summarise these changes.
Po p u lation rise a n d
m ove m e nt
By 1 750 t h e re were a ro u n d 9. 5
m i l lion people living in England
a n d Wa les. M ost l ived i n
v i l l a g es scattered t h ro u g h o ut
t h e cou ntrys i d e . H oweve r, by
1 900 t h e p o p u l ation h a d risen
to 41 . 5 m i l l i o n and was m a i n ly
co ncentrated i n tow n s .
Wo rk
D u ring t h e eig hteenth centu ry,
m ost people had made a l iving
from fa rm work. By the end of
the n i n eteenth centu ry, most
people found employment in
workshops or factories. Work had
m oved into the towns and cities.
Voting rig hts

By t h e m i d - e i g hteenth centu ry,
o n ly o n e in every e i g h t m e n
co u l d vote . B y 1 8 85 n e a rly a l l
m e n h a d t h i s right. T h e refo re,
g overn m ents b e g a n to m a ke
i m p rove m e nts to h o u s i n g a n d
h e a lth, i n o rd e r t o w i n votes
fro m o rd i n a ry p e o p l e .
Ha rvests
By the n i n eteenth centu ry,
t h e re was less c h a n ce of p o o r
h a rvests ca u s i n g h i g h fo od
p rices o r sta rvati o n . Food
co u l d be i m p o rted cheaply a
q u ickly fro m oth e r co u ntries .
Trave l
Ed u cation
Wea lth and taxes
Tra n s p o rt u n d e rwent h u g e
ch a n g es d u ri n g t h e e i g hteenth
and n i n eteenth ce nturies. By the
1 840s, ra i l ways h a d beco m e a
m aj o r fo rm of trave l . Th ese were
m u ch faste r t h a n t h e roa d s a n d
g ra d u a l l y beca m e c h e a p e r so that
o rd i n a ry people co u l d affo rd to
use t h e m .
D u ri n g t h e eig hteenth centu ry, o n ly

a s m a l l m i n o rity of ch i l d re n atte n d e d
sch o o l . Rates o f l iteracy were l ow.
H oweve r, by 1 850, 70 per cent of the
popu lation co u l d rea d a n d write. This
rose to 95 per cent by 1 900, afte r a
law in 1 880 said that a l l ch i l d re n h a d
t o g o t o sch ool u nti l the a g e o f 1 3 .
Two ce nturies of tra d e a n d

i n d u stri a l g rowth m a d e B rita i n
a wea lthy cou ntry i n t h i s
period . D u ri n g t h e n i n eteenth
centu ry, t h e g ove r n m ent
co l l ected h i g h e r taxes, w h i c h
t h ey co u l d use to pay fo r
refo r m s that wo u l d i m p rove
p e o p l e's l ives .
G rowi n g acce pta n ce of

g ove r n m e nt i nvo lve m e nt
For ce ntu ries, B ritish p e o p l e h a d resisted any
g ove r n m e n t i nvo lve m e n t i n l o c a l affa i rs a s an
i nte rfe re n ce, w h i c h th reate n ed t h e i r fre ed o m .
H oweve r, b y t h e n i n ete enth centu ry, p e o p l e
b e g a n t o a ccept that t h e g overn m ent s h o u l d
h ave s o m e contro l ove r certa i n t h i n g s .
N ew ideas a bout h u m a n
natu re
D u ri n g t h e eig hteenth centu ry, n ew ideas
e m e rg e d a b o u t h u m a n n atu re . S o m e a rg u e d
t h a t i m p rov i n g p e o p l e's e d u cati o n , a l o n g with
t h e i r l iv i n g and worki n g co n d itions, m i g ht
e n co u ra g e bette r b e h avi o u r. By t h e m i d 1 8 00s, C h a rles D a r w i n d eve l o ped h i s t h e o ry
of evo l utio n . T h i s l e d s o m e p e o p l e to b e l i eve
that t h e re was a cri m i n a l class that was
s o m e h ow l ess evo lved than oth e r p e o p l e .
Read the changes i n each box carefully. Which o f these might have led to :
a)
b)
the development of a professional police force

different types of punishment?
Look again at the boxes. Which of our factors do these changes fit under?
Keep these discussions in mind as you work through the rest of this chapter and see if you
were right.
4.7 Case study: How far should we t han k Sir Robert

Peel for t he Metropolitan Police Force in 1829?
For hundreds of years, policing had been the responsibility of ordinary people in the local
community. However, in 1829, the very first professional and full-time police force was
established in London. The man responsible for the introduction of the first police force
was Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850 ) . Peel was also a supporter of penal refo rm
and was instrumental in making prisons the main method of punishment for serious
crimes (see page 76) . He also played a significant role in the abolition of the Bloody Code
(see pages 70-71) .
The Fie l d i n g b rothers

Peel was not the first to try to improve policing in the capital. Henry Fielding and his
brother John were London magistrates. After taking over at Bow Street Magistrates' Court
in 1748, they realised that more men were needed on London's streets to reduce crime.
T h e F i e l d i n g s b e l i eved
risi n g cri m e was the res u lt
of b re a kd own in o rd e r as
t h o u s a n d s fl ooded i nto Lo n d o n
t o m a ke a l iv i n g . They a l so
b l a m ed t h e bad exa m p l e set by
co rru pt po l itici a n s .
T h ey esta b l ished t h e
Bow Street Ru n n e rs,
a tea m of t h i ef-t a ke rs
w h o patro l l e d t h e
streets o f Lo n d o n i n
t h e eve n i n g s . They
a l so i nvestig ated
cri m es a n d p resented
evi d e n ce i n co u rt.
.t. Bow Street Runners in action, capturing two
muggers , 1806. Thanks to the Fielding brothers a

more organised system of preventing crime had
developed in London by 1800. However, there was
still no overall co-ordination of constables, watchmen
and runners. Many feared the cost of a police force
and worried the government might use it to limit
people's freedoms .
T h ey i ntro d u ced a horse patrol to

sto p h i g hwaym e n . T h i s effective ly
e n d e d h i g hway ro b b e ry a ro u n d
Lo n d o n . W h e n it sto p ped t h e
ro b b e rs retu rned ! I n 1 805 a n ew
patro l of 54 m e n was set u p .
T h e i r n ewspa p e r, Th e
Hue a n d Cry, p u b l i s h e d
i nfo rmation a b o u t cri m i n a ls,
c ri m e and sto l e n g o o d s .
M a g istrates a n d g a o l e rs
fro m a l l ove r t h e cou ntry
passed o n the d eta i l s, w h i c h
c reated a n atio n a l n etwo rk
of i nfo rmati o n .
Why was Pee l a b l e to set u p the M etro p o l ita n Po lice Fo rce i n 1 829?
The Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 replaced the system
of watchmen and parish constables. The new Metropolitan
Police Force had 3,200 men and opened the way for further
changes across the country. The uniform was designed to
look civilian rather than military and officers remained
unarmed to distinguish them from the army. This was to
reduce public fear that the police might be used to limit
their freedoms.
also given powers to raise their own taxes that could be

used to pay for a police force.
1 . The ro l e of Pe e l
4. Fea r of p rotest
Sir Robert Peel was appointed Home Secreta ry i n 1822 .

He was determined to improve people's lives by reducing
the amount of crime. Peel made use of statistics to paint
a picture of rising criminality. He was persuasive and
reassured fellow politicians that a police force was no threat
to freedom.
After the French Revolution governments and landowners

feared something similar might happen in Britain. High
food prices and unemployment led to many large-scale
protests after 1815. Revolution seemed a real possibility.
2. G ove rn m e nt a n d taxati o n
The rapid growth o f towns had made the use o f constables

and watchmen seem inadequate. These problems were
especially serious in London. There were too many people,
crammed into closely-packed houses and streets. Fear of
crime and revolution was strongest in the capital.
3. I n creased cri m e a n d i n c reased fea r of cri m e
There was widespread belief that crime, especially violent

crime, was on the increase. The crime rate had risen quite
sharply in the years following the French wars when
unemployment was a problem.
5 . Lo n d o n
Governments had become more involved i n people's lives.

The war with France (1803-1814) forced the Government
to raise more money through taxes. Local authorities were
HOW DID POLICING DEV ELOP AFTER 1829?
1 835 A n ew law s a i d towns were
a l l owed to set u p t h e i r own p o l i ce
fo rces.
1 839 A n ew law a l l owed co u nties to set
up t h e i r own p o l ice fo rces. Bow Street
R u n n ers a n d oth e r fo rces i n Lo n d o n
m e rg e d with t h e M etro p o l ita n Po l i ce.
1 842 The M etro p o l ita n Po l i ce set

u p t h e fi rst d etective fo rce to gath e r
evi d e n ce, i nvestig ate a n d s o l ve cri mes
afte r t h ey h a d been co m m itte d .
1 856 lt beca m e co m p u l s o ry fo r a l l
tow n s a n d co u nties t o set u p p o l ice
fo rces. By this time the p o l ice were
reg a rd e d with respect a n d n ot
suspicion by t h e p u b l ic.
1 870 Po l i ce h e l m ets were i ntro d u ce d .

1 878 T h e M etro p o l itan Po l i ce d etective
fo rce was reo rg a n ised i nto the Crim i n a l
I nvestigation Department (CI D). Over
t h e n ext few years this was ro l l ed out
across t h e rest of t h e cou ntry.
1 884 T h e re were 39,000 p o l ice i n
B rita i n a n d ove r 200 sepa rate fo rces.
WEIGHING UP THE IMPORTANCE OF REASONS

1
Loo k at the reasons fo r the d eve l o p m ent of the

M etro p o l itan Po l i ce Force o n this page. M a ke a g ra p h
l i ke the o n e o n the r i g h t a n d show the i m po rt a n ce of
each reason by a dj u sti n g the h e i g h t of its b a r.
M a ke s u re that you l a b e l each ba r on yo u r g ra p h with
a n exp l a n ation of how that reason co ntrib uted to the
deve l o p m ent of the pol ice i n 1 829.
Ve ry i m po rta nt
Q u ite i m po rta nt
2 Why do you t h i n k Peel was m o re su ccessfu l than the
F i e l d i n g b roth e rs i n esta b l is h i n g Lo n d o n 's fi rst pol ice

fo rce?
3 Why were 1 842, and later 1 878, t u rn i n g poi nts i n the
h i story of p o l i c i n g ?
Little i m po rtance -
Q;
4.8 W hy was t he Bloody Code abolis hed in t he 1820s

and 1830s?
You have already solved the puzzle ofwhy the Bloody Code was introduced at a time when
the crime rate was falling (see page 52) . Now it is time to solve a second mystery. Why was it
abolished in the 1820s and 1830s when the crime rate was rising and fear of crime was very high?
The Bloody Code was abolished by the reforms of Sir Robert Peel who was Home S ecretary
in the 1820s. Peel made key individual contributions to penal reform (see pages 76 -77) and
the establishment of the first full-time and professional police force (see pages 6 8 - 69) .
However, you know enough about history to realise there must have been further reasons
that allowed Peel to end the Bloody Code and make his other reforms.
KEY DATES IN THE ABOLITION OF THE B LOODY CODE
1 789 Last wo m a n b u rned fo r m u rd e r i n g h e r h u s b a n d
1 808 S i r S a m u e l Ro m i l ly g ets a l a w passed t h a t a b o l ishes the death pena lty fo r pickpocketi n g
1 820 Last b e h ea d i n g - o f t h e Cato Street co n s p i rato rs w h o h a d tried t o assass i n ate t h e
enti re g ove rn m e n t
1 820s-30s Abo l ition of n e a rly a l l capita l cri mes
1 841 O n ly m u rd e r a n d treason re m a i n ed capita l cri mes
1 868 T h e last p u b lic h a n g i n g took p l ace
WHAT REASONS DID PEEL HAVE FOR CHANGING THE LAW?

Peel faced considera b l e opposition from some M Ps when atte m pting to end the B loody Code.
M a ke you r own copy of the d i a g ra m below and use the i nfo rmation on pages 70-7 1 to add
reaso ns and evidence to each of the b l a n k speech b u b b l es t o h e l p Pee l refute these objections.
W e h a ve u sed p u b l i c exe c u t i o n a n d
h a rs h p u n i s h m e nts fo r h u n d reds o f
yea rs . T h e re a re n o a ltern atives.
We h a ve seen t h e bl oody blade of the

g u i l loti n e i n F ra n ce. This c o u ld h a p p e n
h e re if t h e p e o p l e reg a rd u s a s wea k
or if l a w a n d o rd e r brea ks down .
J u ries wo u l d not co nvict

Even in the early 1700s only 40 per cent of those convicted of capital crimes were actually
hanged. By the 1800s this had fallen to 10 per cent, despite an increase in the crime
rate overall.
I
Juries were frequently unwilling t o find people guilty

if they thought the punishment was unfair and out of
proportion to the crime. With courts unwilling to convict
them, criminals would feel even more confident of escaping
punishment, and so were more likely to commit crimes.
Therefore, the Bloody Code was actually undermining the
law and no longer protected the property of the wealthy
landowners and the middle class.
P u b l i c executions we re not wo rki n g

During the 1700s, the crowds at executions grew larger,
partly because newspapers publicised them more widely.
Some factories even closed on execution day so that the
workers could attend what had become cheap entertainment !
As crowds grew, the government felt that it was becoming
harder to keep order. There was always the danger of a
criminal escaping, especially if the crowd had sympathy or
felt them to be innocent. There was also an increased risk
of protest riots if there were mass hangings when offenders

had been sentenced to death for minor or social crimes.
I d eas a bout p u n ish m e nts we re

cha n g i n g
Throughout the eighteenth century there had been a
growing sense among philosophers and thinkers that
punishments were far too brutal. They argued that
lawmakers should ensure punishment actually fitted the
crime committed.
Politicians had already started to look at different ways of
punishing criminals. They hoped that these would be used
more regularly, and therefore prove to be more effective. By
the 1780s, transportation (see page 51) had emerged as the
main alternative to capital punishment. The majority of
those transported had originally been sentenced to death
and then had their sentences reduced.
Loo k back at the information on these pages. Which facto rs h e l p exp l a i n the a b o l itio n of the
B l oody Code?
.A. Source A A public execution
a t Tyburn (see page 5 0 ) , printed

in
1747.
London's magistrates
admitted in
1783 that 'all the aims
of public justice are defeated.

All the effects of example, the
terrors of death, the shame of
punishment, are lost . ' While
executions were carried out,
the crowds laughed and even
drank. Such mass gatherings
were perfect opportunities for
pickpockets who could escape
into the crowd. There was
even the occasional risk of the
condemned criminal being
rescued by a sympathetic
crowd.
4.9 Was transportation a success or a failure in t he

1820s and 1830s?
Transportation was the system by which convicted criminals were removed from the country
by being sent abroad. At first, the authorities had sent criminals to America, but after the
American colonies became independent in the 1770s, they had to look for an alternative.
Priso n e rs were fi rst sent

to h u l ks (see p a g e 75)
o r g a o l s u nt i l e n o u g h
were g a t h e red fo r t h e
voya g e . T h ey wo rked
in c h a i n s w h i l e t h ey
waite d . The voya g e
itself w a s u n p l easant
and cra m pe d , but by
t h e 1 830s o n ly a ro u n d
1 per cent d i ed d u ri n g
t h e fo u r- m onth trip.
They chose the newly discovered and little known land of Australia. In the early years the
voyage was a round trip of eighteen months, and the environment in Australia unforgiving.
The idea of sending people to an unknown land at the edge of the world sounded like an
excellent deterrent. Lawmakers believed transportation was going to be a success for the
following reasons. It would:
e
e
provide a punishment less harsh than hanging so juries will convict

be harsh enough to terrify criminals and deter them
reduce crime in Britain by removing the criminals
help claim the new land of Australia for Britain
reform criminals through hard work.
H ow d i d tra nsportatio n wo rk?

Once a criminal had been sentenced to transportation it could still take several months
before they finally arrived in Australia and begun a very different life.
O n a rriva l, convi cts

were assi g n e d to
settlers. T h e i r sente n ce
beca m e wh ateve r work
their m a ster g ave th e m .
T h e m a sters p rovi d e d
food, c l o t h e s a n d
s h e lter. G ood con d u ct
co u l d b ri n g a 'ticket of
leave' (early re lease) .
T h i s g ave priso n e rs a
m otive to b e h ave a n d
a sense o f o p p o rtu n ity
t h ey m i g ht n ot h ave fe lt
i n B rita i n .
Priso n e rs w h o
co m m itted fu rth e r
c r i m e s were fl o g g e d
o r sent t o m o re
d i sta nt sett l e m e nts
w h e re treatm e n t was
freq u e ntly h a rs h .
Priso n e rs w h o fa i l ed
to co m p l ete t h e i r
sente n ce a n d retu rned
to B rita i n with o u t a
'ticket of l eave' were
sente n ced to death .
_.. Source A Sweet Poll and Black-eyed Sue , two Plymouth prostitutes , bid farewell to their
lovers who are bound for Botany Bay in Australia, 1792 . The majority of those transported
were convicted thieves , and most had committed more than one offence . People who
had taken part in political protests were a small minority of those transported, but the
government regularly used transportation as punishment for such activities (see pages
64-65) . Only 3 per cent of those transported had been convicted of violent crimes.
Tra nsportation : For and Aga i nst

Transportation reached its height in the 1820s and 1830s.
The peak year was 1833 when 3 6 ships and 6,779 prisoners
were sent to Australia. However, by this time there were
In 1 8 1 0, the Lord Chie f

Just ice des crib ed
tra n s p o rtat ion as 'no m o re
t h a n a s u m m e r's exc u rs i o n to
a h a p p i e r a n d bett e r c l i m ate'
.
alia had
By th e 1 8 30s , A u str
ed
esta
a
n
e
m
_b l i sh
clea rly b e co
i re . N o
p
Em
ritish
B
e
th
of
pa rt
ely to try
oth e r co u ntry was l i k
it.
of
l
to cla i m co ntro
O n l y a m i n o rity of convict s chose to

ret u r n to B rita i n o n ce t h e i r sente n ce
was u p . M a n y too k t h e o p p o rt u n ity to
l ive pea cefu l a n d m o re res pecta b l e
l ives i n Austra l ia . Ofte n t h ey beca m e
res pected m e m b e rs o f t h e com m u n ity.
'
S i n ce tra n s p o rtati o n to
Au stra l i a had beg u n , the
cri m e rate i n B rita i n had
n ot fa l l e n . Rath e r it had
i n crea sed q u ite sha rply .
doubts about just how successful a punishment

transportation really was. The boxes below outline the
main arguments on both sides.
n the
M a ny j u ries fa i l e d to conv ict eve
th
dea
the
lt
fe
they
ause
.
g u i lty bec
e cnmes.
m
o
s
r
fo
rsh
a
h
too
was
lty
a
n
e
p
wil i n g
I n con tras t, t h e y wer e far m o re
ion.
rtat
o
p
s
n
tra
o
t
e
l
p
o
e
p
t o se nte n ce
alia had
Th e settle rs i n A u str
p rote st a a .m st
to
u
ps
g
ro
es ta b l i sh ed
victs i n th e i r .
th e 'd u m pi n g ' of con
to en d th e i d ea
ted
co u ntr y. Th ey wa n
l i a h _a d b ee n
u
stra
A
i
n
th at eve ryo n e
a cn m m a l .
tra n sp o rt ed th e re as
By t h e 1 83 0s, tra n s p o rtat ion

was cost i n g
h a l f a m i l l i o n p o u n d s eve ry yea
r _ an
e o r m o u s a m o u n t of m o n ey
at t h e t i m e .
Pnso ns i n B rita i n we re b e i n g
used m o re
fre q u entl y i n stea d, pa rtly bec
ause t h ey
we re chea p e r to ru n .
'
I n 1 85 1 , g o l d was
d isco ve red i n Aus tra l i a .
A gold rush began a n d
thousands o f people in
B rita i n tried t o fin d t h e
m o n ey t o p a y fo r t h e
j o u rn ey th e re.
./
By the 1 830s, wages i n Au stra l i a

were actu a l ly h i g h e r than those i n
B rita i n . T h e refo re, tra n s p o rtati o n
was seen a s m o re of a n o p p o rtu n ity
th a n a p u n i s h m ent o n ce priso n e rs
had won a 'ti cket of l e ave'.
The e n d of tra nsportation

Transportation began to decline in the 1840s. Prisons were
being used far more widely (see pages 74-75) and in 1857
transportation was finally brought to an end, largely due to
pressure from settlers. The government needed to keep

them happy to maintain control over this far-flung part of
the empire.
WEIGHING UP THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF TRANSPORTATION

1
M a ke yo u r own co py of the table b e l ow a n d use the i nfo rmation on pages 72-73 to fi l l in the seco n d co l u m n .
Reason for transpo rtation
How fa r was this a i m achieved?

Give evidence for you r judgement
it wou l d p rovide a p u n i s h m ent less h a rsh than h a n g i n g so j u ries

w i l l convict.
it wou l d be h a rs h e n o u g h to te rrify cri m i n a l s and d eter t h e m .
it wou l d red u ce cri m e i n B rita i n b y re m ov i n g the cri m i n a l s .
it wou l d h e l p c l a i m t h e n ew l a n d o f Au stra l i a fo r B rita i n .
it wou l d refo rm cri m i n a l s t h ro u g h h a rd work.
2 Who was transportation m o re su ccessfu l fo r - the g overn m ent o r the priso n e rs? Exp l a i n yo u r reasons.
3 Write a b rief exp l a n ation s u m m a rising the reasons why transportation was e n d ed i n 1 857.
.,
4.10 W hen was t he worst ti me to be in 1Ciin k1

1
1700-1900?
During the eighteenth century prisons played only a minor part in the system of punishment.
Houses of Correction dealt with vagabonds and prostitutes but generally prisons were only
used as a place to house criminals awaiting trial or to lock up people in debt. A survey in 1777
showed there were only 4,00 0 people in prison in England and Wales and that 60 per cent
were debtors. However, over the next 100 years there were three major changes:
1
Imprisonment became the normal method of punishing criminals
By the mid-nineteenth century, prison had replaced capital punishment for serious
crimes, except murder.
Prisons became important as the reasons for punishment changed
For hundreds of years punishments had taken place in public to terrify and deter others
from committing crimes. By 1800 it was clear that public executions did not stop crime.
Therefore, punishments began to focus on reforming the criminal.
The huge increase in prisoners led to the government taking over the whole
prison system
In the 1700s prisons were locally run with no rules about their organisation. By the
1870s government inspectors checked prisoners' work, diet, health and every other
aspect of prison life.
KNOWLEDGE ORGANISER: HOW DID PRISONS CHANGE?

Re m e m be r o u r cri m i n a l ch u m
To m t h e 'tea-leaf' (see p a g e 4)?
You a re g o i n g to fi n d out m o re
about the ch a n g es to prisons
a n d decide when wou l d be
the wo rst (and the best) time
fo r To m to be locked u p or 'in cl i n k' as it was ca l l e d .
1
If I wa s b e i n g s ent
d o w n , w h e n wo u ld be
t h e worst t i m e, G u v?
M a ke yo u r o w n co py o f t h e
Know l e d g e O rg a n iser
b e l ow.
Prison system
O l d prison syste m
Positives from Tom's point

of view
Neg atives from Tom's

point of view
G ood p l a ce to pick u p
tips a n d new cri m i n a l s ki l l s
as convi cts were m ixed
tog eth e r.
D i sease was co m m o n .
Yo u h a d t o pay t o s e e a
d o ctor.
After t h e fi rst refo r m s of t h e

G a o l s Act, 1 823
T h e sepa rate syste m , 1 830s
onwa rd s
T h e s i l ent syste m , 1 8 60s
onwa rd s
2 Use the information on page 75 to fi l l i n the seco n d row of the table. We h ave added
some exa m p les to help g et you sta rted.
The o l d p riso n system

In the early 1800s, most prisons were run along the same lines as centuries before, and
conditions had remained largely unchanged.
All prisoners were housed

together. Hardened criminals
mixed with first-time offenders,
debtors, lunatics, women
and children. Stories were
exchanged and future plans
made. There was a concern that
prisons were 'schools for crime'.
Prison wa rd e rs were unpaid.
They had to earn their money
by charging the prisoners
fees. If you were well offyou
might be able to afford your
own cell, good food, beer,
tobacco, visitors and even a pet!
Prisoners had to pay a fee to be
released. Those who could not
afford this continued to suffer
behind bars.
The poor relied on local
charities to pay their fees
and life was grim. While the
wealthiest could afford their
own rooms, the poorest lived
in the most overcrowded
conditions. At Newgate Gaol,
275 of the poorest prisoners
lived in an area designed for
just 150.
Prisoners even had to pay to see
a doctor. This was a problem
because prisons were damp,
dirty and unhealthy. What was
called 'gaol fever' (probably
dysentery or typhus) killed
many inmates.
S o u rce A Reco n s t r u c t i o n of a p r i s o n c e l l in N o tt i n g h a m G a o l . T h e re w o u l d be t h re e
p r i s o n e rs l o d g e d i n a c e l l t h i s s i z e . S u c h ove rc rowd i n g was t y p i c a l f o r a l l b u t t h e
wea lt h i est i n m a t e s .
Sou rce B P r i s o n h u lks we re i n t ro d u ce d as a s h o rt-term s o l u t i o n i n t h e 1 7 7 0 s w h e n

t ra n s p o rt a t i o n to A m e ri c a s u d d e n ly sto p p e d (see p a g e 7 2 ) . T h e s e w e re o l d a n d u s u a lly
rot t e n f o r m e r wa rs h i ps . C o n d i t i o n s we re as b a d as t h e w o rst p r i s o n s . P r i s o n e rs we re
kept in i rons m ost of t h e t i m e a n d t h e d e a t h rate f r o m d is e a s e was d re a d f u lly h i g h .
Afte r the fi rst p rison refo rms, 1 820s

It was clear that the harsh punishments of the Bloody Code were not working (see pages
70 -71) and that crime was increasing. People began to look at prisons as an alternative and
the government began a programme of major penal reform. In 1823, the Home Secretary, Sir
Robert Peel (see page 68) passed a new set oflaws known as the Gaols Act. Although the Act
only applied to around 130 of the biggest prisons, and was ignored in some prisons, it was an
important step in improving conditions. The main changes are summarised below.
Pri s o n e rs s h o u l d be sepa rated

i nto g ro u ps s o that h a rd e n e d
c ri m i n a l s a re n ot m ix i n g with
fi rst-ti m e offe n d ers.
Male and fe m a l e p r i s o n e rs
A l l p r i s o n e rs s h o u l d h a ve
a re to be sepa rated . Wo m e n
proper fo od, th o u g h t h ey
s h o u ld h a ve fe m a l e wa rd ers.
ca n no l o n g e r keep pets !
Pri s o n wa rd ers a n d
g ove r n o rs a re t o b e pa i d .
A l l p r i s o n ers s h o u ld atte n d
T h ey s h o u l d n o l o n g e r rely
c h a p e l a n d receive re l i g i o u s
o n p r i s o n ers pay i n g fees.
i n st r u c t i o n from t h e c h a p la i n .
Pri s o n s m u st be h ea lthy,
with proper fre s h water
visit p r i s o n s i n t h e i r a rea a n d
s u p p ly and a d equate
check u p on them.
d ra i n a g e.
.._ Robert Peel's Gaols Act , 1 8 2 3 . The new
idea behind these changes was to reform the

prisoners - to make them into better people so
less likely to re-offend.
ADDING TO YOUR KNOWLEDGE ORGANISER

Use the i nfo rmation on this page to fi l l in the t h i rd row on the table you sta rted on page 74 .
.,
The ro l e of the reformers

For the first time in history, the Government had begun to build prisons and take an
interest in how these were run. Peel was heavily influenced by the ideas of penal reformers
John Howard and Elizabeth Fry. As Home Secretary he was well-placed to finally put these
ideas into practice .
JOHN HOWARD, 1726-1790
e
e
H ow a rd beca m e i n te rested in prisons w h i l e he was

S h e riff of Bedfo rd s h i re. He i n s p ected p risons
i n Bedfo rd s h i re and was s h ocked by what h e
fo u n d .
Afte r to u ri n g oth e r prisons a ro u n d t h e
co u ntry h e p u b l is h e d a re p o rt i n 1 7 7 7 : Th e
State of Prisons in Engla n d a n d Wa les.
The re port was deta i led a n d h i g h l i g hted

the p ro b l e m s with the old prison syste m
(see p a g es 74-7 5 ) . H e stro n g ly attacked
t h e fees that priso n e rs h a d to pay.
H i s p roposa l s fo r i m p rove m e nt i n c l u d e d
h e a l t h i e r acco m m odation, t h e s e p a ration
of priso n e rs, a decent d i et and bette r prison
g u a rd s .
H oweve r, d u ri n g h i s l ifet i m e, H ow a rd was criticised
fo r bei n g too l e n ient.
ELIZABETH FRY, 1780-1845

e
e
e
e
e
Fry was a Quaker with a stro n g re l i g i o u s

backg ro u n d . O u a ke rs b e l i eve t h a t t h e re i s
s o m eth i n g of G o d i n eve ryo n e, a n d so it
fo l l ows that t h ey c a n be refo r m e d .
S h e visited w o m e n i n N ewg ate p r i s o n a n d
w a s h o rrified at what s h e fo u n d . Th ree
h u n d red wo m e n , s o m e with babies o r
s m a l l ch i l d re n , were cra m m ed i nto t h ree
roo m s a m i d s h o u ti n g and fi g h ti n g . Fry
witnessed two wo m e n tea ri n g c l othes
fro m a d e a d b a by to put o n a living o n e .
S h e h i g h l i g hted t h e poor l i v i n g co n d it i o n s
a n d t h e exp l o itati o n o f wo m e n p riso n e rs
by t h e m a l e prison warders.
She e n co u ra g e d oth e r O u a ke rs to visit
prisons and offe r assista n ce, and set u p
p raye r g ro u ps fo r t h e wo m e n i n o rd e r to
g ive re l i g i o u s i n structi o n .
S h e set u p a sch o o l fo r t h e c h i l d re n a t N ewg ate a n d ta u g ht t h e m usefu l work l i ke sewi n g
a n d kn itti n g t o g ive t h e m a m e a n s t o su rvive w h e n re l eased .
S h e h a d a b i g i n fl u e n ce on t h e 1 823 G a o l s Act. H oweve r, by t h e 1 840s, Fry was
criticised by some a s b e i n g too l e n ient.
WHO HAD THE MOST IMPACT ON PRISON REFORM?

1
Describe H oward 's m a i n ideas.
2 Describe Fry's main ideas.
3 Where can you see evid e n ce of t h e i r ideas i n the 1 823 Gaols Act?
4 Exp l a i n w h i ch of the two had the m ost i m pact on p rison refo rm d u ri n g t h e i r lifeti me.
5 Pee l clea rly p l ayed a m aj o r pa rt i n tu r n i n g H oward a n d Fry's ideas into rea l ity. Loo k back at
the socia l ch a n g es on pages 66-67. Which of th ese do you t h i n k m a d e it poss i b l e fo r Pee l

t o i m p l e m e n t t h e s e refo rms?
Pe nto nvi l l e a n d the sepa rate system
Source C A plan of
Pentonville prison . The

blocks are like spokes from
the centre so that fewer
guards were needed to
supervise the prison .
B etween 1842 and 1877 the government built 90 new prisons in Britain. The first of these
was Pentonville, which provided the model for the others. Pentonville was built to deal
with the increased number of serious criminals who were no longer being transported or
executed for their crimes. Pentonville was set up not simply to deter; it aimed to reform the
inmates that passed through its doors.
H ow the s e p a rate syste m wo r ke d
Source D Prisoners
exercising at Pentonville .
They wore masks so that
they could not see anyone
and held a rope knotted at
4 . 5m intervals to prevent
them communicating with
the other prisoners .
Prisoners spent nearly all of their time alone and in their cells. Contact with other
prisoners was made as difficult as possible. The main idea was to keep them away from the
wicked influence of other prisoners. By being kept alone prisoners would reflect on their
crimes. All this was backed up by religious instruction so that prisoners might live more
honest and Christian lives once released. Sources D and F show how the separate system
operated at Pentonville.
<11111 Source E Prisoners
attending the chapel at

Pentonville. The chapel was
built so that each prisoner
was boxed in. They could not
see the other prisoners but
could see the chaplain.
<11111 Source F A cell in

Pentonville , with a hammock
for sleeping and a weaving
loom for the prisoner to
work on. Prisoners were
put to useful work to show
that hard work and effort
could make them productive
citizens. It was hoped that
once released they would
seek honest employment
rather than a return to
crime .
Why might the separate

system have been bad
for the mental health of
the prisoners?
Stre n gths a n d we a kn esses o f t h e s e p a rate syste m

The separate system effectively isolated prisoners for the whole of their sentence. This
ensured prisoners could no longer mix and negatively influence one another. It ended the
fear that prisons were acting as 'schools for crime'. However, in practice the separate system
effectively placed inmates in solitary confi n e m e nt. The results of this were quite shocking.
In the first eight years at Penronville, 22 prisoners went mad, 26 had nervous breakdowns
and 3 committed suicide.
The separate system also proved costly in other ways. It required inmates to be housed in
separate cells and this added to the cost of building and running prisons.
ADDING TO YOUR
KNOWLEDGE
ORGANISER
Use the information o n

th ese p a g e s t o fi l l i n the
t h i rd row o n the table you
sta rted o n page 74.
Th i n g s g et to u g her: The si l e nt
system
By the 1860s, few people were being hanged, and
transportation had ended in 1857. Therefore, prisons
had become the main method used to punish the
most serious offenders.
Although crime was actually falling in this period,
certain high-profile crimes created fear among the
public. Popular and cheap booklets, known as Penny
Dreadfuls, told lurid tales of violent crime and
increased public fears that not enough was being
done to deter the criminal classes. A good example
of this was the panic stirred up by the media over the
so called 'garroting crisis' (see Source G ) .
Source
G Garrotters lying in wait , 1863. Garroting involved partly

strangling the victim so that he or she could be robbed easily. There
were a few cases , then in 1862 an MP was garrotted near the House
of Commons . Newspapers stirred up an outcry, blaming criminals
who had won early release from prison for good behaviour. This led
the Government to introduce a harsher regime in prisons .
There was a growing belief that there was an

identifiable 'criminal type' who was thought to be
physically recognisable and less evolved than the rest
of society. These 'criminal types' could not be
reformed, only deterred by tougher prisons. The
Government responded by introducing much
tougher regimes in prison and at the centre of this
was the 'silent system':
Priso n e rs were
expected to be
s i l e nt at a l l t i m e s .
B re a k i n g t h i s r u l e
co u l d res u l t i n
b e i n g w h i pped o r
b e i n g put o n a d i et
of b read a n d wate r.
Food was
described a s
' h a rd fa re'. lt w a s
a d e q u ate but
m o n oto n o u s . The
s a m e menu every
d ay, yea r in a n d
yea r out.
H a rd wood e n
b u n ks re p l a ced
h a m m ocks to sleep
on. T h i s was k n own
as ' h a rd boa rd ' a n d
w a s d e l i b e rate l y
u n comfo rta b l e .
Priso n e rs were
expected to t a ke
p a rt i n ' h a rd l a bo u r'
- d e l i b e rate ly
p o i n t l ess work fo r
seve ra l h o u rs
every d ay.
FINISHING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Source H A prisoner working the crank in his cell . Prisoners were
expected to turn the crank handle up to twenty times a minute,

10,000 times a day, for over eight hours. If a guard tightened a
screw, it made the crank harder to turn. This led to guards being
nicknamed 'screws'. Some prisoners had to walk a giant treadmill or
unpick lengths of old ships' tarred rope to make string.
ORGANISER AND MAKING A
DECISION
1
Use the i nfo rmation on this page to fi l l in the fi n a l

row o n the t a b l e y o u sta rted o n p a g e 74.
2 N ext, use yo u r co m p l eted table to m a ke a n
ove ra l l decision about w h e n t h e wo rst a n d best

times were fo r To m the 'tea-l eaf' to be 'in c l i n k'.
M a ke s u re you g ive reasons.

You know that great changes to prisons took place in the nineteenth century, beginning
with the Gaols Act of 1823. However, knowing how prison changed is only part of the
story. You must also consider the reasons why prisons changed. Just listing or describing
these reasons is not enough. You must be able to 'prove' why that reason was important by
explaining the effect it had. Try answering the following question using the steps below.
Explain why there was so much change to prisons during the period 1700-1900.
Ste p 1 : Descri bing a n d exp l a i n i n g

Usually you would organise your answer into paragraphs - each paragraph describing a
reason and explaining the effect it had. To help you do this, make a copy of the table and
use the statements below it to fill in the blanks.
Reason
Descri be reason
Exp l a i n how reason led to a cha nge
Risi n g cri m e
T h e refo re, t h e g ove rn m e n t b e g a n reform i n g

p risons t o t r y t o red u ce offe n d i n g .
B l o ody C o d e w a s n ot
worki n g
Existi n g prisons were
i n effective
Priso n e rs m ixed togeth e r. Fi rst-t i m e

offe n d e rs were th rown togeth e r with
exp e ri e n ced cri m i n a l s.
T h i s l e d critics t o d escribe p r i s o n s a s 'sch o o l s fo r

cri m e'. C h a n g es we re needed to stop priso n e rs
co m m itti n g fu rth e r cri m es w h e n re l eased.
Ro l e of t h e g ove rn m e n t
was ch a n g i n g
Ro l e o f t h e refo r m e rs
Th erefore, p u b l i c executions were no l o n g e r a deterre n t . Furthermore, t h e g ove r n m e n t
feared t h e risk of riot, w h i c h m i g ht lead to revolut i o n . An a lternat ive form of p u n i s h m e n t
w a s needed .
I n d ivi d u a ls l i ke J o h n H oward a n d Elizabeth Fry believed p risoners could be refo rmed
through h a rd wo r k a n d re l i g i o u s i nstruct i o n .
Th i s resu lted i n t h e g ove r n m e n t havi n g t h e n e cessa ry f u n d s to i m p rove exist i n g p risons a n d
b u i ld n ew ones.
The g ove r n m e n t was beco m i n g m o re i nvo lved i n eve ry
aspect of society a n d h i g h e r taxes were b e i n g ra ise d .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
The n u m be r of t h efts a n d violent c r i m es rose betwe e n 1 8 2 0

a n d 1 8 5 0 . T h e re was also a n i ncreased fear of crime.
Th i s p rovi ded t h e gove r n m e n t with i d eas a b out what

c h a n g es could be made to help i m p rove p risoners' lives.
P u b l i c executions had become a form of enterta i n m e n t . They

we re rowdy a n d could attract large c rowds.
Ste p 2 : Writing a concl usion

A good conclusion makes the overall argument clear - it
does not need to repeat everything you have already written.
Make it clear which reason you think played the most
important role in the changes to prisons.
3
4
5
6
Exp l a i n o n e way in w h i c h t h e a i m s of p u n is h m e n t were

s i m i l a r i n t h e l ate n i n eteenth centu ry a n d t h e l ater
M i d d l e Ag es.
Exp l a i n o n e way i n w h i c h p o l i c i n g m et h o d s were
d iffe re nt i n t h e n i n eteenth centu ry a n d t h e later M i d d l e
Ag es.
Exp l a i n why t h e re were c h a n g es i n m et h o d s of
p u n i s h i n g c ri m i n a l s i n t h e period c.1 700 to c.1 900.
Exp l a i n why t h e re were c h a n g es to p o l i c i n g i n t h e
period c.1 700 to c.1 900.
'The ro l e of Robert Pee l was t h e m a i n reason fo r t h e
d eve l o p m e nt o f t h e fi rst p o l ice fo rce i n 1 829.' H ow fa r
do you a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer.
' Refo rm was t h e d rivi n g fo rce b e h i n d t h e c h a n g e s
m a d e t o p u n is h m e n t i n t h e n i n eteenth centu ry.' H ow
fa r do you a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer.
4.1 2 Visi b le Lea rn i n g : Revise a n d re m e m b e r

It should b e clear by now that the period 170 0 - 1 9 0 0 saw dramatic changes
to crime and punishment. Therefore, this is a good opportunity to revisit
the factors affecting crime and punishment.
Tech n i q u e 1 : Ro l e of i n d ivid u a l cha rts - Ro bert Pee l

Yo u m ay h ave n oticed that i n t h e period 1 700-1 900 certa i n key i n d ivid u a ls, i n c l u d i n g Ro b e rt Pee l , p l ayed a ro l e i n t h e
d eve l o p m e nt of cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent. lt w i l l be m u ch easier to revise t h e i r ach ieve m e nts if you use t h e s a m e k i n d of
c h a rt fo r each o n e . T h e exa m p l e b e l ow a n d t h e q u esti o n s a ro u n d it wi l l h e l p you create c h a rts fo r oth e r i n d ivid u a ls, but
d on ' t b e a f ra .1 d to t h .1 n k fo r you rse If a b out w h at you want to .mc I u d e.
M a ke s u re you get the

basic chronology right. "'
1-Briefly d escribe their

contri bution/activities.
Robert Peel, 1 788-1 850
....
T i m e period: 1 7 00- 1 900
......
T i m e active: 1 820s a n d 1 830s
Key contr i b u t i o n :
I ntro d u ced t h e fi rst p o l i ce force in Lo n d o n - t h e M etropo l itan

Police - i n 1 82 9 .
Think a bout what their

immed iate im pact
was on cri m e a n d
p u n is h ment. Did it
change things at the
time?
_..
Refo rmed a n d i m p roved prison syste m .
Passed l aws e n d i n g t h e Bloody C o d e .
C o ntri b uted t o p e n a l refo rm w i t h t h e G a o l s A c t o f 1 82 3 .
S h o rt-term i m pact:
Lo n g e r-term i m pact:
Po l i ce forces esta b l i s h e d
a c ross country .
lt is im portant to
narrow this down when
considering the role
they played .
Did their contribution

lead to other changes
later on? What other
aspects of crime a n d
p u n i s h m e n t changed
as a resu lt?
Think about any other

factors that made the
Prisons beca m e m a i n form
contribution of the
of p u n i s h m e n t for serious
individual possible or
crimes.
that also infl uenced
cha nge. For exam ple,
W h a t o t h e r factors played a role?
- 1-- other key individuals
like Fry and Howard
gave Peel the necessary
ideas for his prison
reforms. Increased
revenue from taxation
allowed government
N ow go back a n d m a ke s i m i l a r cha rts fo r a ny oth e r i n d ivid u a l s you th i n k were i m porta nt to cri m e
and lawmakers to pay
a n d p u n i s h m ent. You cou l d consider Fry a n d H oward on p a g e 77, or g o even fu rth e r b a c k by
for a police force.
looki n g at M atth ew H opkins (pages 44-45) a n d even Wi l l i a m the Con q u eror (pages 20-21 ) .
Detective force formed .
Tech n i q u e 2 : Re peat you r m e m o ry m a p

I n C h a pters 2 a n d 3 you d rew a m e m o ry m a p to h e l p you reco rd t h e m a i n featu res of
cri m e a n d p u n i s h m e nt in the M i d d l e Ages a n d the period 1 5 00-1 700. D raw a th i rd
m e m o ry m a p fo r t h e period 1 700-1 900. O n ce a g a i n , use two d iffe re nt co l o u rs to s h ow
what were ch a n g es a n d what we re conti n u ities .
Tech n i q u e 3: Tesse l l ate ! App reciate ! Accu m u late !

U s i n g h exa g o n s can be a g reat way of reca p p i n g a n d
revisi n g p revi o u s l y l e a rnt content. T h e advanta g e of
h exa g o n s is that they can (get ready to m a ke yo u r
m a th e m atics tea c h e r proud) tesse l l ate - fit tog eth e r. T h i s
i s a usefu l w a y o f s h owi n g h ow fa ctors l i n k to c h a n g e s a n d
s o m et i m e s l i n k to each oth e r.
Step 1
p e r i o d ? N ext, exp l a i n l i n k 2 i n t h e s a m e way. Yo u ' l l n otice

that t h e outer facto r h exa g o n s a re a l so to u c h i n g - that
m e a n s l i n k 3 a l so needs exp l a i n i n g !
Ste p 2
Try a d d i n g s o m e m o re facto r h exa g o n s, but re m e m be r you

m u st exp l a i n any l i n ks that you m a ke. H e re a re t h e fa cto rs
you co u l d u s e :
Sta rt with t h e g rowth of h i g hway ro bbe ry. Write t h i s

o n a h exa g o n a n d a d d fa cto r h exa g o n s t o t h e outside
if t h ey help to exp l a i n it. Altern ative ly, you co u l d m a ke
b i g h exa g o n s a n d do t h i s as a g ro u p . We h ave sta rted
you off to g ive you s o m e i d e a . Exp l a i n l i n k 1 - h ow d i d
co m m u n icati o n s a n d trave l affect h i g hway ro b b e ry i n t h i s
Ste p 3
N ow see what you co m e u p with w h e n you put each of t h e
fo l l owi n g ch a n g es i n t h e centra l h exa g o n :
e
G rowth of s m u g g l i n g
H a rs h l aws a g a i n st poach e rs
T h e a b o l ition of the B l oody Code
Prison refo rm
e T h e creati o n of a p rofessi o n a l p o l i ce fo rce
Yo u co u l d stick yo u r fi n is h e d h exa g o n s in yo u r book a n d

write t h e l i n ks a ro u n d t h e outside. Altern ative ly, i f u s i n g
b i g h exa g o n s a n d worki n g i n g ro u ps, u s e sticky n otes to
exp l a i n t h e l i n ks you m a ke. Yo u co u l d t h e n take a d i g it a l
p h oto a n d s t i c k a co py i n yo u r b o o k .
Tech n i q u e 4: Play a g a m e
B e l ow a re a l i st o f key te rms, eve nts a n d i n d ivid u a l s fro m t h e period 1 700-1 900. I n p a i rs, co py these o nto i n d ivid u a l
ca rd s . Swap these with a n ot h e r p a i r i n yo u r class.
N ext, d iv i d e t h e c a rd s eq u a l ly betwee n you and yo u r pa rtn e r. Sit back to back and take t u r n s at d escri b i n g what is o n t h e
ca rd with o u t u s i n g a ny o f t h e w o r d s writte n o n it. M ove o n w h e n yo u r pa rtn e r su ccessfu l ly i d e ntifies what i s writte n o n
t h e ca rd .
F i n a l ly, retri eve yo u r orig i n a l c a rd s t o a d d a few o f yo u r own before passi n g t h e m o n t o a n ot h e r pa i r a n d p l ay i n g t h e
game again.
T h e B l oody Code
Gaols Act, 1 823
E l izabeth Fry
Ro b e rt Pee l
J o h n H ow a rd
H i g hway ro b b e ry
Tea, c l oth, w i n e a n d b r a n d y
Fie l d i n g b roth e rs
S i l e n t syste m
Pentonvi l l e
Poach i n g
Crim.e and punishm.ent in m.odern

Britain, c.l900-present
There has been
5.1 Cri minal moments in ti me : 2007
more change
to crime and
punishment since
1900 than any
of the previous
periods mentioned
in this book.
Social, cultural
and technological
changes have led to
changing definitions
of crime, as well as
a revolution in law
enforcement and
crime detection
methods. Perhaps
most significantly,
the twentieth
century saw an
a serious issue
and in many
cases lead to
other types of
end to capital
punishment, thus
ending a tradition
stretching back over
a thousand years.
The growth of the

internet has made it
possible for people to
commit online crimes
such as hacking into
databases to steal
people's bank details.
Equipment in the car provides

the officer with instant access
to computer-held records for all
vehicles . All officers have their
own radio to communicate with
the station and each other.
:'
5 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n m o d e r n B rita i n , c.1 9 0 0 - p resent
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT C . l 9 0 0-PRESENT: OVERVIEW
1 Wo rk in p a i rs or s m a l l g ro u ps . You h ave five m i n utes. What evid e n ce can you fi n d in the pictu re of:
a) d iffe re nt types of cri m i n a l activity

b) d iffe re nt p u n i s h m ents
c) d iffe re nt fo rms of law enfo rce m e n t (policing a n d /o r cri m e p revention)?
2 What ch a n g es a n d conti n u ities ca n you see when you co m p a re this cri m i n a l m o m ent i n ti m e with the n i n eteenth -centu ry
sce n e on pages 56-57?
3 Use yo u r existi n g know l e d g e of the twentieth centu ry fro m Key Stag e 3, to help exp l a i n possi b l e reasons fo r the c h a n g es .
4 List a ny q u estions that t h e s e two p a g e s ra ise a bout cri m e a n d p u n is h m ent i n the p e r i o d 1 900-present. Kee p t h e s e safe
a n d tick them off when you a n swe r them as you work t h ro u g h the rest of this secti o n .
Little has changed. Most

criminal cases are judged in a
Magistrates' Court . The most
serious crimes are referred to
Crown Court (which replaced
visiting royal judges) and are
still heard before a jury.
Community service orders

are used as punishment for
some crimes. These young
offenders carry out work in
their local community.
5.2 How far did cri me really c hange during t he

twentiet h century?
The twentieth century saw some dramatic changes in the way people lived their lives
in Britain. It was an era of two world wars, economic boom and bust, and tremendous
technological advances. Did crime change and grow as a result?
Bette r sta n d a rds of l ivi n g

By the time this book was written i n 2016, the population was better fed, better clothed and
better housed than in 1900. The welfare state provides a safety net for the most vulnerable,
but Britain remains a divided society. The gap between the richest and poorest has continued
to grow. Therefore, although a bsol ute poverty has declined, many people still feel poor
compared with the wealthiest in society.
Has cri m e rea l ly i ncreased?

Crime h a s increased since 1 9 0 0 but n o t as quickly as the headline figures suggested in the
graph below. First, figures show a rise because more people are willing to report crimes. By
the second half of the century more households had telephones, making it easier to inform
the police. Second, more people report burglaries and theft for insurance purposes. Third,
violent crimes and sexual offences are reported more, because the police are better trained
and more sympathetic than in the past. Finally, many crimes were previously dealt with
informally or 'off the record'. The police now record crime more consistently.
CV
c.
0
CV
c.
0
0
0
0
0
1 2 ,000
1 0,000
8,000
'11"'"
....
CV
c.
"'
CV
6,000
" i:
4,000
....
2 , 000
"'C
CV
"'C
0
V
CV
0::::

Yea r
.&. Recorded crimes per 100,000 people in England and Wales during the twentieth century.
Recorded crime increased rapidly from the 1950s onwards. However, by the late 1990s it was
once again falling. This trend has continued into the twenty-first century with the crime rate at
its lowest since 1981 .
NEW CRIMES OR OLD?
1 D raw you r own co py of the Ven n
d i a g ra m below OR borrow two h u la

h oops from the PE department to
m a ke a physica l d i a g ra m . You cou l d
add l a b e l s a n d i nfo rmation using
sticky n otes or s l i ps of paper and
take a d i g ital ph oto of yo u r fi nished
effort to stick i n you r book.
2 Read the i n formation about cri mes
o n pages 86-87. Re m e m be r what

you fo u n d out about cri m e i n e a r l i e r
periods a n d then add the d iffe re nt types of cri m e to yo u r d i a g ra m . Aro u n d the outside
a d d sente n ces to exp l a i n w h e re you h ave p l a ced each cri m e .
Ca r cri m e
M u rd e r
Hate cri mes
I n 1 900 t h e m otor ca r was sti l l a n ew

i nve nti o n . By 1 930, ca rs we re c h e a p e r
a n d d rivi n g was p o p u l a r but d a n g e ro u s .
M otorists d i d n ot need a l i ce n ce a n d i n
1 934, 7, 343 peo p l e were ki l l ed o n t h e
roa d s . Afte r 1 935, a l l d rivers h a d t o pass
a test, pay ro a d tax, get i n s u ra n ce a n d
m a i nta i n a ro adworthy ca r. Tod ay, d rivi n g
offe n ces a bsorb a h u g e a m o u nt o f p o l ice
and co u rt t i m e . Car th eft h a s beco m e
o n e o f t h e l a rg est cate g o ries o f cri m e .
The n u m be r of m u rd e rs
i n creased afte r 1 900, but
n ot as q u ickly as oth e r
cri mes. T h ro u g h out
h isto ry, m ost m u rd e rs
occu r o n the s p u r of
the m o m e nt a n d a re
u n p l a n n e d . The m ajo rity of
m u rd e re rs know the victim
and h ave n ever co m m itted
a serious offe n ce befo re.
I n 2007, t h e G overnm ent i ntroduced

a n ew law coveri n g 'h ate cri m es'. H ate
cri m es ra n g e from cri m i n a l d a m a g e
a n d va n d a l ism thro u g h t o h a rassment
or physica l assa u lt. Victi ms a re
targ eted fo r their race, sexu a l
orientation, re ligion o r disabil ity. The
m ost co m m o n type of h ate cri m e is
m otivated by raci s m . In recent yea rs,
there has been a g rowth in re lig iously
m otivated h ate cri m es.
Te rrorism
Fro m the 1 960s B rita i n has l ived with the t h reat of terrorist v i o l e n ce. The I RA ( I rish
Repu b l ican Army) carried out bomb atta cks o n b u i l d i n g s i n B rita i n between the 1 970s
a n d 1 990s, ki l l i n g and i nj u ri n g m a ny peo p l e . In J u ly 2005, M u s l i m extre m ists carried out
su icide b o m b i n g s i n Lo n d o n , ki l l i n g 56 people a n d i nj u ri n g m a ny m o re.
Com p ute r cri me

Com puter c ri m e is m ostly th eft o r
o n l i n e fra ud . Fra u d ste rs trick p eo p l e
i nto h a n d i n g ove r i m po rta nt deta i l s o r
pa sswo rd s . T h i s a l l ows fra u d ste rs to
stea l m o n ey fro m t h e i r b a n k a cco u nts.
T h e i nternet has a l so made it easier
t h a n eve r befo re to i l l e g a l ly co py m u sic
and fi l m s with o u t payi n g fo r th e m .
Theft, b u rg l a ry
a n d s h o p l ifti n g
T h e re h ave a l ways been opportu nistic
thieves and b u rg l a rs . Tod ay, d ru g
a d d icti o n fre q u ently l e a d s t o th eft
as a d d icts stea l to feed t h e i r h a bit.
S h o p l ifti n g beca m e esta b l i s h e d i n the
seco n d h a lf of t h e centu ry, a s m o re
s h o p s p l a ced g o o d s on d i s p l ay. T h i s
m a d e s h o p l ifti n g easier a n d p e rh a ps
m o re tem pti n g .
Vio l e nt cri m e
a n d sexua l
offe n ces
V i o l e n t cri m es a n d
sexu a l offe n ces h ave
a l ways existed, but
both s h owed i n creases
i n t h e later twe ntieth
centu ry, p a rtly d u e
t o a n i n creased
wi l l i n g n ess of victi m s to
re p o rt offe n ces.
S m u g g l i n g a n d d ru g offe n ces
Sources A and B describe and show a big problem in modern Britain. However, does that
mean this is a totally new type of crime or simply an old crime that has changed and been
adapted over time ?
Sou rce A U K B o rd e r F o rce p ress re l e a s e , 1 7 N ove m b e r 2 0 1 4 . S o u rce : h t t p s ://www. g ov. u k/
g ove r n m e n t/n ews/ m a n -j a i le d -to r- d r u g - s m u g g l i n g -atte m pt
A man from Germany has been jailed for four years at Canterbury Crown Court after attempting to
smuggle approximately one kilo of cocaine in to the UK.
On 4 October this year Border Force officers stopped and questioned Charles Ukachukwu /m oh
after he arrived by coach at the tourist con trols in Dover's Eastern Docks. /m oh said he was coming
to the UK to visit family in London.
After his luggage had been searched /m oh agreed to accompany officers to hospital where he was
X-rayed and packages were iden tified inside him. A total of 83 packages were even tually recovered.
The drugs, which were later forensically tested, had a street value of over 2 75, 000 and a purity
level of 66 per cent.
Source B An X-ray showing taped up packets that were swallowed by a drug smuggler. So
called 'drugs mules' are an increasing problem particularly at the country's airports . If just
one of these packets burst , the person who swallowed them would likely die .

HOW FAR HAS SMUGGLING REALLY CHANGED?

1
Use the i nfo rmation on page 88 to h e l p you co m p a re m o d e rn s m u g g l i n g with s m u g g l i n g

i n t h e eig hteenth centu ry. Fi l l i n yo u r own copy o f t h e t a b l e b e l ow.
Eig hteenth century
Twe ntieth centu ry-present
Items s m u g g l e d
B r a n dy, tea and c l oth
Reas o n s fo r
sm u g g l i n g
To avo i d payi n g d uty

B i g p rofits co u l d be m a d e
P u b l i c d e m a n d fo r g o o d s a t
c h e a p e r prices
M et h o d s used
Fast s a i l i n g s h i ps b ro u g h t in
goods fro m E u rope
M oved fro m coasta l a reas to
tow n s fo r d istri bution
2 Decide where s m u g g l i n g fits o n the Ve n n d i a g ra m you sta rted o n page 87.
M od e rn s m u g g l i n g
Better transport throughout the twentieth
century has made smuggling increasingly
difficult to prevent. With millions of people
travelling in and out of the country by air,
land and sea, the task facing customs officials
and border security is huge.
Lega l ite ms
Tobacco and alcohol are smuggled into the
country in huge quantities every day. Both are
much cheaper on the continent where taxes
on such goods are lower. Smugglers purchase
large amounts and return to Britain where
the goods are sold to make a profit. There is
big public demand as smuggled alcohol and
tobacco are much cheaper than in the shops .
The main drug smuggling routes into the UK. Estimates say that 1 8-23
tonnes of heroin, 2 5-30 tonnes of cocaine and at least 270 tonnes of
cannabis are smuggled into Britain annually.
Key
---+
Coca i n e
H e ro i n
Ecstasy/a m p h eta m i nes
C a n na b i s
N ET H E RLAN DS
B E LG I U M
CZECH REPUBLIC
PO LAN D
I l legal items
Drugs are not the only illegal items smuggled
into Britain, but they generate the biggest
profits by far. Demand for illegal drugs has
continued to rise in the last 40 years and
consequently the illegal drug business has
become a multi-billion pound industry.
PAKI STAN
G HANA
Peo p l e s m u g g l i n g
Tougher immigration controls and conflict
in different parts of the world have led to an
increase in people smuggling. Immigrants, who
might otherwise not be allowed to enter Britain,
pay to be smuggled into the country.
._l
J
SOUTH
AFRICA
5.3 Case study: Were conscientious objectors really

/cowards and cads/ ?
Conscientious objectors (COs) refuse to take part in a war or conflict for moral reasons.
This is not usually a problem as professional armies recruit from volunteers. Those who
objected to fighting simply avoided volunteering.
The Fi rst Wo rld Wa r (1 91 4-1 91 8)

A t the start o f the war i n 1 9 14, the Government relied o n volunteers t o fight. A massive
recruitment drive was launched to encourage as many men as possible to enlist. Over
1 million men signed up, but, in 19 16, as the war dragged on and casualties mounted, the
Government introduced conscription. This meant all single men aged between 18 and 41
were required to enlist. A couple of months later this was extended to married men.
Conscription raised a further 2 . 5 million soldiers during the course of the war.
Around 16,0 0 0 men refused to join because
they were COs. The majority of them refused
to fight on religious grounds, pointing to the
commandment, 'Thou shalt not kill' from the
Bible. Others felt that the war was an
argument between the ruling classes of
Europe rather than the ordinary people.
However, majority opinion supported the war
and public attitudes towards COs were hostile.
They were frequently accused of cowardice
and some were even physically attacked.
ACTIVITY
1
What e m otion do you th i n k the m a n

is fee l i n g ?
2 W h y is the s o n s h own p l ay i n g with
toy s o l d i e rs?
3 What oth e r persuasive tech n i q u es d oes the
poster use?
.... Source A British recruitment poster, 1915.
This clever campaign was used to encourage

men to join up.
What impression does this newspaper

cartoon give about COs and their reasons
\ :0:
< > HJ IK T "
I . J'. S-> 1 1 1'
for not fighting?
Treatm e n t of COs
COs had to appear before a local tri b u n a l
(special court) to state their case. The
tribunals were sometimes made up of
retired soldiers and other unsympathetic
individuals. Some COs were given alternative
work supporting the war effort at home.
Others took non-fighting roles such as
driving ambulances at the front line, which
could be incredibly dangerous.
Over 6,0 0 0 COs refused to accept the
decision of the tribunal and were put in
prison where they faced solitary
'!.A T E 9.
confinement, hard labour and a long
sentence. By the end of the war, 73 COs had
died as result of their treatment. Even after
the war, all COs were stripped of the right to vote until 1926.
- os;:;:::a. -
Sou rce B Extract f r o m
Great Britain 's Great War,
------
"l'li t ittlt pig stayed
at horuc "
Source C Newspaper
cartoon, 1 9 1 6 . This shows
a conscientious objector
staying at home while the
rest of his family contributes
to the war effort .
.A.
by J e re m y Pax m a n , p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 3 .
Near Oldham, a tribunal member facing a conchie {CO) ran ted that h e was . . . 'a coward and a cad,
and nothing but a shivering mass of unwholesome fa t '.
The Seco n d Wo rld Wa r (1 939-1 945)

Conscription was introduced again i n 1 939, and 59,162 people, including women,
registered as COs. This time the authorities treated them differently. Tribunals were still
held but were no longer allowed to include ex-soldiers. A greater effort was made to give
COs alternative work such as farming, or in industries like munitions that were vital to the
war effort. COs were sent to prison only as a last resort.
The British public were slower to change their attitudes than the government. COs continued
to be attacked in the newspapers and many were sacked from their jobs. Once again, COs
were openly accused of cowardice and treason while some were attacked in the street.
HOW WERE COS TREATED IN THE FIRST AND SECOND
WORLD WARS?
1
M a ke yo u r own copy of the table b e l ow a n d use the information on pages 90-91 to fi l l it

i n . An exa m p l e has been d o n e fo r yo u .
Wa r
F i rst Wo rld Wa r
(1 9 1 4-1 9 1 8)
Government reaction
Public attitudes
S u p p o rted the w a r
unanimously
Reg a rd e d C O s a s cowa rd s
Seco n d Wo r l d Wa r
(1 93 9-1 945)
2
Does the information on these pages p rove or ch a l l e n g e the popu l a r view that COs were
acti n g out of cowa rd ice? Exp l a i n yo u r reaso ns.
5.4 W hat have been t he biggest c hanges to policing

since 1900?
The powers of the police to question, search or arrest suspects have changed little since
1 9 0 0 . However, there have been some important changes that affect greatly the way officers
carry out their duties.
.,
CHANGES TO MODERN POLICING

1
Use the i nfo rmation b e l ow a n d on page 93 to co m p l ete yo u r own co py of the table b e l ow.
1 900
N u m b e rs a n d
o rg a n isation
Tra i n i n g a n d
recru itm e n t
Tra n s p o rt
Eq u i p m ent
C ri m e d etecti o n
too l s
Record - ke e p i n g
M a i n d uties
The situation today
A ro u n d 200 l o c a l p o l ice fo rces - a l l

r u n d iffe rently
Litt l e co - o p e ration between fo rces
42,000 offi ce rs
M i l it a ry d ri l l t h e o n ly tra i n i n g
A l l p o l ice offi ce rs were m a l e
Low- q u a l ity a n d poorly p a i d recru its
Offi ce rs wa l ked a 'beat' of u p to 20
m i les a day
Wh istle to ca l l fo r h e l p
Wo o d e n tru n c h e o n
Pisto l s l o cked u p at p o l ice stati o n fo r
e m e rg e n cies
Eyes a n d e a rs of t h e offi cer
Witn ess state m e nts
Loca l reco rd - ke e p i n g was p o o r
N o n ati o n a l reco rd of cri m i n a l s
Dea l i n g with cri m es, especi a l ly petty
th eft
Dea l i n g with d ru n ke n n ess
Which ch a n g es had the b i g g est i m pact o n the effectiven ess of the pol ice?
Which of the fo l l owing factors had the bigg est infl u e n ce o n the changes to the police force?
G ove r n m e n t
0 Attitu des i n society
0 Science a n d tech n o l ogy
0
Cri m e p reve ntion
Wea pons
Every fo rce a p p o i nts cri m e p reve ntion offi ce rs (CPOs)

who advise local p e o p l e o n cri m e p reve ntion a n d
secu rity, s u c h as fitt i n g l ocks a n d a l a rm s t o p ro p e rty
a n d ve h i cles. T h e re is a l so an e m p h a s i s on catch i n g
yo u n g offe n d e rs ea rly a n d e n co u ra g i n g t h e m away fro m
cri m e (see pages 98-99) . I n 1 982, t h e N e i g h bou rhood
Watch beg a n . M e m b e rs of t h e co m m u n ity re p o rt
suspicious behavi o u r to t h e p o l ice w h o c a n t h e n fo l l ow
u p a n d i nvestig ate. I n 20 07, N e i g b o u rh o o d Watch
beca m e a natio n a l n etwo rk that wo rks closely with l o c a l
p o l i ce fo rces .
O rd i n a ry officers d o n ot ca rry fi rea rms b u t sti l l h ave

bato ns or tru ncheons. Pepper spray or CS gas can be
used to contro l violent suspects. Some office rs a re trained
i n the use of tasers, which te m porarily disable a suspect
with an e l ectric sh ock. Speci a l ist officers with fi rea rms
tra i n i n g a re used when there is a high leve l of th reat.
Ve h icles
S i n ce the 1 930s, cars a n d m otorbikes
h ave i m p roved p o l i ce res ponse speed. By
the 1 970s th ese h a d effective ly re p l a ced
the foot patro l o r 'beat'. Po l i ce h e l ico pters
track suspects a n d s u p po rt offi ce rs o n
the g ro u n d . Tod ay, m a n y fo rces h ave
reintrod u ced foot or bicyc l e patro ls to
b u i l d bette r co m m u n ity re lations.
The science of cri m e

d etection
S i n ce 1 901 , t h e pol ice h ave used
fi n g e rpri nts and chem ica l a n a lysis of
blood s a m p les to i d e ntify suspects. M o re
rece ntly, D N A s a m p les h ave been used as
evi d e n ce with the fi rst m u rd e r convictio n
fro m t h i s n ew tech n o l ogy co m i n g i n 1 988.
S pecia l isation
Basic tra i n i n g
Com m u n ications
S i n ce 1 947 n ew recruits h ave

u n d e rtaken fou rteen weeks of
basic tra i n i n g at the N ati o n a l
Po lice Tra i n i n g Co l l ege. Loca l
fo rces h ave their own speci a l ists
to conti n u e the tra i n i n g .
I n t h e 1 930s two-way ra d i o s
were i ntrod u ced t o p o l i ce
c a rs a n d t h e 999 e m e rg e n cy
te l e p h o n e n u m be r was starte d .
Tod ay, a l l offi ce rs carry a
two-way ra d i o fo r i n stant
co m m u n icati o n with t h e p o l ice
station o r h e a d q u a rters.
Ca mera tech nology

CCTV and oth e r secu rity
reco rd i n g s a re used to p reve nt
cri m e, but a l so to h e l p i d e ntify
a n d convict su spects. T h e
p o l i ce a l so use Auto m atic
N u m be r P l ate Recog n ition
(AN P R ) . As a ve h i c l e passes an
ANPR ca m e ra, its reg istrati o n
i s rea d a n d ch ecked a g a i n st a
database of ve h i cles of i n te rest
to the p o l i ce. Offi ce rs ca n sto p
a ve h icle, check it fo r evi d e n ce
a n d m a ke a rrests.
Cha n g i n g ro l es
Po l i ce offi cers d e a l i n creasi n g l y
with n o n - c ri m e re l ated
i n ci d e nts such a s a nti-soci a l
b e h avi o u r, d r u n ke n n ess,
m is s i n g persons and i n ci d e nts
l i n ked to m e n ta l h e a lth w h e re
s o m e o n e m ay be at risk.
Offi cers a l so ke e p o rd e r at
d e m o n strati o n s , footba l l
m atch es a n d oth e r l a rg e
gatherings.
Cri m e h a s beco m e m o re varied a n d

co m p l ex. The refore, there a re seve ra l
h i g h ly trained speci a l ist u n its i n c l u d i n g the
Fraud Squad, Drugs Squad, dog-h a n d l e rs,
cou nter-terro rist squads, cyber-cri m e u n its
a n d oth e rs.
Com p ute r records

S i n ce 1 974, t h e Po l i ce N a ti o n a l Com puter
( P N C) h a s co l l ected togeth e r seve ra l
d ata bases, i n c l u d i n g fi n g e rp ri nts, m otor
ve h i cles and m issi n g p e rson deta i ls.
Officers h ave a ccess to nati o n a l a n d l o c a l
i nfo rmation 24 h o u rs a d ay.
N u m be rs
The total n u m be r of officers (as of M a rch
201 5) is 1 26,81 8, spread across 43 1ocal
forces i n E n g l a n d a n d Wa les. Wom e n
officers fi rst appeared i n 1 920. T h e
p roportion o f fem a l e officers i n E n g l a n d
a n d Wa les has increased fro m 7 per cent i n
1 977 t o a ro u n d 28 per ce nt ( M a rch 201 5).
The p roportion of officers from eth n i c
m i n o rities is sti l l l ow but has risen from
1 per cent in 1 989 to 5.5 per cent today.
5.5 How have prisons c hanged since 1900?

Since the nineteenth century, prisons have been used as the most common form of
punishment for serious crimes. However, the twentieth century saw significant changes to
the way prisons operated and the conditions inmates faced.
I 've h a d e n o u g h of c r i m e .
I'm g etti n g too o l d fo r
t h i s . Ti m e to t u r n over a
n ew leaf, G u v. Gedd it?!
Remember Tom the 'tea-leaf'

from page 4? Well, he's in
trouble again. We think it's
time that Tom went on the
'straight and narrow' and
after a thousand years of
history he finally agrees.
Tom wants to become a
reformed character, so what
would he have made of
prisons and the alternatives
after 1 9 0 0 ?
WHEN WAS THE BEST TIME FOR TOM T O BE IN PRISON?

Use the i nfo rmation on pages 94-97 to h e l p you fi l l in yo u r own copy of the ta b l e b e l ow.
We h ave beg u n a d d i n g information to h e l p g et you sta rte d . Remember, this time Tom
wants to be reformed !
P riso n s befo re 1 947
Positives from Tom's

point of view
Negatives from Tom's point

of view
No m o re cra n k o r
tread m i l l afte r 1 902
Priso n e rs co u l d m ix.
-,
To m m i g ht fa l l i n with a bad
c rowd w h i l e i n s i d e
P riso n s afte r 1 947

N o n - cu stod i a l a ltern atives
Cha n g es to p riso ns before 1 947

By 1 9 0 0, prisons had already begun to move away from the separate system (see page 78) .
The use o f pointless hard work such a s the crank and the treadmill were greatly reduced
and finally abolished by 1902.
The biggest changes came after 1922. Solitary confinement was ended and prisoners were
allowed to associate with each other. The broad arrows that marked convict uniforms
were abolished, as was the 'convict crop' (shaved hairstyle) that prisoners had worn. Diet,
heating and conditions in the cells were improved gradually and more visits were allowed.
Teachers were employed in prisons to help inmates have a better chance of finding work
when released .
The first open prison was built in 1933. Rules in open

prisons were more relaxed and the prisoners were allowed to
leave the grounds in order to work. The idea was to prepare
inmates for ordinary life back in the community. The use of
open prisons was expanded and continues today.
Cha n g es to p riso ns afte r 1 947

The prison population began to rise steeply after the 1940s
(see the graph below) . This trend has continued until the
present day, with the number of people in prison doubling
between 1993 and 2015. The possible reasons for this are
explored below, as are the effects this had on conditions.
Why h ave p riso n e r n u m b e rs i n creased?
The rise in the prison population is due to a number of
reasons, not just an increased crime rate. Fear of crime
increased after the mid-twentieth century and politicians
reacted to public concerns that they were 'soft' on crime :
e
e
e
.A. Ford Open Prison in West Sussex . Notice the inmates
returning to the prison at the end of a working day in the

community.
Why d i d it c h a n g e?
Fear of crime had declined from the heights of the
nineteenth century. Therefore, the Government was under
less public pressure to make prisons so harsh. There was
also a belief that the certainty of arrest rather than prison
was the real deterrent.
The old belief that criminals inherited their criminal habits
was declining. Instead, many thought poverty or a criminal
environment caused crimes. This raised hopes that better
treatment and education in prison might reform inmates.
The average length of sentences has increased. Prisoners

are being locked away for longer as governments seek to
be 'tough on crime'.
There is an increased chance of a prison sentence for
certain crimes, particularly sexual, violent or drug
related offences.
The number of people on remand (awaiting trial in
prison) has increased.
Ove rcrowd i n g a n d u n d e rstaffi n g

Prison overcrowding peaked i n the 1980s and prisons have
remained overcrowded every year since 1994. Reduced
budgets and difficulties in recruiting have led to fewer staff
looking after more prisoners. At the same time, there has
been an increase in the number of serious assaults in prison.
There are also ongoing problems with deaths in custody,
reaching a record number in 2014. In recent years there has
been a decline in purposeful activity such as work or
education for prisoners. In 20 14, Ofsted judged over half of
prisons as inadequate or requiring improvement for learning
and skills. This does little to solve the problem that nearly
half of all prisoners left school without qualifications and
one in five need help with literacy and numeracy.
<0111 Prison population 1900-2 0 1 0 .
90,000
Source: www.parliament .uk/

briefing-papers/SN04334. pdf
80,000
c
0
.;:::;
1!!
70,000
60,000
::J
50,000
Q.
0
Q.
40,000
c
0
Ill
;: 3 0 , 0 0 0
c..
20, 000
1 0,000
@

Year
A rece nt p riso n e r's exp e r i e n ce

You may have noticed by now that public attitudes have a big effect on crime and
punishment. By the 1980s and 1 9 9 0s, there was growing public feeling that prisons were
no longer harsh enough. This remains a popular theme in newspapers and the media, but
how far is it really true ?
When we were writing this section we were lucky enough to get the following description
from an inmate currently serving a prison sentence. The author accurately conveys life
inside a typical closed prison.
A description of prison life in 2016

I'm currently sat in a cell that was built in the late 1840s. The modernisation of the cell is the
strip lighting that is running in a reinforced unit along the side of the wall; a TV and FM
receiver point plus a TV (that is rented, it isn't just given out to inmates), a kettle and a 'smash
proof' unit that incorporates two desks and drawer units.
S omeone who does not do as they are told will soon find themselves on a Basic Regime.
That's an hour out of the cells each day. No TV allowed. Fewer visits. Not allowed their own
clothes. Conversely, you can engage and get improved conditions. I'm on Enhanced Regime.
I'm out of my cell most of the day. I get extra visits. I can spend more money and buy things
from approved catalogues. For all, there is a standard 'bang up' time on an evening:
5 . 3 0 p.m. at the latest.
TV isn't a right. It's an earned privilege and is paid for. Making phone calls is a right but can
be restricted - they are recorded and there is a time limit on them. In short, anything above
basic food, water, a blanket and a set of clothes a week, and two envelopes and sheets of paper
is a privilege.
Like schools, things run to a timetable. Cells are unlocked for workers at 8 a.m. and at 1 .45
p.m. for afternoon sessions. Each work session lasts two and a half hours. Work or education is
compulsory for convicted prisoners. Refusal leads to Basic Regime. S ome full-time workers can
be out of their cells for roughly eight hours a day. A Basic Level prisoner will be out for just over
an hour to collect food, have showers, etc.
Fights or suspicion of one will result in a lock down. So will any breach of security and
some types of medical emergency. Perhaps the most concerning cause of lock downs is the
consequence of using substances (drugs) including legal highs. As these are all banned, they are
much more volatile than on the street. The result is more severe reactions to these substances,
which include seizures, collapses, hallucinations and violent outbursts.
At least fifteen hours a day is spent locked in a small cell. Each of us has our own way of
dealing with that. Newspapers are highly sought after - remember that they cost more than a
standard inmate's daily prison earnings. Books are also popular, though lots of the lads need to
have them read for them. Other than that it's TV if you have one, talking with cell mate if you
share and tidying the cell.
THE PRISON DEBATE

1
M a ke a l ist of a l l of the t h i n g s wro n g with p risons accord i n g to the p riso n e r's descriptio n
a bove.
2 H ow m a ny of th ese p ro b l e m s resu l t fro m ove rcrowd i n g a n d u n d e rstaffi n g ?
3 D iscuss as a class w h eth e r l ife i n p rison today is t o o h a rsh o r t o o soft.
4 Does the descriptio n cha l l e n g e or s u p p o rt the view that prison is an effective way of
refo r m i n g cri m i n a ls? G ive yo u r reasons .
-,
N o n -custod ia l a lte rnatives

A prison sentence keeps criminals off the street and
demonstrates to the prisoners and the public that the
government is being tough on crime. However, there are
some important drawbacks, as shown in the diagram below.
The Effectiveness of Non- Custodial

Punishments
For each of the non-custodial alternatives in the timeline,

explain how it might (or might not) help deal with the
criticisms of prisons outlined in the diagram .
.&. An electronic tag on a released prisoner. These are fitted
to the wrist or ankle , to allow a constant watch to be kept ,

ensuring former inmates are at home during curfew hours. If
the prisoner breaks their curfew, the electronic tag will alert
the contractors and the prisoner may be recalled to prison.
It is easy to criticise prisons, but difficult to find effective

alternatives. The timeline below summarises some of the
non-custodial alternatives different governments have tried
since 1 9 0 0 .
1 907 Probation i ntrod uced : t h e offe n d e r
1 962 B i rc h i n g (a p u n i s h m e n t s i m i l a r t o
h a d to report o n ce a w e e k to t h e p o l i ce
ca n i n g) a b o l i s h e d : th ose w h o wo u l d h ave
a n d meet reg u l a r ly with a probation
been b i rched were now l i ke ly to be f i n e d
officer. If t h ey did not re-offe n d t h e re
o r sent t o p r i so n .
..._______
1 9 1 0-1 920
1 920-1 930
wear an e l ectro n i c tag , w h i c h tracks t h e i r locati o n .

C o u rts a n d p o l i ce can i m pose restrictions o n t h e
offe n d e r' s move m e nts a n d s e t a cu rfew.
wo u l d be no f u rt h e r p u n is h m e n t .
---4---------------- -
----.
1 990s E l ectro n i c tag g i n g i ntro d u ced : offe n d e rs
---------,----------------------------
1 930-1 940
1 940-1 950
1 9 50-1 960
1 960-1 970
1 970-1 980
----------- 1--------,
1 980-1 990
1 990-2000
__
_
1 967 Parole i ntro d u ced : p r i s o n e rs n o l o n g e r h a d

1 9 1 4 Lon g e r to pay f i n e s : offe n d e rs g iven
t o se rve t h e i r e n t i re sentence if t h ey beh aved we l l .
l o n g e r to pay f i n es rat h e r than b e i n g sent
1 972 C o m m u n ity S e rvice O rd e rs i ntrod u ced
to p r i so n . F i nes h ave conti n u ed to be the
1 967 S u s p e n d e d sente n ces i n trod u ced : i f offe n d e rs
offe n d e rs req u i red to d o between 40 a n d
m ost co m m o n type of sente n c e .
d i d not re-offe n d t h ey were not sent to p r i so n .
3 0 0 h o u rs u n pa i d w o r k i n t h e com m u n i ty .
5.6 How effectively do we deal wit h young offenders?

J uve n i l e d e l i n q u e nts
The Victorian attitude to 'juvenile delinquents' (young

offenders) was harsh and children were treated the same
as adults. In 1854, after being convicted of minor crime,
Edward Andrews was sent to Birmingham Borough Prison.
He was placed in solitary confinement and expected to
turn a hand crank (see page 80) 10,000 times every ten
hours. Andrews refused and was soaked in cold water, put
in a straightjacket and fed only bread and water. After two
months of this treatment Andrews hanged himself in his
cell. He was fifteen years old.
20
30
40
Age
50
60
70
A. Percentages of all crimes committed by males and
females of different ages. The peak age for committing

crime is eighteen for males and even younger for females .
However, b y the early twentieth century ideas were shifting

away from harsh punishments towards reform. Many
believed that young people were ripe for change, as their
characters were not yet fixed. With positive influences and
a good environment, perhaps they could be turned away
from a life of crime.
Refo rm beg i n s
The priority was to separate young offenders from hardened adult criminals. I n 1902, the
first borstal opened for offenders under eighteen years old. Borstals were run rather like strict
boarding schools, with house competitions and lots of character-building sport. The usual
sentence was from six months to two years. Offenders could be released after six months, but
only if staff felt they were ready.
In 1 932, the first Approved Schools were set up for offenders under the age of fifteen years.
These were rather like borstals and offered training in skills such as bricklaying. In 1 959,
after rioting and large numbers of children a bsconding, there was public criticism and
Approved Schools were gradually closed.
In 1 948, Attendance Centres were introduced. These non-custodial centres ran
compulsory daily or weekly sessions for offenders aged 10-2 1 . These covered basic literacy
and numeracy; life skills such as filling in job applications; money management and
cooking. Today Attendance Centres deal with offenders aged 18-24 years and encourage
an understanding of the impact of their crimes on the community. They also run drug,
alcohol and sexual health awareness sessions.
S h o rt s h a rp shock!
Borstals were abolished i n 1 9 8 2 . Around 60 p e r cent o f those released from borstal went on
to re-offend and there was also an increase in youth crime. Public opinion moved towards
harsher punishments. In 1 982, the Government introduced Youth Detention Centres.
Military drill and discipline were intended to provide a short sharp shock. However, this
tougher stance failed to deter and re-offending rates actually increased .
The situation today

Despite changes to youth justice, re-offending rates have remained stubbornly high. Young
offenders who have served custodial sentences have the highest rates of re-offending, and
in recent years this has continued to rise.
Yo uth Co u rts work with

a g e n cies such a s the p o l ice,
sch o o l , soci a l wo rkers a n d
probation officers. T h e
e m p h a s i s is o n p reventi n g
t h e yo u n g p e rson settl i n g
i nto a l ife o f cri m e .
Custody i s seen as a l a st resort. Offe n d e rs

u n d e r t h e a g e of e i g hteen c a n be h e l d
i n a Secu re C h i l d re n 's H o m e, a Secu re
Tra i n i n g Centre o r a YO I . YO i s o p e rate
m a ny of the s a m e ru l es as prisons.
Atte n d a n ce Centres
a re the yo u n g
offe n d e r's l a st ch a n ce.
I f t h ey co m m it fu rth e r
offe n ces t h ey a re
l ocked u p i n a YO I .
Sente n ces may start

with t h e pa rents, fi n i n g
t h e m i f t h ey ca n n ot
kee p t h e i r ch i l d u n d e r
contro l . C h i l d re n can
be re m oved fro m t h e i r
p a rents a n d p l a ced
i nto ca re.
N o n -cu stod i a l m ethods

such a s ta g g i n g a n d
cu rfews a re u s e d to
m o n itor offe n d e rs'
m ove m ents a n d
cou rts c a n i m pose
certa i n activities on
yo u n g sters, such a s
co u n sel l i n g .
A. Young inmate i n his cell , Portland Young Offenders Institution (YOI) , England .
HOW EFFECTIVELY ARE YOUNG OFFENDERS DEALT WITH?

1
Use the i nfo rmation on pages 98-99 to m a ke yo u r own ti m e l i n e of the ways in which yo u n g
offe n d e rs h ave been treated s i n ce 1 900.
2 Add brief n otes to exp l a i n the thinking (to d eter o r reform) beh i n d each n ew d evelopm ent.
3 As a cl ass, d iscuss h ow su ccessfu l treatm ent of yo u n g offe n d e rs has been .
4 F i n a l ly, a very d ifficult q u esti o n : What wou l d you s u g g est as a m o re effective a ltern ative?
5.7 Case study: W hy is t he Derek Bentley case

remem bered today?
In 1 953, nineteen-year-old Derek Bentley was hanged for the murder of a policeman. In
1 989, the singer Elvis Costello released a song about the case. The case had already inspired
earlier songs and in 1 9 9 1 it was made into a film called Let Him Have It. S o why has the
B entley case remained in the public eye for so long?
POSING AND ANSWERING QUESTIONS
Read the song lyrics in Sou rce A, but n oth i n g else yet.
What q u estio n s do the h i g h l i g hted lyrics ra ise? S h a re th ese with the rest of the cl ass,
n oti n g d own a ny n ew q u estions.
?,
2 What theories at this sta g e d o you h ave about why the Bentley case was re m e m be red fo r
so l o n g ?
N ow read the rest o f the inform ation o n page 1 0 1 .
3 Use the i nfo rmation to a n swer the q u esti ons you posed a s a class i n q u estio n 1 . Exp l a i n
the m e a n i n g o f the h i g h l i g hted lyrics i n yo u r book, t a k i n g care t o refe r t o d eta i l s i n t h e

Bentley case.
4 The death pena lty i n B rita i n was a b o l ished i n 1 965. In what ways m ig ht p u b l i c attitu des
about the Bentley case h ave p l ayed a ro le?
Sou rce A ly r i c s to t h e 1 9 8 9 song by E lv i s C o s t e l l o , ' let H i m D a n g le'.

Bentley said t o Craig, 'L e t him have it, Chris'
They still don't know todayjust what he meant by this
Craig fired the pistol, but was too young to swing
So the police took Ben tley and the very next thing
Let him dangle, let him dangle
Ben tley had surrendered, he was under arrest
When he gave Chris Craig tha t fa tal request
Craig shot Sidney Miles, he took Bentley's word
The prosecution claimed as they charged them with murder

They say Derek Bentley was easily led
Well wha t 's that to the woman tha t Sidney Miles wed?
Though guilty was the verdict, and Craig had shot him dead
The gallows were for Ben tley and still she never said
Not many people thought that Bentley would hang
But the word never came, the phone never rang
Outside Wandsworth Prison there was horror and hate

As the hangman shook Ben tley's hand to calcula te his weight
..
The story of Dere k Bentley, 1 933-1 953

Derek Bentley had severe learning difficulties and suffered from epilepsy. As a result of his
difficulties, Bentley found it hard to hold down even the most basic of jobs and struggled
to make friends.
In November 1952, Bentley, along with his sixteen-year-old companion, Chris Craig, were
caught burgling a warehouse in London. Craig, who came from a family often in trouble with
the law, was carrying a gun. He gave Bentley a sheath knife and a knuckle-d uster to carry.
The police arrived while B entley and Craig were on the roof. Detective Sergeant Fairfax
climbed up and managed to arrest Bentley. According to the police, DS Fairfax asked Craig
to hand over the gun, at which point B entley shouted, 'Let him have it, Chris.' Craig fired at
Fairfax, injuring him in the shoulder. Bentley did not use the weapons in his pockets and
made no attempt to escape.
More officers climbed onto the roof. PC Sidney Miles was immediately shot and killed.
After using up the rest ofhis bullets, Craig jumped from the roof, fracturing his spine and
breaking his wrist.
Bentley and Craig were both charged with murder. Craig was under eighteen so too young
to hang, but Bentley faced the death penalty if guilty. Bentley and Craig denied Bentley
ever said, 'Let him have it.' Even if he had said it, Bentley's lawyer argued, he could have
meant 'hand over the gun'. There was also controversy over whether Bentley was fit to stand
trial given his low intelligence.
Despite not firing the fatal shot, B entley was found guilty and sentenced to death,
although the jury asked for mercy for him. Craig was imprisoned and not released until
1963. B entley's lawyers' appeals were turned down.
There was public outcry at the sentence. The decision now
rested with the Home Secretary, Sir David Maxwell Fyfe.
Two hundred MPs signed a memorandum asking him to
show mercy and cancel the execution. Fyfe refused and on
28January 1 953, Bentley was hanged. Afterwards there
were angry scenes outside the prison and two people were
arrested for damage to property.
Bentley's parents, and later his sister, campaigned for a
posthumous (after death) pardon. Finally, in 1998, the
Court of Appeal ruled that the conviction for murder be set
aside. The ruling also said the original trial was unfair as
the judge had put pressure on the jury to convict.
There is no doubt that the public outcry over the Bentley
case contributed to the argument against the death penalty.
Many believed it was a miscarriage of justice. It also made
the law look cruel and caused people to doubt the morality
of capital punishment.
Iris Bentley, holding a photograph of her brother Derek ,
outside her home in 1 9 9 3 . Iris campaigned tirelessly to
clear her brother's name but sadly did not live to see the
1998 ruling.
5.8 W hy was the deat h penalty abolis hed in 1965?

Throughout the last thousand years you have studied, the ultimate punishment was always
the death penalty. Gradually, pressure to end capital punishment increased and in 1965 it
was abolished. However, there were strong arguments on both sides of the debate.
AGAI NST
FO R
Th ose wanti n g to reta i n c a p ita l p u n is h m e n t a rg u e d :
Abo l ition ists a rg u e d :
lt h a d a d eterre n t effect a n d cri m i n a l s wou l d b e

m o re l i ke l y t o carry wea p o n s if t h e re w a s n o d a n g e r
o f t h e m b e i n g h a n g e d fo r m u rd e r.
e Life i m p ri so n m e n t was expe n s ive a n d , i n a way, even
m o re cru e l .
M u rd e re rs w h o se rved a sente n ce a n d were t h e n
re leased m i g ht ki l l a g a i n .
e Execution s h owed t h e p ro p e r contem pt fo r m u rd e r
a n d ave n g e d t h e l i fe o f t h e victi m .
Oth e r E u ro p e a n co u ntries h a d a b o l i s h e d c a p ita l

p u n is h m e n t with o u t a n otice a b l e i n crease i n cri m e .
e M i st a kes were m a d e a n d s o m et i m e s t h e wro n g
p e rson w a s execute d .
e M ost m u rd e re rs a cted o n t h e s p u r o f t h e m o m e nt
and with o u t t h i n k i n g . The refo re, capita l p u n i s h m ent
d i d n ot d eter t h e m .
e Execution w a s a g a i n st t h e teach i n g s o f d iffe re nt
re l i g i o n s and t h e Ch risti a n idea of fo rg ive n ess a n d
t h e sanctity o f l ife.
A decl i n i n g tre n d i n executions

B y the late 1700s the use o f the death penalty was declining.
The Government decision to abolish the Bloody Code in the
1820s and 1830s (see page 70) meant that only murder and
treason were punishable by death. In 1868 public hanging
was ended and after 1840 there were around fifteen
executions a year - all for murder.
In 1957 the Government abolished hanging for all
murders except:
e
murder of a police officer or prison officer

murder by shooting or explosion
murder while resisting arrest
murder while carrying out a theft
murder of more than one person.
e
e

1
U s i n g the i nfo rmation on pages 1 02-1 03, fi n d evi d e n ce

of h ow each of the fa ctors in the table b e l ow contributed
to the end of the death pena lty i n 1 965. We h ave added
the two fa cto rs we think were m ost i m po rtant, but fee l
free t o add a ny oth e rs y o u t h i n k p l ayed a ro le.
Fa ctor
Evide nce of this factor i n

action
I n stituti o n s : G ove rn m ent

Attitu des i n society
2 Can you exp l a i n h ow some of the fa cto rs were l i n ked?
3 Which facto r p l ayed the b i g g est ro l e i n the a b o l ition of
the death pena lty? Exp l a i n yo u r t h i n k i n g .
As result, executions in Britain fell to an average of only

four a year. However, to many the law still seemed unfair why was murder by shooting worse than strangulation
or poisoning?
The i m pact of the Seco n d Wo rld Wa r

Following the Second World War (1939-1945) and the
horrors of the Holocaust, there was a growing feeling that
execution was un-Christian and barbaric. The country
had been engaged in a life or death struggle against the
Nazis. Execution now seemed wrong, the kind of action one
associated with Hitler's Germany rather than Britain. In
1948, the United Nations issued its Declaration of Human
Rights, which Britain signed up to. The Declaration says,
'Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.'
It goes on to add, 'No one shall be subjected to torture or to
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.'
H i g h - p rofi l e cases a n d misca rriages of

j u stice
Two well-publicised cases helped to turn the argument
in favour of abolition. The first was the case of Timothy
Evans, who was hanged in March 1950. The second was the
case ofD erek Bentley, executed in 1950 (see pages 100-101) .
Afte r a bo l ition
Capital punishment was abolished i n 1 9 65 for all crimes
except treason in times of war and piracy. At first this was
for a trial period of five years, but in 1 9 69 Parliament voted
to abolish it permanently.
TIMOTHY EVANS
Timothy Eva ns was hanged in 1 950 a n d
post h u mously pardoned i n 1 966.
Eva n s and his wife were l o d g e rs in the h o u se of J o h n
Ch ristie, a t 1 0 R i l l i n gton P l a ce, Lo n d o n . Ch ristie w a s a
seria l kil l e r w h o h a d a l ready m u rd e red seve ra l wom e n .
Eva ns' wife beca m e p reg n a n t a n d Ch ristie offe red to
pe rfo rm an a borti o n . He ki l l ed Eva ns' wife a n d to l d
Eva n s s h e h a d d i ed d u ri n g a fa i l ed a borti o n . Eva n s
fe lt g u i lty a n d , n ot t h i n k i n g rati o n a l ly, confessed to
m u rd e r. H is story was o bvi o u s l y u ntrue - he c h a n g e d it
seve ra l t i m e s - but he was sti l l fo u n d g u i lty a n d h a n g e d .
Th ree years l ater, Ch ristie w a s convi cted o f eig ht oth e r
m u rd e rs, m a ki n g i t c l e a r Eva n s w a s a n i n n ocent m a n .
RUTH ELLIS
T h e l a st wom a n to be h a n g ed was Ruth El l i s in 1 95 6 .
E l l is was fo u n d g u i lty o f s h ooti n g h e r l over David
B l a ke l y i n a 'cri m e of passi o n '. lt had been an a b u s ive
re lati o n s h i p a n d B l a ke l y often beat E l l is . T h e re was
n o d o u bt as to her g u i lt, but t h e re was tre m e n d o u s
p u b l i c sym pathy fo r t h e g l a m o ro u s E l l is wh ose p h oto
a p p e a red in m a ny n ews p a p e rs .
T Sou rce A N u m b e r o f m u rd e rs i n t h e U K , 1 9 0 0 - 2 0 1 0 .
800
D o the figures i n Source
700
A prove that the abolition
:::J
500
the number of murders?
Q)
.0
300
of the death penalty
(i) 600
m
"0
.....
caused an increase in
0 400
.....
:::J
200
1 00
0
!:)Cl
"Qj
"Cl
"
"
P.JC)
"

Now you have completed your research on the period c . 1 9 0 0 -present, it is time to answer
an enquiry question.
...............................
.
.
.
Practice
q u estions
Explain one way i n

w h i c h smuggling i n the
twentieth centu ry was
sim i l a r to smuggling
i n the period c.1 700 to
c.1 900.
Exp l a i n why there
were c h a n g es i n
p o l i ci n g m ethods of
p u n is h i n g cri m i n a l s i n
the period c.1 900 to
the present d ay.
Explain why there
were changes to
punishm ents in the
period c.1 900 to the
present day.
'Science and
tech nology has had
the biggest effect on
policing c.1 900 to the
present day.' H ow fa r
do you agree? Explain
you r answer.
' M iscarriages of justice
were the m a i n reason
why ca pita l punishment
was a bol ished i n 1 965.'
H ow fa r do you agree?
Explain you r answer.
<changes to attitudes in society were the main reason for changes in punishments
c.1900 to the present.' How far do you agree?
B efore you answer this question you need to think about what to include. That's where the
iceberg comes in. It's here to warn you that certain kinds of question may contain hidden
dangers lurking beneath the surface. On a first look, this question seems to be just asking
you about public attitudes. However, the question also includes the key words - how far.
This is always a sign that there is more to the question than meets the eye and that you
need to consider other factors not mentioned in the question. Remember, you can find
additional advice in the Writing Better History section on page 164.
Step 1 .
Deal with the
part of the question which is
'above the su rface ' . Explain how attitudes
in soc i ety i nfluenced pu nishments. You need to
think about how public attitudes hel ped lead to
abolition of the death penalty and changes to prisons.
Step 2. Write about the other factors l u rki ng beneath

surface and ex plai n the effect they had on punishments.
You could incl ude:
Science and technology
Institutions: Government
Role of key individuals
Any other factors yo u th i n k relevant
Wo rd wa l l
Here are some final words you can add to the original Word wall you began on page 30.
They will help you write accurately and with confidence. Look over your notes for c . 1 9 0 0 present and make sure that you know what all the words mean. Then add some r e d wo rds
of your own.
----'-'
r r-- l __
....,;---...
n o n -custodia l sente nce

cri m e prevention
N e i g h b o u rhood Watch
twenti nth t entu r,y
J_
Step 3. Write your conclusion.

Don't sit on the fence - reach
judgement. Were attitudes
in society the main reason?
End with a sentence
explai ning why you
reached this decision.
p re-wa r (befo re WWI )
_.__ _
.,...
you n g offe n d e rs
special isatio n
o p e n prison
m isca rriage o f justice
i nter-wa r (between th e wa rs)
prese nt day
post-wa r (afte r WWI I )
5.1 0 Vis i b le lea rn i n g : Revise a n d re m e m b e r

Tech n i q u e 1 :
The p u n i s h ment pend u l u m
I n the l ast two sections you co l l ected a l ot of i n formation
a bout ch a n g es to prisons s i n ce the 1 700s. Revision i nvolves
taki n g l a rg e a m o u nts of content and s l i m m i n g it d own so it
is easier to re m e m ber. One way is to m a ke yo u r revision
visu a l . Yo u co u l d view the c h a n g es as a pe n d u l u m swi n g i n g
fro m o n e s i d e t o the oth e r.
Reform
Deterrent
Pun ishme nts to reform
P u n i s h m e nts s h o u l d p u n i s r
the cri m i n a l so that
cri m i n a l s so h a r s h l y t h a t
h e or she would be less
they wou ld be deterred
l i kely to offend a g a i n .
from offe n d i n g a g a i n .
M a ki n g you r own pe n d u l u ms
As you a l ready kn ow, as g ove rn m ents a n d t h e p u b l i c
c h a n g e d t h e i r m i n d s a b o u t w h a t prisons s h o u l d be l i ke, t h e
pe n d u l u m fo r prisons h a s swu n g b a c k a n d fo rth ove r t h e
l a st 2 0 0 yea rs .
G o back ove r yo u r n otes a n d decide h ow fa r the

p e n d u l u m sw u n g fo r each of t h e fo l l owi n g :
the old p rison system up u ntil the 1 820s (see page 75)
refo r m e d p ri s o n s afte r 1 823 (see p a g e 76)
t h e sepa rate syste m , 1 830s onwa rd s (see

page 78)
t h e s i l e n t syste m , 1 860s onwa rd s (see p a g e 80)
p risons befo re 1 947 (see p a g e 94)
p risons afte r 1 947 (see p a g e 95)
n o n -custo d i a l a ltern atives (see p a g e 97) .

For each o n e, l ist s o m e evi d e n ce i n b u l l et p o i n t fo rm
fo r yo u r d ecisi o n .
You co u l d u s e t h e pend u l u m i d e a t o a n a lyse oth e r fo rms
of p u n i s h m ent ove r time. Th i n k about h ow you wo u l d
d raw a pe n d u l u m fo r each o f t h e fo l l ow i n g periods.
M a ke s u re to add yo u r reasons b e l ow each o n e :
c.1 000-c.1 500
c.1 500-c.1 700
c.1 700-c.1 900
c.1 900-present .
Tech n i q u e 2 :
Re peat yo u r m em o ry m a p
Tech n i q u e 3 : Set yo u r own

q u estions a n d test each oth e r
At t h e e n d o f C h a pters 2 , 3 a n d 4 you d rew a m e m o ry

m a p to h e l p you reco rd t h e m a i n featu res of cri m e a n d
p u n i s h m e nt. D raw a s i m i l a r m e m o ry m a p fo r t h e period
c.1 900 to t h e p resent. Use two d iffe re nt co l o u rs to s h ow
ch a n g es a n d conti n u ities fro m e a r l i e r periods.
G o back ove r t h e work i n yo u r exe rcise b o o k (a n d pages

00-00) if n ecessa ry. Write te n to fifte e n k n ow l e d g e
b a s e d q u iz q u esti o n s fo r a pa rtn e r. M a ke s u re t h a t you
a l so reco rd t h e a n swers s o m ewh e re !
Tech n i q u e 4: One of you r own

H o pefu l ly, we h ave a l ready g iven you a fa i r few ideas
a b o u t revision a n d ways of m a ki n g t h e i nfo rmation
'stick'. G o back to t h e Revise and re m e m b e r pages at
t h e end of e a r l i e r c h a pters. Ch oose a n ot h e r m ethod
l i sted t h e re and a d a pt it to help you re m e m be r what
you cove red i n t h i s secti o n . Yo u m i g ht want to p l a y one
of t h e g a m es, m a ke h exa g o n s o r write t h e ' b i g story'
c.1 900 to the p resent - it's up to you this ti m e !
Yo u r q u esti o n s co u l d b e m u lti p l e c h o i ce, m u lti p l e

sel ect, t r u e o r fa lse, o r eve n req u i re s h o rt sente n ces
as a n swers. Use a m ix of q u esti o n types. J u st by
co m po s i n g these q u esti o n s you a re a l ready revis i n g key
content. Swap yo u r q u esti o n s with a p a rt n e r. H ave a g o
a t t h e i r q u iz a n d t h e n m a rk each othe r's a n swers.
Crim.e and punishm.ent in Britain:

Revisiting the big stories
How has the nature of cri minal activity
c hanged through history?
PETTY T H E FT OF ClOT H I N G, F O O D A N D SMAll A M O U NTS OF M O N EY
73 % of crime in 1 300s
THE BIG IDEAS
VIOlENT CRI M E
Th ere h a s been g reat

conti n u ity i n t h e types
of cri m e across a l l
periods. Petty cri m e
h a s re m a i n ed t h e
m a i n t y p e o f offe n ce
co m m itte d .
1 8% of crime i n 1 300s
1 000-1 500
As a proporti o n
of the tota l cri m e s
co m m itted, v i o l e nt
offe n ces h ave
d ecreased o v e r t i m e .
OTH E R CRI M E S
Hunting
T h e fea r of cri m e h a s
often been g reater
t h a n t h e actu a l a m o u nt
of cri m e h a s j u stifi e d .
He<y
Witchcraft
Treason
6 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n : Revisiti n g t h e b i g sto ries
These two pages sum up the main types of crime

that have been committed across the centuries.
Above the timeline are the crimes that have always
been committed. The crimes below the timeline are
those that have been more common or taken more
seriously at different times. Many of these only
became crimes because of changing attitudes or new
laws made by governments at the time. The dotted
lines on the timeline indicate cases where the crime
existed but was not regarded as a clear and present
threat by the government or local community.
74% of crime in 1 600s
THE BIG PICTURE OF CRIME

1
Which types of cri m e h ave been m ost co m m o n t h ro u g h o ut

h i story - cri mes a g a i nst the perso n , a g a i nst p roperty o r a g a i nst
autho rity? Why d o you th i n k this is?
Has the p roportion of violent cri m e i n creased, fa l l e n o r re m a i n ed

the s a m e? Why do you th i n k this is?
3 Which cri m es were n ot co m m itted in e a r l i e r ce nturies but h ave
beco m e co m m o n tod ay?
4 a) Which fa cto rs do you t h i n k h e l p exp l a i n i n creases in cri m e?
b) Exp l a i n why these facto rs h ave m a d e cri m e m o re com m o n .
75% of crime in 1 800s
Less than 50% today

(not including car theft)
1 5% of crime in 1 600s
1 0% of crime in 1 800s
1 500--1 700
1 700--1 900
P>::: =:::: ::.:::::::::: :::
Less than 5% today
1 900--present
------ ------,,
,
I
I
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
Poaching
- - - - -
.!.
_ _ _ _
--
- - - - - - l r'
_ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
Drug smuggling
h=======>
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
J,
3'
Vagabondage
Highway robbery
")
====>
Computer
crime
-->
Car crime
-=-:=:=== ! - - : ::::: :: :: : ::::: : :: : =
= ==
Crimes linked to
prejudice (includes
=:>
racially and religiously

motivated offences)
How has t he nature of law enforcement c hanged

t hrough history?
For hundreds of years it was the responsibility of individuals and the local community to
catch criminals and bring them to justice. However, as society has become more complex,
the role of catching criminals, investigating their crimes and bringing them to trial has
been taken over by the police. The top part of this timeline outlines the methods that have
been used to catch criminals and bring them to court. The lower part outlines the different
methods that have been used for trials. The dotted lines on the timeline indicate where the
method was in existence but was not a major part of law enforcement.
THE BIG IDEAS
e
e
For ce ntu ries l o c a l com m u n ities were

expected to p o l ice t h e m s e l ves a n d
catch any cri m i n a l s .
A p rofessi o n a l p o l i ce fo rce w a s fi rst
esta b l i s h ed in Lo n d o n in 1 829 a n d soon
s p read to oth e r p a rts of t h e cou ntry.
Parish constc
Army used to crush protest
1 000-1 500
Local juries using knowledge of offender
Trial
I:
THE BIG PICTURE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT

1
Who was respo n s i b l e fo r catch i n g cri m i n a l s a n d co l l ecti n g evid e n ce i n :

a) A n g l o-Saxon E n g l a n d
b ) the later M id d l e Ages
c) Tu d o r and Stu a rt E n g l a n d ?
2 W h e n did t h e g overnm ent rather t h a n local com m u n ities fi rst take a serious ro l e i n policing?
3 What reasons exp l a i n why this ch a n g e occu rred?
B w Street Runners
>
CID set up
Police force
====
===>
Specialisation
Nr:ighbqurhood
500-1 700
1 700-1 900
1 900-present
Justices of the Peace (JPs)
Lawyers
How has t he nature of punish ment c hanged

t hrough history?
THE BIG IDEAS
e
Th ro u g h h i sto ry, h a rs h
p u n i s h m ents were
used as t h e m a i n
m ethod t o try t o sto p
cri m e .
These pages outline the changes and continuities in punishment through history. Above
the timeline shows the thinking behind the different types of punishment. Below the
timeline shows the various methods used.
Deterrence
H a rs h p u n i s h m ents
h a d l ittle o r n o effe ct
in p reventi n g c ri m e
fro m i n creasi n g .
S i n ce t h e 1 800s t h e re
h ave been m o re
atte m pts at try i n g to
refo rm cri m i n a l s as we l l
as punishing them.
Retribution
1!
1 000-1 500
Fines
R e norm
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ________
_________________J
- - - - - - - - - -
--------,v/
THE BIG PICTURE OF

PUNISHMENTS
1
Which m ethods of p u n is h m e nt were used

fo r the l o n g est time?
2 Choose o n e p u n i s h m ent that is no l o n g e r
u s e d tod ay. Exp l a i n w h y it is n o l o n g e r used.
3 When was the period of g reatest change i n
p u n is h m e nts?
4 F i n d exa m p les of p u n i s h m ents that were
00-1 700
i nte n d e d to :
a) d eter
b) p rovide retri bution (reve n g e)
c) refo r m .
1 900-present
1 700-1 900
5 H ow h ave i d e a s about the pu rposes of
p u n i s h m ents:
a) c h a n g e d
b) stayed the same?
Bloody Code -
In public
In prison
capital punishment for
un til 1 860s
until 1 965
=-------enmlnorcnm5---
_{{:')=:
.....E"
tl ) l)
'!'!:o:at : : : : -;;;;=':;>
n
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -debtors
--------Prison for
Prison for
Open prisons
serious offences
introduced
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------
lra wing and quartering
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ f ,
=----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ; >
Non-custodial alternatives
Community
service
Tagging
Factors for c hange

Way back in Chapter 1 we introduced you to the different factors affecting crime
and punishment.
t
1 000-1 500
1 500-1 700
1 700-1 900
1 900-present
Q ueen M a ry b u rn s
3 0 0 Protesta nts;
R e l i g i o u s a rg u m e n ts
Q ueen E l iza beth ' s
for a b o l ition of capital
treat m e n t of C a th o l i cs
p u n i s h m ent, 1 9 6 5
By now it must be obvious that a number of these have kept cropping up again and again.
Quite simply, the factors are what made things happen ! By focusing on them you will
better understand the reasons behind the changes and continuities outlined on pages 7-9.
So let's start by looking at one factor as an example - Institutions : The Church.
FACTORS AND THE BIG PICTURE

1
M a ke yo u r own l a rg e co py of the table b e l ow.
I n stitutio ns:
The C h u rch
Effects on a m o u nt of cri me/

definitions of cri m i n a l activity
Effects o n law enfo rce m e nt

(policing a n d trials)
Effects on pu nishment
1 0 00-1 500
1 500-1 700
Tu d o r re l i g i o u s ch a n g es m e a n t
havi n g wro n g b e l i efs co u l d l e a d
to p e rsecuti o n .
E l iza beth F r y ca m pa i g n ed fo r
bette r co n d it i o n s fo r wo m e n
priso n e rs.
1 700-1 900
1 90 0 - p resent
2 Use the ti m e l i n e o n page 1 1 2 to fi l l i n the ch a rt fo r this facto r. We h ave sta rted this fo r yo u, but you wi l l need to add m o re.
3 G o back ove r yo u r n otes, u s i n g this book if needed, a n d l o o k fo r exa m p l es of h ow the oth e r facto rs h ave affected cri m e
a n d p u n i s h m ent. M a ke a n ew t a b l e fo r each o n e . Yo u co u l d d o t h i s i n s m a l l g ro u ps, each looking a t a d iffe re nt fa cto r,

befo re feed i n g back as a w h o l e class. Don't worry if there a re some b l a n k spaces in yo u r table - this sh ows that n ot a l l
facto rs were i m portant a t d iffe rent times.
Tom 's big picture

Remember Tom the 'tea-leaf' ? Well, he's
back and he needs your help for the last
time. Now that you are an expert in the
history of crime and punishment you
must help him answer the question he
first posed back on page 4: When was the
riskiest time to be a criminal?
Tom the 'tea - leaf'

Very risky
Worth
t h e risk
Tom the ' tea-leaf' .
RISKY BUSINESS?
1
Use yo u r n otes, yo u r own know l e d g e a n d this book

(wh e re n ecessa ry) to p l ot yo u r own g ra p h showing the risk
faci n g To m . Re m e m ber that 'tea-leaf' is rhym i n g slang fo r
thief. You s h o u l d th i n k about:
a) the c h a n ces of b e i n g ca u g ht
What p o l i c i n g m ethods we re used?
H ow effective were th ese?

b) the punishm ents that Tom wou ld h ave faced if convicted
What was the idea of p u n is h m ent in each period?
H ow severe we re p u n i s h m ents at this time?
An n otate each point with a few senten ces of exp l a n ation

befo re j o i n i n g them u p with a r u l e r.
2 To m was g u i lty of th eft, a cri m e a g a i nst property. H ow
m i g ht the g ra p h l o o k d iffe re nt if To m h a d been someone

who too k p a rt i n p rotests o r re be l l ions? When was the
riski est ti m e to co m m it such cri m es?
3 Wo u l d the g ra p h look a ny d iffe rent if To m was a violent
m u rd e re r - g u i lty of cri mes a g a i nst the perso n ?
W hat is t his historic

environ ment unit about?
This unit counts for 10 per cent of your GCSE course.
It is linked to the Thematic Study on Crime and
Punishment in Britain in two ways :
1
You will use your knowledge of crime and punishment

in the late nineteenth century in this unit.
2 The enquiry approach you used to study 'Crime
and Punishment in Britain' will help considerably
because this unit is designed to develop your skills
in historical enquiry - from asking questions to
communicating your answer. We spent a lot of time
on enquiry in 'Crime and Punishment in Britain' to
prepare you for this historic environment unit.
There are also three major differences from your work on the Thematic Study on Crime
and Punishment:
1 This unit focuses on a single place, a historic site - Whitechapel.

2 It focuses on a short period, the years c.1870-c.1900.
3 It looks much more closely at contemporary sources and how we use them in an enquiry.
T h i s book does n ot p rovide a l l t h e m ate r i a l you w i l l use
fo r t h i s study. T h i s i s d e l i be rate ! We h ave g ive n you t h e
stru ctu re fo r yo u r e n q u i ry a n d p l e nty of i nfo rmation
and sou rces, but yo u r tea c h e r will a d d m o re sou rces,
perhaps re lati n g to cri m es, c ri m i n a ls, victi m s o r
p o l i ce m e n , w h i c h w e h ave n ot m e ntioned i n t h i s book.
Enquiry
Describe in your own
words the enquiry
process you use to
investigate a new
historical topic.
PA RT 2 : T h e h isto ric e n v i ro n m e n t : Wh itech a p e l , c.1 870- c.1 9 0 0 : C ri m e, p o l i c i n g a n d t h e i n n e r city
1.1 W hitec hapel : murderers and bad mot hers

When we hear the words 'Victorian Whitechapel' we might immediately think of 'Jack the
Ripper', the notorious serial killer. This section of the book will look at the Ripper, but it is
important to remember that this was just one case among many. We need to think more
widely about the types of crime and criminals in Whitechapel.
There were other murders in Whitechapel
during our period. Before 1888 the most
well-known was the death ofHarriet
Lane, at the hands of her lover - Mr Henry
Wainwright. Wainwright was a fairly
successful salesman, and his affair with
Harrier was a serious one. He put her and
their children up in a flat and paid them
a generous allowance. When his business
failed he could no longer keep Harrier fed
and housed, and she began to call on him at
work and to make embarrassing scenes.
Wainwright decided to get rid of her, for
good. He asked his brother to write pretend
love letters to Lane, under the false name of
'Edward Frieake', so that Wainwright could
claim that Lane had run away. He then
murdered her, and buried her under the floor
of a warehouse in a pit filled with chloride of
lime, a bleach which he hoped would destroy
the body.
A year later the warehouse was put up for
sale because the owner needed the money.
Wainwright decided to move the body, so it
would not be discovered. However, when he
dug up the remains he found that instead of
being dissolved by the chloride of lime, the
chemical had preserved Lane's body.
Wainwright then decided to chop Lane's
remains into pieces and put these into sacks.
In an inexplicable decision he also got one
of his workers to help transfer the sacks to a
waiting cab in the street. This worker, Arthur
Stokes, opened one of the sacks to find
Harrier Lane's half-decomposed head !
Source A The front cover of a special supplement to the Illustra ted Police
Stokes sent Wainwright and his sacks
News, 2 1 December 1875, showing the execution of Henry Wainwright .
off in the cab but followed on foot, and
shouted for help to the first policeman that
he saw. The police stopped the cab, and
MURDER IN THE MEDIA
then opened the sacks to discover Wainwright's ex-lover's

1 Loo k at the cove r of the Illustrated Police News (Source
remains. Wainwright was arrested, and eventually tried for
A) . In what ways has the a rtist tried to m a ke this sce n e
murder. The sentence of execution by hanging was carried
m o re d ra m atic?
out at the end of 1875 . Wainwright's case was big news - as
2 What d oes this te l l us a bout h ow i m portant Wa inwrig ht's
can be seen by the cover of the Illustrated Police News.
.,
cri m e was?
3 Does this te l l us a nyth i n g about h ow ofte n m u rd e rs l i ke
this too k p l a ce?
Gory stories are exciting, but by focusing on stories like these we could be missing learning
about other interesting lives, and we might also be distorting our ideas of what crime was like
in Whitechapel in our period. The records of the Old Bailey criminal courthouse are available
online, and they contain stories just like Henry Wainwright's, but they also let us look at the
big picture, at patterns of criminal activity. Using the special search on the Old Bailey website
we can find out how many crimes mention the keyword 'Whitechapel' for our period (614)
and what different categories these crimes might fit into (see the table below) .
T Categories of crime
CRIMES
Deception
D i s h o n estly g etti n g
m o n ey, p ro p e rty o r oth e r
ben efit.
Th eft
209
Vio l e nt theft
1 32
Deception
1 09
Roya l offences
50
Brea king the peace
48
Roya l offe nces
Kil l i n g
38
C r i m e s a g a i n st Roya l
rig hts o r t h e co u ntry
e . g . tax eva s i o n , fo rg i n g
cu rre n cy, treason a n d
s o m e re l i g i o u s cri m e s .
M isce l l a neous
16
Da mage to property
11
Sexu a l offe nces
Brea king the peace
The case of Sa ra h Fishe r's ba by
Ass a u lt, riot, th reate n i n g

b e h avi o u r. O n ly t h e m ost
serious exa m p l es of these
went to tri a l at the O l d
B a i l ey.
This table tells us that we can easily stereotype crimes and criminals in Whitechapel if we
only focus on the high-profile crimes like murder. The Old Bailey records also tell us about
lots of different types of crime. A really good example of a very different case is that of
Sarah Fisher in 1873.
Fisher was convicted of 'unlawfully exposing' her young child, Lucy. On a frosty night in
November 1873, Fisher was begging; her husband was at home unable to work because of
injuries to his legs. Her thin and barely clothed 'baby', though really she was eighteen
months old, was used to get sympathy and money from passers-by. A solicitor called Sidney
Chidley noticed Sarah and the condition of her daughter and found a policeman. Fisher
was arrested, and Lucy taken to the Westminster Workhouse. Sadly, Lucy died shortly
afterwards, probably from tuberculosis. Sarah Fisher was found guilty of 'exposing' Lucy,
and at her trial she pleaded, 'I am very sorry that I was begging. I have lost my baby now.'
ASKING QUESTIONS
O n e of t h e s ki l l s you p ractised i n t h e t h e m atic stu dy on C ri m e a n d P u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n
w a s aski n g g o o d h istorica l q u esti o n s . Aski n g q u esti o n s is a n i m po rta nt p a rt o f t h i s u n it
because it p l ays a p a rt i n yo u r G C S E exa m i n atio n . So we' l l pause h e re a n d ask you to a s k
s o m e q u esti o n s !
1
M a ke a l ist o f q u esti ons w e co u l d a s k a b o u t cri m e a n d p o l i c i n g i n Wh itech a p e l betwee n

1 870 a n d 1 900. T h e s e q u estio n s co u l d be about fa m o u s cases l i ke th ose o f H e n ry
Wa inwright or Jack the Ripper. They co u l d a lso be a bout the s m a l l e r cases l i ke S a ra h
Fishe r's o r a bout cri m e i n Wh itech a p e l i n g e n e ra l . U s e the q u estio n sta rte rs b e l ow t o h e l p .
W h e n . . . ? W h a t . . . ? W h y . . . ? H ow . . . ? W h a t h a pp e n ed . . . ? W h e re . . ?
What effects . ? H ow s i g n ificant . . ? Did it rea l ly . . ? Who . . ? Did they . . . ?
.
. .
2 When you h ave co m p l eted yo u r l i st, d ivide it i nto 'big' a n d ' l ittle' q u estions. ( Look back to
page 1 3 to re m i n d yo u rself of the d iffe re n ces between t h e m . )
Aski n g q u estions, ide ntifyi n g sou rces

This page shows you so m e of the questions you could ask
about crime in Whitechap el between 1870 and 1 9 0 0,
together with some of the sources you might use to answer
those questions. B oth questions and sources are here
because one aim of this unit is to work out which sources
may be most helpful for answering individual questions .
You know b y now that sources are n o t 'useful' or 'useless'
in themselves - their usefulness depends on which
question you are trying to answer. For example, one source
may be very useful for learning about the techniques used
to try to capture Jack the Ripper, but completely unhelpful
if you want to find out about what kinds of punishment
people received when they were convicted of theft.
QUESTIONS AND SOURCES

Ch oose two of the q u estions b e l ow or fro m yo u r l ist of
q u estions fro m the aski n g q u estions a ctivity on page 1 1 6 .
Which of the sou rces b e l ow do you t h i n k wo u l d be m ost
usefu l fo r a n sweri n g each of yo u r two q u esti ons? Exp l a i n
w h y y o u t h i n k e a c h sou rce m i g ht be usefu l .
We d o n ot expect you t o know t h e 'rig ht' a n swe rs a t this
stage. This task is to get you thinking about what kinds of
i nfo rmation m ight be i n the sou rces a n d w h i ch q u esti o n s
t h e y m ay h e l p with . I n the rest o f this u n it y o u wi l l g et to
know m ost of these sou rces a n d fi n d out which q u esti o n s
t h e y a re m ost usefu l fo r a n sweri n g .
S o m e q u esti o n s
Were there many

cases of cruelty or
neglect of children,
like Sarah Fisher's?
Who were the

suspects in the Jack the
Ripper case?
S o u rces
Records of c h a rities
i n vo lved i n h o u s i n g
C h a rles B ooth 's

s u rvey of pove rty
C o ro n e rs ' re ports
Reports from
Lo n d o n n ews p a p e rs
O l d B a i ley
reco rds of tri a l s
Pol itical cartoons
Nati o n a l newspa pers
Loca l pol ice records
.,
O rga n isi n g yo u r u nd e rsta n d i n g of the sou rces

Why did we set up the activities on questions and sources ?
It is because this unit is about how we undertake a
historical enquiry and about the kinds of sources we use, as
well as being about crime and punishment in Whitechapel
at this time. Therefore you are going to use a variety of
sources and learn different things from them. The first is
the most obvious - the sources will:
increase your knowledge and understanding of crime in

Whitechapel, and the work of the police between 1870
and 1 9 0 0 .
However, other things you learn about the sources are just
as important and will be tested in your examination. You
will find out:
the kinds of sources that help us investigate crime in

Whitechapel at this time
which sources are most useful for investigating
individual aspects of crime and for answering particular
questions.
To keep track of the sources and what you can learn from
them, we suggest you use a Knowledge Organiser such as
the table below. You could perhaps make a copy of it on
A3 paper or in a Word document. You may wish to keep
additional, detailed notes to support the summary in your
table. Completing the table is an important reminder that
this unit is about enquiry and sources, as well as about
crime in Whitechapel during this period.
Here is a guide to completing your table over the next few
weeks:
1
After you have worked on a section of this unit, identify

which sources you have used and fill in a row of this
table for each source. Decide which of the categories
(see below) the source fits into, for example a personal
account, photograph, etc. The text will remind you to do

this.
2 Put the category in column 1 and the example such as a
photograph of an operation taking place) in column 2 .
3 Then complete columns 3 - 6 for the source.
You may use sources that fit more than one category of
source, or you may use other kinds of sources. Don't worry
if sources do not fit neatly into categories - historical
research is unpredictable and you often find things that
you don't expect. That's why it's enjoyable !
It is also important to remember that one source will not
tell you everything you want to know. Always try to use a
combination of sources. This is because they may each add
different information because they were created by different
people, at different times, or because they are different
types of source - a photograph and a diary perhaps. Using
a variety of sources also allows you to check what each is
saying as you always need to ask whether the evidence in a
source is typical of the evidence as a whole.
National records
National newspapers
Records of crimes
Police investigations
Old bailey records of trials
Cartoons from newspapers and journals.
Local records
Housing and employment records, council records and

census returns
Charles Booth's survey and workhouse records
Local police records, coroners' reports, photographs and
London newspapers
Exp l o r i n g S a r a h F i s h e r's co u rt reco rd

The reason that we can describe the gruesome discovery of the body in Henry Wainwright's
warehouse, and the sad case of Sarah Fisher's dying baby, is that the details of their cases
were carefully recorded when they appeared before the judge and jury at the Old Bailey.
This was London's most important criminal court between 1673 and 1 9 1 3 .
The Old Bailey's records have been digitised and put online, so that everyone can access
them. There is a search tool which means you can home in on particular types of case at
particular times. The printed record is also available as a scan - so that you can check the
words of the digitised copy.
.A. A photograph of the Old Bailey court taken in 1897. The 'dock ' where the accused would
have stood is on the left hand side , while the judge's desk is on the right . The seats where
the jury would sit are at the back of the photograph .
PART 2 :
Crime and punishment in Britain, c.1000-present

I'd like to know more about Sarah Fisher, so I think we should study her case report in
detail. When you have read through it, see if you can answer some of the questions below.
Exposing in this
These are supposed to get you started in understanding her case report. You may not be
case means
able to work out all the answers straight away, but the report will give you some ideas as to
taking the baby
what to study next.
outside without
The Workhouse
enough clothes
(one of which
on in the cold
SARAH FISHER,
weather.
78.
SARAH FISHER
Miscellaneous
>
othe r ,
15th December 1 8 7 3
(36 ) ,
Unlawfully exp sing Lucy Fisher ,
was the
Westminster
a child under
Union) was the
the age of two years, whereby its health was permanently injured.
SIDNEY CHIDLEY.
1r------Maddox
--------'
-
These are
the details of
Street.
a solicitor.
am
The prisoner came in with a baby in her arms ,
it to two females,
I looked at i t ,
one of whom exclaimed "Good God!
and thought it was dead,
against Sarah
and I
to have that child out;
you should take it at once to the workhouse" .
It was a cold,
frosty night,
begging ,
could get food,
it looked
We gave her some money ,
would not live the night through,
Fisher.
the child is dead ! "
like a living skeleton .
came t o .
poor Victorians
and showed
but it moved its arms
I watched her from public-house to public-hous e ,
the witness
place where very
On 13th November I was in a restaurant in
lodgings and
said "You ought not
--------
stopping everyone she
and a keen wind.
medicine but, as
we will see, many
thought the child
and gave the prisoner in charge for
in order that the child might get sufficient food and care.
refused to go
-----.
there.
Prisoner.
I did not expose the baby ;
they wished to see i t to satisfy
themselves that it was alive.

It was not at the request of other people that she showed the baby .
Witness.
She did not ask for money ,
but she undid the child,
farthing in their pockets,
must have given her something.
RICHARD SMITH
Constable
C means
On 13th November,
(Policeman C 1 6 ) .
station it was comfortably cared for,
the prisoner was
with wrapper s ,
charge means
and had warm milk.
I took it to the workhouse next morning and gave it to Dunston .

The prisoner gave me an address in Whitechapel,
lodging house.
the division
reporting a
crime to a
at Sarah King ' s
policeman.
I went there and saw the husband .
[ .. ]
(Westminster)
JOSEPH ROGERS .
that he
On 14th November,
works in. The
medicine,
am
medical officer of the Westminster Union .
a female child was brought to me.
a milk diet,
and some wine.
should not be brought to
police were in
me
and it only weighed 7lbs .
H division.
everything possible,
saw i t .
11.
but I was
and the pleura
matter in both lungs .

out on a cold,
part of the
where as
I directed that i t
but that I would go to i t ,
I had given it eggs 1
brandy ,
satisfied that i t would die when I
and
first
only extreme emaciation.
[part of the lungs ]
[ ... ]
and ribs,
which had been in
I also found deposition of tubercular
--
I t was most improper to take such a child
November evening,
and to keep it out for several hours ,
its life was in danger.
record is where
the defendant
am
disease which starts

in the lungs, and can
be deadly. lt makes
used to be called
very sorry that I was begging ;
consumption because
I have lost my baby now.

GUILTY .
means evidence
people thin, and
... ]
Prisoner ' s D fence.
Tubercular matter
of tuberculosis, a
in the chest there were old adhesions of the
existence seven or eight months ;
The defence
lOoz.
After its death I had it weighed again ,
2oz.
found no marks of injury,
The heart was healthy ,

lungs ,
10
or more.
across the yard,
which I did at some inconvenience .
I ordered it some
I t only weighed 9lbs .
a child of that age ought to weigh 24lbs .
Whitechapel
the story.
prisoner in
given into my custody the child was placed in the cell with her at the
Smith's n u mber.
their side of
Giving the
'
This is
gets to tell
and anybody with a
--
The prisoner's husband stated that he was very poor,
suffered for years with a bad leg,
and was only able
and had
to get an uncertain
living by penmanship .
He was ordered to enter into recognizances for the
prisoner's appearance
to come up and receive judgment if called upon .
After the judgment of GUILTY, the court records the judge's decision on
sentence. Here Sarah's husband has to guarantee that he will bring her back
to court if they decide later to punish her. Really this means that she is
being released, with the warning not to commit a crime again.
it seemed to eat
away at its victims.
SARAH FISHER'S LOST BABY

1
What c l u es a re there that M a d d ox Street was a wea lthy

p l a ce?
2 What was S i d n ey C h i d l ey's attitu d e to Sarah Fisher?
3 What do you th i n k d rew Sarah Fisher to M a d d ox Street?

4 H ow l o n g h a d the Fishers been l iv i n g at Sarah Ki n g 's
l od g i n g h o u se?
5 Are there a ny c l u es as to why Sarah Fisher needed to
beg fo r m o n ey?
6 What seems to be the attitu d e of the U n io n med ica l
officer to baby Fisher?
7 What w a s t h e ba by's n a m e?
8 Did the baby d i e of h u n g e r o r of som eth i n g e lse?
What d oes this te l l you about her life befo re

1 3 N ove m ber 1 873?
There's lots of interesting detail in the report, and some clues

as to what to explore next. The first thing to notice is that this
crime didn't take place in Whitechapel, but the defendant
lived there. Fisher was arrested in Maddox Street, in the West
End, a much wealthier part of London. Fisher lived in Sarah
King's lodging house in Whitechapel, but we are not told
where that is. As we will find out, a lodging house was a place
where people would pay rent to stay in a room, often sharing
with many other people. There were many of these lodging or
'doss' houses in Whitechapel in our period.
Ce nsus frustrations
I used the Census records to try to find out more about
King and Fisher. We are given an age for Sarah Fisher, and
an approximate age for each of her children. I can use these
to try to narrow down the search.
Of the Sarah Fishers living in or near Whitechapel at the

time some are older and some younger than the age given for Sarah in the case report.
There is one of exactly the right age, but she was living with her mother and father, with
no children in 1871. The court case suggests she should have had a child of at least one
year old. The closest I can get is a Sarah Fisher living in St Pancras, a good distance north
of Whitechapel. She had a son, not one year old at that date. This could be the baby that
died in 1873. Frustratingly, I have to admit that I'll never know - there just isn't enough
information for me to say that this is our Sarah Fisher. It's a similar story for a search for
the landlady, Sarah King. The only person for whom I can find any other record of is poor
Lucy. Her death in Westminster is recorded in the register of deaths for that year.
This doesn't mean that the Census will never give me useful information - it just means
that I need quite a lot to start with before I can sometimes get more from a Census search.
Often, when dealing with the names given to criminal courts, I find that searching the
Census is not successful in finding more information. I suspect that this is because many
people gave false names to the police and the courts - especially if they didn't want the court
to find out about past crimes they had committed, as this would lead to a harsher sentence.
THE CENSUS
T h e C e n s u s o n ly takes p l a ce every ten years. S a r a h m ay h ave m oved reg u l a rly each yea r,
l et a l o n e i n a d e c a d e . As we're l e a rn i n g , t h i s k i n d of co m m u n ity was very m o b i l e so co u l d
easily be m is s i n g fro m t h e C e n s u s o r l i v i n g i n a d iffe re nt a rea o n t h e n i g ht t h e Census was
take n . lt can eve n be h a rd to track m o re sta b l e fa m i l ies, p a rtly because of s i m p l e m i sta kes
by t h e e n u m e rato rs (th e p e o p l e w h o w rote out t h e reco rd s) . C e n s u s reco rds a re fa r fro m
1 00 p e r cent a ccu rate.
The census has told me some useful things. While looking through the Census at all the
Sarah Fishers and the Sarah Kings I discovered several things about Whitechapel in this
period. One Sarah King lived at 6 Baker's Row in Whitechapel, but so did sixteen other
people. On this street there were other houses where families with a married couple, a son
or daughter and even a servant lived. This suggests that Whitechapel was a place where the
very poor crowded together, but that within a stone's throw we might also find a relatively
wealthy middle-class family.
Vis i b le lea rn i n g : Pla n n i n g my e n q u i ry

This is me ! I'm the person who's writing this part of the book and planning this
investigation. The key word in this situation is to PLAN ! I know a little. I want to know a
lot - but just starting to read could leave me with a jumble of information. I have been
studying history for many years so I know how to work my way through a new topic. This
page shows you my plan for my enquiry.
StP.j e- 1 wluvt do I lar.w-f

T h i s is a s u m m a r y of my m a i n
I n e e d a set of q u e sti o n s as ta rg ets
s t a rt i n g p o i nt s :
w h e n I do m y resea rch so I k n ow
I k n o w a l ittl e a bout
s o m e of the types of crime
and the types of defe n d a n t
B etwe e n 1 870 a n d 1 9 00
W h itech a p e l w a s a p l a ce w h e re
s o m e p e o p l e were very p o o r.
Poverty m a d e p e o p l e i l l , a n d
m a d e s o m e ta ke d e s p e rate
m e a s u re s .
fro m Wh itecha pel t h a t a p pea red

befo re the Old Ba i l ey, but I have
T h e re w a s a p o l i ce fo rce, a n d it
a l ot of qu estio n s. H o w do I p l a n
was split i nto d iv i s i o n s .
m y way from k n o w i n g a l ittl e a n d

h a v i n g l ots o f qu est i o n s
T h e re we re h i g h - p rofi l e c r i m es
s u c h as th ose of J a c k t h e R i p p e r
a n d H e n ry Wa i nw r i g ht, as we l l a s
to fi n d i n g the a n swe rs a n d
k n o w i n g a l ot m o re?
StP.je- 2 Wluvt do I WtN"'t tofi'ui owU
m o re o rd i n a ry cri m e s .
M ost c r i m e s we re not v i o l e nt, b u t
w h e n I 've co m p l eted my e n q u i r y :
Why we re s o m e p e o p l e i n
W h a t d iffe re nt k i n d s of p e o p l e l ived
W h itech a p e l l ivi n g i n pove rty?

in W h itec h a p e l ?
W h a t effects d i d p overty have o n
W h a t t y p e s o f cri m e we re
p e o p l e, a n d o n c r i m e ?
co m m itte d ?
H ow d i d t h e p o l i ce d o t h e i r work?
We re t h e p o l i ce su ccessfu l ?
W h y d i d t h e p o l i ce fa i l t o catch J a c k
t h e R i p p e r?
were p r o p e rty cri m es l i ke t h eft .
StP.j e- 3 wwe- wUt i ruUNr""'MUtfi'ui tlu- tN"'>n-Y>f

T h e re a re two k i n d s of s o u rces I ca n u s e .
B o o ks, a rt i c l e s a n d webs ites written b y experts o n c r i m e a n d p u n i s h m e nt i n
W h itech a p e l at t h i s t i m e .
S o u rces from t h e t i m e - p h otog ra p h s , a cco u nts written by citizens a n d
g ove r n m e n t off i c i a l s , re p o rts from n ews p a p e rs, co u rt reco rd s .
Visible learning
Tackling new topics with confidence
I u s e t h i s p l a n to h e l p me ex p l o re a ny h istorica l t o p i c t h a t is new to m e . St a rt i n g to
i nvestigate a n ew t o p i c c a n fe e l w o r ryi n g , l i ke st a rt i n g co m p l et e ly fro m scratch, b e c a u s e
d a t e s , n a m es a n d eve nts a re d iffe rent B U T i t ' s i m p o rt a nt to re m e m b e r H OW we s t u d y
eve ry t o p i c is v e r y s i m i l a r. W e u s e t h i s s a m e p l a n w h et h e r w e ' r e ex p l o r i n g Ro m a n h istory
o r C ri m e i n Victo r i a n Wh itech a p e l . We h ave s h own yo u this a p p ro a c h very vis i b l y so yo u
fe e l m o re c o n f i d e n t w h e n eve r you sta rt to t a c k l e a new t o p i c .
Letti ng you i nto a secret

I h ave been writi n g h i story books as part of my job fo r m o re than 1 0 yea rs. You m i g ht t h i n k
I m ust know everyth i n g there is t o know a b o u t h i story b u t th at's n ot true. The 'secret' is
that t h e re a re q u ite a few h istorical to pics I d o n 't know i n g reat d eta i l , because I h ave n ever
had to stu dy them i n d eta i l , or write a bout them . T h o u g h I know q u ite a l ot a bout the
Victorian period, I a m n ot a n expe rt i n eve ry aspect of what h a ppened i n Wh itech a p e l at
this time. I therefo re need to fi n d out a l ot m o re a bout the period, a n d about Wh itech a p e l
i n o rd e r to start t o fi n d the a n swers fo r my q u esti o n s about cri m e a n d p o l i c i n g , a n d a b o u t
the l ives o f peo p l e l i ke Sarah Fisher.
StVJe- 4 How-wi.I.J I do t!U-r rueaKvlrd

I n e e d to :
H ave my q u es t i o n s i n m i n d so I a lways rea d with a p u rpose

to a n swe r those q u esti o n s .
Re m e m b e r that I may not b e a b l e to fi n d exact and co m p l ete

a n swers to a l l my q u esti o n s so I n e e d to use words s u c h as
K e e p ca ref u l n otes, u s i n g my o w n K n ow l e d g e O rg a n isers, s o
' p r o b a b ly', ' i n a l l l i ke l i h oo d ', 'poss i b ly' a n d oth e r s we've s e e n
t h a t I d o n 't e n d u p w i t h a h e a p of d i s o rg a n ised i nfo rmati o n .
o n t h e W o r d Wa l l s o n p a g e s 3 0 a n d 1 04 .
M a ke s u re t h e books I read a n d webs ites I u s e a re rea l l y by

ex perts. T h i s m e a n s c h e c k i n g w h o wrote t h e m a n d h ow t h ey
k n ow what t h ey're te l l i n g m e .
T h e re m a y b e q u e sti o n s I ca n 't a n sw e r a t a l l ! A n d I
n e e d to ke e p t h i n k i n g ! I m i g ht f i n d u n ex p e cted
i nfo r m a t i o n w h i c h p ro m pts n e w q u e sti o n s o r s u g g ests
A s k q u es t i o n s a b o ut t h e sou rces I u s e . F o r exa m p l e : I s
I l o o k in oth e r books o r reco r d s . I ca n 't p re d i ct exa ctl y
a p h otog ra p h typ i c a l o f co n d it i o n s i n Lo n d o n at t h a t
w h at I ' l l f i n d at t h e b e g i n n i n g of a n e n q u i r y . I n e e d to
t i m e ? W a s t h e a ut h o r p resent at t h e eve nts h e o r s h e was
r e m e m b e r t h a t I 'm a l l owed to c h a n g e m y m i n d a b o u t
descri b i n g ? W h i c h a re the most usefu l s o u rces fo r each
m y a n sw e r to a q u e st i o n a s I f i n d o u t m o re .
q u esti o n ?
C o m b i n ation o f colours i n d icates

that the street conta i n s a fair
proportion of each of the classes
represented by the respective
c o l o u rs .
1.2 W hat was W hitec hapel li ke?

Whitechapel is an area of London's East End, just outside the City of London. In our period
it was an inner-city area of poverty - a place where lots of different types of people lived,
many of whom were very poor. Some parts were known as 'rooke ries' an area filled with
lodging houses in which some of London's poorest people lived in terribly overcrowded
conditions. They spent only one or two nights in a place, each day trying to earn enough
money to eat and for the 4d it would cost for their next night's 'doss'. Other parts of
White chapel were more respectable and during our period, as you will see, parts of the area
changed for the better, or for the worse. The work of the police and the crimes that took
place in Whitechapel will be covered in more detail later on, so this section focuses on
living conditions.
-
Th ree key places in Wh itecha pe l

You are going to get a n overview of Whitechapel by looking at three key places. You'll hear
about these places again as the unit goes on, but let's explore them a bit first. As you're
reading you should record what you find out in a Knowledge Organiser like this one :
Place
What does this place

tel l us a bout housing
a n d overcrowd ing in
Wh itechapel?
Does this place give

us a ny clues as to
the ca uses of crime
in Whitechapel?
What q u estions
does this place
m a ke us ask?
F l ower a n d D e a n Street
Wh itech a p e l Wo rkh o u s e
a n d Casu a l Wa rd
T h e Pea body Estate
THE TEN BELLS PUB
THE EV IDENCE OF CHARLES BOOTH
This p u b was j ust n o rth of Flower

and Dean Street, o n the corner of
Fou rn ie r Street and Com m e rcia l Roa d .
O bviously this w a s a place where
peo p l e d ra n k, a n d as we wi l l see, d r i n k
made p e o p l e m o re l i kely t o com m it
cri m es a n d to be victi ms of cri me.
M a ry Ke l ly, the last of Jack the Ripper's
victi ms, d ra n k at the Ten B e l l s on the
eve n i n g that she was ki l l e d . P u bs l i ke
the Ten B e l l s were stop-off poi nts for
p rostitutes looking fo r clie nts, a n d for
thieves a n d ro bbers looking fo r peo p l e
t o steal fro m .
Charles Booth, 1 840-1 9 1 6
H oweve r, p u bs were a l so p l a ces to

g et warm a n d to eat a m e a l , wh ich
wou l d h ave been very we l co m e fo r
those w h o were l i v i n g i n d oss h o u ses
o r crowd ed a p a rt m e nts.
Booth w a s a su ccessfu l b u s i n ess m a n , w h o

beca m e i n te rested i n pove rty. H e tried
to fi n d out t h e exte nt of pove rty u s i n g
C e n s u s reco rds b u t , l i ke us, h e fo u n d
q u ite s o o n that these reco rd s co u l d
n ot a n swer a l l h i s q u esti o n s , a n d were
s o m et i m e s i n accu rate. H e decided to
i nvestig ate by sett i n g up what today
we m i g ht ca l l a sociologica l resea rch
p roj ect. He e m p l oyed 80 rese a rc h e rs
to exp l o re pove rty, l iv i n g co n d iti o n s
a n d re l i g i o u s fa ith a c ross t h e c a p ita l ,
a n d u s e d very i n n ovative ways t o g e t
at t h e i n fo rm ation that h e n e e d e d . H i s
tea m of rese a rc h e rs ta l ked to S c h o o l B o a rd
Visitors, w h o we re e m p l oyed by l o ca l a u t h o rities
to visit c h i l d re n i n t h e yea rs befo re t h ey reach the
age fo r sch o o l . Booth a l so a s ked his resea rch e rs to i n te rview m a ny of Lo n d o n 's
p o l i ce m e n d u ri n g t h e i r 'beats' - t h e i r patro ls - to fi n d o u t t h e i r views of t h e
a reas t h ey were w a l k i n g th ro u g h . Booth p rod u ced a s e r i e s o f m a ps w h i c h tried
to s h ow h ow poor each a rea was. T h e re a re some extracts fro m Booth's m a ps
on t h e fo l l owi n g pages.
Flowe r a n d Dea n Street

In 1870 Flower and Dean Street was a well-known rookery. The historian Jerry White used
the 1871 Census to work out that there were 902 lodgers staying in 31 of the 'doss houses'
on this street alone. Some of these houses dated back to late 1600 and they were in a terrible
condition. Their yards had been built over to provide more rooms and at the front the street
was narrow - only 16 feet at its widest part in the middle. There were outside toilets, bur
buckets and pots were used indoors, and often spilled. Some lodgings were more settled, but
families moved on after a few days or weeks, perhaps because they couldn't afford the rent, or
because they moved to find other work. Because of the worst doss houses, Flower and Dean
Street had a terrible reputation as a haunt of thieves, drunkards and prostitutes. As you
can see, Booth coloured this street in black in 1889, which meant that he saw it as a 'vicious,
semi-criminal' area. If we look closely at the map though, it looks like there were middle
class, 'well-to-do' families very nearby. This pattern was repeated across Whitechapel, with
very poor and much more comfortably off people living near each other. Overall, however,
according to the Medical Officer of Health for Whitechapel's report in 1873, Whitechapel was
very densely populated, with 188.6 people living in each acre (about 0.001 square miles), an
average 25.6 square foot per person. For London as a whole the figure was 45 people per acre.
Sou rce A Fro m t h e B o a rd of Wo rks, W h i t e c h a p e l d i s t r i c t , re p o rt on t h e s a n ita ry co n d i t i o n
o f t h e W h i t e c h a p e l d i s t r i c t , f o r t h e q u a rt e r e n d e d 3 A p r i l , 1 8 8 0 .
I have t o state tha t I have made an inspection of a l l the private houses, o r houses l e t in apartments,
in the undermentioned stree ts, namely-Flower and Dean Street, Upper Keate Street, and Lower
Keate Street. The houses, 38 in number, contain 143 rooms, and are occupied by 298 persons; 210
adults and 88 children [. .1. I discovered 4 cases of overcrowding only, 2 in Flower and Dean Street.
and 2 in Lower Keate Street. The interior condition of these houses is not good, they are worn out.
and many of the walls and ceilings are dirty and dilapidated. The greater portion of these houses
have been condemned [. . .], and three of their number, 5, 7, and 8, Lower Keate Street, should either
be taken down, or at once closed, as they are in such a dirty and dilapida ted condition.
FLOWER AND
DEAN STREET
1
What does Sou rce B

te l l us about the peo p l e
l iving o n F l ower a n d
Dean Street?
2 Loo k a g a i n at the
d iffe re nt co l o u rs. What

d o they te l l us about
the spread of d iffe rent
cl asses of people across
Wh itech a p e l ?
3 H ow fa r away fro m t h e
bette r off a reas were t h e

poore r p e o p l e l ivi n g ?
4 Loo k at the street
patte rns a ro u n d F l ower

and Dean Street, what
poss i b l e p ro b l e m s
co u l d this c a u s e fo r a
p o l i ce fo rce?
Very poor, casuaL
C h ro n i c want
Poor 1 8s to 2 1 s
a week for a moderate f a m i ly.
M ixed . Some comfortable,
others poor.
We l l todo .
F a i rly comforta b l e .
Good ord i n a ry e a r n i n g s .
M id d l e class .
U p perm 1 d d l e a n d
u p p e r classes. Wea lthy
C o m b i nation of colours i n d icates

that the street conta i n s a f a i r
proportion of each o f the classes
represented by the respective
colours.
1""-"""'M"""
T Source
B Whitechapel
from Charles Booth's map of
poverty in London, 1889 .
Wh itecha pe l Wo rkh ouse a n d

Cas u a l Wa rd
I'm starting to understand why Sarah Fisher might be driven
to take her young and very sick child out on a frosty and cold
night in order to use her to try to earn some money. In the
case report I read that the child was taken to the Workhouse,
where she was given medicine and food. Why didn't Sarah go
to the Workhouse herself, to get help for Lucy?
Source C A group of men picking oakum in return for a

night 's stay at St Thomas's Street Casual Ward.
.A.
Those who were unable to afford a bed for the night in a

doss house, or who were too young, too old and too unwell
to work, could go to the Workhouse. However, people were
very reluctant to go for help at the Workhouse because of
the strict rules that dictated what people ate, how they
worked, the time they went to bed and when they got up.
Those with families were segregated from their children
and their wives or husbands and for much of the time were
not even allowed to speak to one another. Parents were
allowed to see their children only once a day.
The Whitechapel Workhouse was a t South Grove, t o the east, just off Mile End Road. I n
the centre of Whitechapel a t Buck's Row there was a Workhouse Infirmary for the sick, and
across the road at St Thomas's Street there was a 'Casual Ward', which could take around
400 inmates. The Casual Ward, for those who wanted a bed for one night, only had spaces
for around 60 people. The rules of the Casual Ward were very harsh - inmates were
expected to work to earn their bed for the night. They would be made to pick oakum,
which means picking apart the fibres of old rope, or they could be asked to work in the
kitchens or to clean the Workhouse. It was thought that otherwise the inmates would be
tempted to stay on at the expense of the taxpayers, who funded the Workhouse Union.
M a ke s u re you
u n d e rsta n d the fo l l owi n g :
Wo rkh ouse u n i o n
Picki n g oakum
e Casu a l wa rd
e I nfi rm a ry
Sweatsh o p
S o u rce D From The Pe ople of the Abyss, by J a c k Lo n d o n , an A m e r i c a n n ove list w h o stayed

in d oss h o u s e s and wo r k h o u s e s to s e e what i t was Li ke. In 1 9 0 2 h e v i s i t e d the W h i t e c h a p e l
C a s u a l Wa rd .
Some were set to scrubbing and cleaning, others to picking oakum, and eight of us were convoyed
across the street to the Whitechapel lnfirmary, where we were set at scavenger work. This was the
method by which we paid for our skilly* and canvas**, and I, for one, know that I paid in full many
times over.
Though we had most revolting tasks to perform, our allotment was considered the best, and the
other men deemed themselves lucky in being chosen to perform it.
'Don't touch it, ma te, the nurse sez it 's deadly, warned my working partner. as I held open a sack
in to which he was emp tying a garbage can.
it came from the sick wards, and I told him that I purposed neither to touch it, nor to allow it to
touch me. Nevertheless, I had to carry the sack, and other sacks, down five flights of stairs and
empty them in a recep tacle where the corruption was speedily sprinkled with strong disinfectant.
* S k i l ly - a k i n d of we a k b roth o r s o u p m a d e from w a t e r, vegeta b les a n d c o r n f lo u r.
* * C a nvas - t h i s m e a n s t h e u s e of a h a m m o c k as a b e d f o r t h e n i g h t .
THE CASUAL WARD OF THE WORKHOUSE

1
M a ke a l ist of the workh ouse ru l es on this page.
2 Why were m a ny ru l es of the Casu a l Wa rd so h a rsh?
3 Does this exp l a i n why people p refe rred to take t h e i r c h a n ces i n d oss h o u ses?
The Pea body Estate

To the south of Whitechapel Road, just to the east of the Tower of
London, is a street called Royal Mint Street, and just off this street was
another 'rookery' like Flower and Dean Street, where there were large
numbers of lodging houses. The annual death rate here in the years
after 1865 was more than 50 in 1,0 00. This was double that for the rest
of London. You can see from Source E how the small houses and narrow
roads were crowded together.
In 1876 the Metropolitan Boa rd of Works (a government organisation)
bought the area for slum clearance. This scheme was very expensive. The
Board was supposed to sell the land on, but couldn't find commercial
developers to buy it, because of the small profits they would make on the
low rents they would be able to charge.
In 1879 they sold most of the site to the Peabody Trust, a charity set up
by a wealthy American banker. This trust built blocks of flats which
were designed to offer affordable rents. By 1881, 287 flats had been
built. Each block of flats was separate from the other and surrounded
by a yard, in order to improve ventilation. They were built from brick
and had unplastered walls so that lice could not live in the plaster. They
also had shared bathrooms and kitchens, and were much more pleasant
to live in than the buildings they replaced. However, the rents were
probably too high for many of the people who had lived in the area
before, and tenants who got behind with their rent were immediately
thrown out. So improvements like these caused more overcrowding
elsewhere as the poorest people looked for rents they could afford.
WHY DIDN'T PEOPLE JUST

LEAV E WHITECHAPEL?
We m i g ht wo n d e r why p e o p l e d i d n 't m ove out
and fi n d bette r p l a ces to l ive. The main reason
seems to h ave been that people l ived w h e re
t h ey co u l d e a rn m o n ey. B etwee n Wh itech a p e l
R o a d a n d the Th a m es t h e re were ta n n e ries
w h e re leath e r was cu red, sweatshops a n d
ta i l o rs w h e re c l othes a n d s h oes were m a d e,
s l a u g hte r h o uses a n d butch e rs' s h o p s a n d
b a keries. A l l these p l a ces n e e d e d e m p l oyees.
Peo p l e h a d to l ive with i n wa l k i n g d ista nce
of their work. T h i s was especi a l ly true fo r
t h e poorest l a b o u re rs a n d d o c k workers.
T h e i r jobs were very i n s e c u re - t h ey co u l d
be ta ke n o n fo r a d ay's work a n d l a i d off t h e
n ext. Th ese wo rkers h a d to g et to t h e d ock
o r ta n n e ry g ates ea rly i n t h e m o r n i n g to g et
work befo re t h e com petiti o n a rrive d . T h e l ow
pay - betwee n 6 a n d 1 2 s h i l l i n g s a week i n
g o o d e m p l oy m e n t - m e a n t that it w a s h a rd to
save a n d h a rd to l eave. For those w h o co u l d
n ot work - eith e r because o f sickness l i ke
S a r a h Fishe r's h u s b a n d , o r because of a l co h o l
a d d icti o n l i ke m ost o f J a c k t h e R i p p e r's victi m s
- t h e re we re oth e r o p p o rtu n ities t o e a r n
m o n ey fro m p rostitut i o n , ro b b e ry o r th eft.
ACTIVITY
F i n d out m o re a bout
G e o rg e Pea body a n d why
h e decided to d o n ate
m o n ey fo r new h o u s i n g i n
Lo n d o n .
1
What evidence sugg ests

that peop l e who l ived
near Roya l M i nt Street
we re very poor?
2 Why d i d the Board of
Works fi n d it h a rd to
re-b u i l d bette r h o u ses
in this a rea?
3 What i m p rove m ents

.A. S o u rce E A p i c t u re s h o w i n g Pea b o d y b u i ld i n g s in W h i t e c h a p e l in 2 0 1 2 .
did t h e Pea body c h a rity

bring?
1.3 Victorians and t he fear of cri me in the East End

So, I have found out that Whitechapel was a place in which some people who were relatively
comfortably off lived close to areas in which very poor people lived. I have also found out
that in the poorer areas there was overcrowding caused by high rents and by insecure and
low-paid work. It seems many people in Whitechapel were living under threat of
homelessness. Sarah Fisher's husband's illness stopped him from getting work, and it
seems that her landlady, Sarah King, was running a lodging house like those I found out
about on Flower and Dean Street. I have also perhaps found out why Sarah Fisher didn't
ask for help from the Workhouse - it seems that only the very desperate would do this.
Sarah perhaps thought she would lose her baby if she asked for help from the Workhouse
Union. I've made good progress, but I have also opened up some new areas that I might
want to follow up. For instance, I might want to know why Victorian newspapers were so
interested in crime, why the number of policemen in Whitechapel seemed to be growing,
and I might also investigate why wealthy men like Peabody were concerned about living
conditions in places like Whitechapel.
S o u rce A Fro m Ta les of Mean Stre e ts , a n ovel by A rt h u r M o rr i s o n , p u b l i s h e d in 1 8 94.
This street is in the East End [. . .] an evil plexus of slums that hide human creeping things; where
filthy men and women live on penn'orths of gin, where collars and clean shirts are decencies
unknown, where every citizen wears a black eye and none ever combs his hair.
Source A is taken from the first page of a novel by Arthur Morrison. We might be tempted
to dismiss it as an exaggeration and say that it offers no useful evidence for us as
historians. There is certainly a lot of language of exaggeration - my favourite phrase is 'an
evil plexus of slums' - it's exciting stuff and designed to raise the hairs on the back of his
readers' necks. However, this source might tell us some important things about the fear of
crime and the fear of the East End that many people felt during our period - it could help
us to understand why Victorians were afraid of crime.
The French artist Gustave
Dore drew pictures like

this one of London in 1872 .
Dore exaggerated many of
the features of London life ,
but can still give u s a n idea
of what conditions in the
rookeries were like .
A cri m i n a l u n d e rcl ass

People had different explanations for crime. Some thought that there was a criminal
underclass, sometimes called the 'residuum' - natural criminals, born to steal, lie and rob.
The residuum, it was thought, were attracted to the hard-working people of London and
lived off them, like criminal parasites.
Sou rce B From Crime a n d its Causes, a b o o k by W. D. M o rriso n , a clergyma n , p u blished i n 1 89 1 .
Habitual criminals are not to be confounded [confused] with the working or any other class; they
are a set of persons who make crime the object and business of their lives; to commit crime is their
trade; they deliberately scoff at honest ways of earning a living.
Lod g i n g h o uses a n d p u bs
Others, such as Andrew Mearns, a clergyman who visited the East End and wrote a
pamphlet called The Bitter Cry of Outcast London in 1883, were worried that overcrowding
and unhealthy living conditions would spread criminal behaviour. Inevitably, this meant
that lodging houses and pubs were seen as places in which crime would be transmitted
from habitual criminals to the decent people forced to live alongside them.
RECORDING YOUR RESEARCH
Use five n ote card s to record the reasons why m a n y Victorian Lo n d o n e rs were worried about
cri m e i n Wh itech a p e l , each with o n e of the fo l l owi n g head i n g s :
A cri m i n a l u n d e rclass
Lod g i n g h o u ses and p u bs
e Drink
e
e
I m m i g ration
Difficu lties of refo rm
Sou rce C Fro m The Bitter Cry of Outcast L o n don by A n d rew M e a r n s , p u b l i s h e d in 1 8 8 3 .

That people condemned t o exist under such conditions take t o drink a n d fall in to sin is surely
a ma tter for little surprise . . . . One of the saddest results of this overcrowding is the inevitable
association of honest people with criminals. Often is the family of an honest working man
compelled to take refuge in a thieves' kitchen . . . . Who can wonder that every evil flourishes in such
hotbeds of vice and disease?
LODGING HOUSES
1
Read S o u rce C. Why wou ld 'hon est' fa m i l ies end u p in kitchens fu l l of thieves if they l ived i n
a l o d g i n g h ouse?
2 Did M o rrison t h i n k that d ri n k was a cause o r a co nseq u e n ce of h a rsh l iving cond itions?
D ri n k
Drink was one way of coping with the difficulties of life in Whitechapel, and addiction to
alcohol was responsible for some committing crimes. The historian Drew Gray in his book
London's Shadows, published in 2 0 1 3, made a survey of the seventeen cases before the
Thames Police Court on 1 June 1887 for 'disorderly behaviour' and found that all except
one mentioned the drunkenness of the accused. Alcohol could also make arguments worse,
as in the trial ofWilliam Seaman who was convicted of attacking Mr John Simpkin, a
chemist, in an argument about his weighing out of an order of alum, which was used in
baking (see Source D ) .
S o u rce D Fro m O l d Bailey Pro ceedings O n lin e , O c t o b e r 1 8 8 8 , t r i a l of W I L L I A M S E A M A N ( 4 0 ) .
JOHN TABARD {Police m a n H 85}: O n 8th Sep tember I was in Berner Street when I heard shouts of
Police '-/ wen t to the prosecutor's shop, and saw the prisoner holding the prosecutor by the left
hand by the throat, and punching him in the ribs with his right hand-/ caugh t hold of him, and with
the assistance of Smith I pulled him in to the street-he was then taken in to the back of the shop
on account of the crowd-/ got this hammer {produced} from McCarthy-1 took the prisoner to the
station-the charge was taken down by the inspector [. . .]
However, drink was also a factor in making people victims of crime. All of]ack the Ripper's
victims were alcoholics, and were probably drunk when they were attacked. There are
plenty of other examples of victims being robbed or stolen from while slightly the worse for
a drink.
We need to bear in mind that many of the newspapers and other sources are looking at
Whitechapel from the outside, and reflect the fears and attitudes of the people
'investigating' the problems that they saw in Whitechapel. However, it seems clear that life
in Whitechapel was tough, and that for some, crime was often a way of getting over short
term difficulties. It was also often unplanned and opportunistic, like the case of George
Knight, convicted of 'simple larceny' in 1881 (see S ource E) .
S o u rce E Fro m Old Bailey Proceedings Onlin e , M a y 1 8 8 1 , t r i a l of G E O R G E K N I G H T (a g e d 2 0 ) .
THOMAS HEWSMAN. I a m employed by Messrs. Cook, Sons, a n d Go., of 22, St. Pa ul 's Churchyard,
silk merchan ts-on 1st April / saw the prisoner about 70 a. m. passing through the warehouse-/
knew he was not employed there-he was holding his coa t so that it was drawn tightly across the
back-/ followed him to the back door; there are three steps to go down, so that I could see over his
shoulder. and I saw a corner of a parcel inside his coat-/ comm unica ted with Mr. Harries. followed
the prisoner. and asked him wha t he had under his coa t-he threw the parcel in the road and ran
away-this is it-/ and Harries ran after him-it was picked up and given to me-Harries caugh t the
prisoner. and he was brought back.
DRINK
1
H ow d i d d ri n k i n crease
cri m e i n Wh itech a p e l ?
2 Why d i d so m a ny
people d ri n k i n
Wh itech a p e l ?
I m m i g rati o n
Whitechapel had long been a place that attracted immigrants - there were jobs, and
cheap places to sleep, and for the Irish and the Jews from eastern Europe, there were also
communities of similar people who were already settled there. Irish immigration had been
happening in large numbers since the early 1800s. By the time of our period there were
well-established Irish lodging houses, and Irish workers dominated many of the docks.
After 1801 Russian Jews came to England in large numbers because they were persecuted in
Russia following the assassination ofTsar Alexander II. Around 30,0 0 0 arrived in London
between 1881 and 1891. Jewish immigrants found it harder to integrate than those from
Ireland, partly because of language barriers, but also because of cultural factors such as
religious holidays and Sabbath rituals. As a result, many recent Jewish immigrants found
themselves working for more established Jewish employers, often working in sweatshops
making clothing and shoes. All in all this meant that Jewish people were segregated, and a
target for prejudice. The map below shows where the Jewish population of Whitechapel
mainly lived at this time.
T Source F Charles Booth's map of the Jewish population of Whitechapel in 1900.

1 Th i s i s the a rea a ro u n d F lower a n d Dea n Street.
3 Jewish i m m ig ra nts tended to c l u ster i n pa rtic u l a r
Why d o you th i n k that the J ewish i m m i g ra nts of t h e
a reas w h ere they we re a l m ost 1 0 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e
1880s a n d 1890s were d rawn to t h i s a rea?
p o p u lati o n . As y o u ca n s e e i n t h e places a ro u n d
e a c h a rea, Jewish people we re sti l l a m i n o rity.
Note: I n a l l streets coloured b l u e ,

J e w i s h people f o r m a m ajo rity o f
i n h a b itants; i n t h o s e coloured red,
the Genti les predo m i nate.
2 T h i s i s w h e re the Pea body Estate wa s b u i lt.

Why d i d n 't the Jewish i m m ig ra nts m ove to these
new m o d e l a pa rtments?
4 T h i s i s w h ere the B e r n e r Street Th eatre wa s,
w h ere the Workers ' Friend n ewspa per wa s pri nted .

Socia l i s m and a n a rchism
Adding to the fears of criminal behaviour were worries about political ideas
such as socialism and anarchism that these immigrants seemed to bring
with them, or which were stirred up by home-grown radical politicians.
The Irish were targets of prejudice because of their Roman Catholic
religion, but also because of the rise in 'Fenian' Irish Nationalism. At
that time the whole of lreland was ruled by Britain, but many Irish
people wanted at the least 'Home Rule' and preferably independence.
Armed protests in Ireland were increasing and in 1884 a small bombing
campaign led to an explosion on a train at Gower Street station, and
the discovery of a bomb left in Trafalgar Square. Two other bombs did
explode in the campaign, though there were only slight injuries in each.
There had been a series of attempted assassinations and bomb attacks
on the continent, which newspapers had labelled anarchist 'outrages'.
Anarchism was a revolutionary political idea which said that people
would be better off without government and without laws, and that left to
their own devices people would act honourably and kindly to one another.
To the English press this idea was very threatening. The idea of anarchism
was developed by Russian revolutionaries, and some politicians
emphasised the threat ofJewish immigration and Jewish radicalism from
eastern Europe.
Some Jewish immigrants did bring radical political beliefs and set up
socialist organisations such as the International Worker's Educational
Club and a newspaper - the Arbeter Fraint or Worker's Friend at a theatre
just off Commercial Road in Whitechapel at Berner Street, now called
Henriques Street. Many people were already blaming the Ripper murders
on a Jew when the body of Annie Chapman, the third victim, was found
in the yard of the Berner Street theatre. Rumours were circulated and
printed that Nikolay Vasiliev, a Russian anarchist Jew, was responsible
for a string of similar murders in France, and was now living in England,
though it unlikely that this person even existed. Even though there was
never a serious connection found between political anarchists and the
Ripper murder, the police were worried about their ability to keep an eye on
the activities of the Jews in Berner Street, especially as many of them were
carried out in Yiddish - the language that many of the immigrants spoke.
Diffi cu lty of refo rm
These ideas and fears led reformers to want to open up the East End and
Whitechapel in particular, by widening roads, and by knocking down
the rookeries and lodging houses. It was these ideas that led to the calls
for laws to knock down the slums and replace them with new housing
projects like the Peabody Estate near Royal Mint Street.
However, as we've already seen, these schemes often didn't benefit those
people in the greatest need - they found themselves crowding into
other lodging houses. Increasingly, they were in competition for rented
accommodation with immigrants from Ireland and eastern Europe. This
meant that the problem seemed like an intractable one, and efforts to
improve the environment and the character of the East End seemed fruitless.
This situation seemed to confirm W.D. Morrison (see Source H) in his view
that it was character and nature that caused crime, not environment.
S o u rce G Fro m A r n o ld W h i te 's b o o k , The

Modern Jew, p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 99.
There are thousands of [Jews] who prefer
existence without physical exertion, and who
are con ten t to live on others, un trammelled
by considerations of honesty or truth [.. .]
[consider] the benefit that the coun try would
derive from the to tal cessa tion [stopping]
of the immigration of professional paupers,
anarchists and thieves.
IMMIGRATION FEARS
1
Read Sou rce G . What d i d Wh ite accuse

J ewish peo p l e of b e i n g ?
2 W h a t d o y o u t h i n k 'p rofessi o n a l pau per'
m e a n s?
3 Read Sou rce H . Why d i d M o rrison t h i n k
that cri m e wo u l d n ot be cu red b y g iv i n g

people bette r h o u s i n g a n d m o re m o n ey?
S o u rce H F ro m Crime and its Causes, by

W. D . M o r r i s o n , p u b li s h e d i n 1 8 9 1 .
Very often crime is but the offspring of
degeneracy and disease. A diseased and
degenerate population no matter how
favourably circumstanced in other respects will
always produce a plentiful crop of criminals.
Exploring the sources
Describe two featu res of:

a ) l o d g i n g h o u ses in Wh itech a p e l
b ) co n d it i o n s i n workh o u ses
c) t h e effect of d r i n k o n cri m e in
Wh itech a p e l .
H ow usefu l a re sou rces A a n d B o n
p a g e 1 25 fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto t h e
p ro b l e m s of h o u s i n g a n d overcrowd i n g
i n Wh itech a p e l ? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swe r,
u s i n g S o u rces A a n d B a n d yo u r
k n ow l e d g e o f t h e h i storica l context.
H ow co u l d you fo l l ow u p S o u rce B o n
p a g e 1 28 t o fi n d o u t m o re a b o u t t h e
ca u ses o f cri m e i n Wh itech a p e l ? U s e
t h e fo l l ow i n g h e a d i n g s :
Deta i l i n S o u rce B I wo u l d fo l l ow u p
Q u estion I wou l d a s k
What type of sou rce I co u l d use
H ow t h i s m i g ht h e l p my q u estion
1.4 The working of t he Metropolitan Police

In the early part of the nineteenth century there was a feeling that crime had increased in
London. There were local watchmen and other types of police force throughout London,
but they were variable in their effectiveness. Poorer places like Whitechapel could not
afford to pay for enough watchmen to protect people from crime. Sir Robert Peel, who was
the Home Secretary between 1822 and 1830, decided that London needed one police force
that was under central control.
What was the p u b l ic attitude towa rds the M etro p o l ita n

Po lice?
When the Metropolitan Police was set up in 1829, it was paid for by local London
authorities, but controlled by the Home Secretary. Before this each local area had employed
its own 'watchmen'. Many worried that a centrally controlled police force could be used by
government to spy on ordinary Englishmen and women, and interfere with their liberty. In
1833 a coroner's jury decided that the stabbing of a policeman at a riot had been justifiable
homicide because of the tactics of the police force in controlling the crowd. Did the
reputation of the police improve as time went on?
A QUICK HISTORY OF THE METROPOLITAN POLICE
1
Read the boxes on the n ext page. Pro d u ce a l iving g ra p h l i ke the o n e h e re to reco rd h ow
good the re p utati o n of the pol ice wo u l d h ave been at d iffe rent tim es, in yo u r view.
H i g h reputation
X at M i l b a n k Prison
Police response to f i re
The M etro p o l itan Police Act
Low reputation +--.-----,--.---.--,
2 Focus on the p rofessi o n a l ism of the fo rce.
a) I d e ntify t h ree ch a n g es which a i m ed to i m p rove the q u a l ity of recru its a n d the

workfo rce.
b) I d e ntify t h ree i m p rove m e nts to pol ice o rg a n isation or i nvestig ation tech n i q ues.
3 D iscuss with a pa rtn e r and d ivide this ti m e l i n e i nto d iffe rent phases, such as times when
things seemed to be going bette r o r worse.
1 829
1 835
The M etro p o l itan Po l i ce Act, d rafted by Sir Ro b e rt Pee l ,

set u p t h e M etro p o l itan Po l i ce. S i r C h a rles Rowan a n d
Rich a rd M ay n e were t h e fi rst Commissioners (see p a g e
1 34 ) . By 1 83 0 t h e re we re 3 , 3 0 0 p o l i ce m e n i n t h e fo rce.
N ewspa p e rs praised t h e q u i ck res ponse by t h e p o l ice

to a fi re at M i l l b a n k Priso n , which p reve nted any
esca pes or tro u b l e a m o n g t h e p riso n e rs.
1 866
1 842
1 852
Detective Branch fo r m e d (see page 1 3 4 ) .

S o m e worried that p o l ice detectives wou l d b e
used t o s py o n o rd i n a ry p e o p l e . Plain-clothed
police m e n were o rd e red to revea l t h e i r i d e ntity
i n confro ntati o n s with t h e p u b l ic.
Sir C h a rles Rowa n d i e d .

T h e re were n ow 5,700
m e n i n the fo rce.
3 , 2 0 0 p o l i ce m e n were used
to contro l a riot i n Hyde Park
- Co m m i ss i o n e r M a y n e was
i nj u red, and t h e a rmy was
ca l l ed i n to contro l t h e c rowd .
1 867
1 870
I rish ' F e n i a n s', w h o wa nted i n d e p e n d e n ce fo r

I re l a n d , p l a nted a b o m b i n C l e rke nwe l l . T h e
p o l ice i g n o red warn i n g s o f t h e attack.
N ew Co m m iss i o n e r Ed m u n d H e n d e rson i ntro d u ced

ru l es to i n crease t h e q u a l ity of recru its and to raise
sta n d a rd s of rea d i n g and writi n g i n t h e p o l ice. He
re l axed ru l es a b o u t d r i l l (see p a g e 1 34 ) .
1 877
1 885
1 886
A cou rt case revea led co rru pti o n a m o n g s e n i o r

offi cers at t h e Detective B r a n c h i n a n i nte rnati o n a l
g a m b l i n g fra u d co n s p i ra cy. T h i s 'Tri a l o f t h e
Detectives' w a s closely fo l l owed a n d re po rted i n
t h e n ews p a p e rs . T h e fo l l owi n g yea r, S i r C h a rles
Vincent refo r m e d t h i s branch i nto t h e C ri m i n a l
I nvesti g ation D e p a rt m e n t (CI D ) .
O n ly a yea r afte r a
' S pecia l I rish B r a n c h ' was
set up to i nfi ltrate I rish
terrorist ce l l s, Fenian
b o m bs exp l o d e d at t h e
H o uses o f Pa r l i a m e nt a n d
t h e Towe r of Lo n d o n .
A p rotest i n Trafa l g a r
S q u a re g ot o u t o f h a n d a n d
h o u ses were d a m a g e d .
H e n d e rson resi g n ed a s
Co m m iss i o n e r. S i r C h a rles
Wa rre n re p l a ced h i m .
1 887
1 888-89
Wa rren resi g n e d afte r seem i n g t o criticise t h e H o m e

Se creta ry fo l l ow i n g a n ot h e r riot i n Trafa l g a r S q u a re .
J a m es M u n ro was a p p o i nted i n h i s p l ace.
T h e Wh itech a p e l M u rd e rs were ca rried out

five were t h o u g h t to be t h e work of o n e m a n :
J a ck t h e R i p p e r. T h e R i p p e r was n ot c a u g ht.
1 895
1 894
N ew syste m fo r
i d e ntify i n g s u s pects
was put in p l a ce
- u s i n g p hysica l
m e a s u re m e nts,
p h otog ra p h s a n d 'th e
m u g shot'.
N ew r u l es fo r
recru itment. A p p l ica nts
had to be betwee n 21
and 27, a b l e to rea d
a n d w rite we l l , a n d be
ta l l e r than 5'9".
1 902
1 901
F i n g erprint i d e ntificati o n
i ntro d u ce d .
M ed a ls, time off a n d

a bonus was paid
t o a l l p o l i ce m e n
t o repay t h e m fo r
extra d uties d u ri n g
t h e co ro n ation of
Edwa rd VI I .
Po lice Co m m issio n e rs a n d the H o m e Secreta ry

B etween 1870 and 1 9 0 0 there seemed to be a crisis at the very top of the police force, with
two Commissioners being forced to resign from their jobs. Their experiences allow us to
explore people's attitudes to the police - why were people suspicious of them and were they
doing an effective job ?
Co m m issio n e r Ed m u n d H e n d e rs o n
Edmund Henderson, who was appointed
as Commissioner in 1870, was forced to
resign in 1886 following a string of scandals.
Henderson was accused of having relaxed
police discipline - he had allowed officers
to grow beards, and reduced the amount
of military drill practice they had to do.
His critics often ignored the action he had
taken to raise the standard of reading and
writing in the force, and his expansion of the
Detective Branch.
In 1877 a scandal called 'the Trial of
the Detectives' was uncovered involving
corruption in the Detective Branch (see page
143), and suspicion of the police continued
throughout the time Henderson was in
charge. In the case of Thomas Titley in 1880
some thought that the police had made
Titley break the law. They had posed in
plain clothes as customers wanting to buy a
chemical in order to bring on an abortion.
On 17 December 1880 The London Daily News
wrote that the case had been 'manufactured'
in an 'extraordinary manner'. The jury found
Titley guilty but recommended a lenient
sentence 'on the ground of the provocation
by the police inducing him to the crime'. The
following year 3,800 people signed a petition
against Titley's eighteen-month sentence.
11h.. Dol.r.
(.ttrkr"
BULL'S
EYE
ON BOBBY .
htllluru). 11 THANK YOU. PLL J UST .lJ .!YE. A LOUK ROUND MYSI-HF.
TrrE rllllUSll S A!N'P A S CLEAN AS HEY MIGHT llll l "
p,tl(o,cmtm't
Sl'RIKE )l E
Source A A cartoon published in Punch magazine in 1877 during the

Trial of the Detectives. Sir Edmund Henderson is shown as a normal
constable . A policeman's light is being shone in his face by John Bull - a
symbol of Britishness. The words 'detective branch' are on the door.
Sou rce B Fro m The L o n don Daily News , 1 7 D e ce m b e r 1 8 8 0 .

Nothing could well be stronger than the language in which fvlr Justice Stephen
[the judge who tried the case] condemned the conduct of the CID. He will,
we think, have the general body of public opinion with him in saying that 'the
employment of spies to go and tell a parcel of lies was a proceeding that must
be deprecated [condemned] by all '.
Following this, in 1884 and 1885, Irish

Fenian terrorists exploded a series of bombs,
including two that damaged the Houses of
Parliament (see Source C ) . This was
especially humiliating as the Special Irish
Branch, which had been set up in 1883, had
failed to stop the plot. Finally, following a
riot in Trafalgar Square which had got out of
control, Henderson was replaced by Charles
Warren in January 1886.
THOMAS TITLEY
1
H ow m ig ht the Titley case h ave m a d e

people suspicious o f the pol ice?
2 Loo k at Sou rce A. Why is 'J o h n B u l l '
s h i n i n g a l i g ht i n t h i s ca rtoon?
T Source C The front page of the
Graphic Newspaper from January

1885, showing a drawing of the damage done to the chamber of the
House of Commons .
SIR EDMUND HENDERSON,

1821-1896
H e n d e rson was a n
adventu re r a n d s o l d i e r
befo re settl i n g d own t o t h e
j o b o f Co m m issi o n e r o f t h e
M etro p o l itan Po l i ce. H e
carried o u t su rveys o f B ritish
territory i n C a n a d a a n d
w a s i n ch a rg e o f t h e prison
colony i n Weste rn Au stra l i a .
H e beca m e Co m m is s i o n e r
i n 1 869. H e n d e rson m a d e
seve ra l refo rms, i n c l u d i n g a l l ow i n g p o l i ce m e n
t o vote i n e l ecti o n s a n d setti n g u p a c h a rity to
l o o k afte r w i d ows a n d o r p h a n s of p o l i ce m e n
ki l l ed i n se rvice. H e a l so created a 're g i ster
of H a bitu a l C ri m i n a ls' which was s u p posed to
a l low t h e p o l ice to kee p reco rds o n p e o p l e w h o
kept co m m itti n g cri m e s . H e n d e rson resi g n ed i n
J a n u a ry 1 8 8 6 .
SIR CHARLES WARREN, 1840-1927
1' H ,!$..
11 \' -N .o\ )l l T J::
E: X l' L O ' J O N !:i
n .'' L" "'"''IOf'OTJ;,a iiAU.

r- "-'"" ,.- so.. ..
IX
J, O !\ U O J( - .\ T
T il E
d O U S t: :i
O J"
1' .\ R L l .\ L E J't, 'l'
Co m m issio n e r C h a r l es Wa rre n
Unfortunately for Warren, he was appointed just before a change
in Home Secretary. The new Home Secretary, Henry Matthews, got
his position just six months after the appointment of Warren as
Commissioner. Matthews made no secret of his dislike for Warren's
approach and made it clear that he would have preferred to promote
James Munro, Warren's deputy. Monro himself undermined Warren
by complaining that Warren did not support the CID with enough
men or money. Neither Monro, Matthews nor Warren were easy to
work for - all three were stubborn and did not listen to advice.
Wa rren h a d an a m azi n g ly
varied l i fe - a n d co u l d h ave
been w ritte n i nto n ove l s
as a h e ro i c Victo ri a n . H e
w e n t t o tra i n as a n a rmy
offi ce r aged fo u rteen a n d
j o i n e d t h e Roya l E n g i n e e rs
a g e d seve nte e n . D u ri n g h i s
a rmy c a r e e r h e se rved i n
G i b ra lt a r, t h e M i d d l e East
and South Afri ca, retu rn i n g
t o E n g l a n d w h e n h e was
seriously wo u n d ed i n t h e Kaffi r Wa r. In 1 8 82 he
was sent to fi n d o u t w h at had h a p pe n ed to an
a rch a e o l o g i c a l expedition to t h e S i n a i Pe n i n s u l a
i n Egypt. Wa rre n d iscove red t h a t t h e tea m h a d
been m u rd e red, so h e tracked d own t h e ki l l e rs
a n d a rrested th e m . H e was t h e Co m m iss i o n e r of
t h e M etro p o l itan Po l i ce betwee n 1 8 86 a n d 1 8 8 8 .
ACTIVITIES
1
Look up 'co rru pti o n ' a n d ' i n com pete n ce' in the
d icti o n a ry a n d s u m m a rise the d efi n itions.
2 Write yo u r n otes a bout S i r Ed m u n d
H e n d e rson's t i m e as pol ice co m m issio n e r.

M a ke s u re you n ote d own evi d e n ce of
co rru ption a n d i n com pete nce.
3 We re there oth e r reasons why Sir Ed m u n d
H e n d e rson's re putatio n was n ot a g o o d one?

Reactio n s to Wa rren's a p p roach
Warren's approach to his job was to try to raise standards. He issued orders to increase the
military drill practice, and tightened up the rules for recruitment - he also brought more
ex-soldiers into the force. Warren's focus on military discipline made people worry that the
force was becoming an army which would be used to control the people. The press reacted
badly when, in November 1887, another protest in Trafalgar Square was put down with
what seemed like excessive force. In late 1888, when Jack the Ripper started to kill women
in Whitechapel (see page 15 1), he seemed to be running rings round the police, who looked
incapable of catching him.
In November 1888, at the height of the
Ripper crisis, Warren wrote an article
that was published in Murray's Magazine, a
popular news magazine.
lt is to be d e p l o red t h a t s u ccessive
G ove r n m ents h ave not h a d t h e co u ra g e
t o m a ke a sta n d a g a inst t h e m o re n o isy
section of the p e o p l e representing a
s m a l l m i n o rity, a n d h ave g iven way befo re
ove r [ p rotests] w h i c h h ave exe rcised
a te rro rism ove r peacefu l law a b i d i n g
citize ns.
Warren was reacting to accusations that his

police force had used too much force in
controlling a protesting crowd in Trafalgar
Square in 1887, and criticisms that he was
turning London's police into a military
organisation. His biggest mistake, however,
was in not getting this article approved by
the Home Secretary, Henry Matthews.
Warren's criticism of the Government
looked like criticism ofMatthews. When
Matthews wrote to Warren in November
1888 to rebuke him for writing the Murray
Magazine article, Warren offered his
resignation in anger, and Matthews
accepted it at once.
ACTIVITIES
1
BLIND-MAN'S BUFF.
(.Ar ]Jfttvd bp
t/16
l'!ico,)
u T U R :-f UOU :X U T l l l!lr!l rnM ES,

Alll) C>ll'Cfl WJIOU YOU 11 \Y ! "
..._
Source D A cartoon published by Punch magazine when the panic over
the Ripper murders was at its height . The policeman's blindfold is stopping
him from catching the criminals who are taunting him .
-,
M a ke n otes on S i r Cha rles Wa rren's time

as co m m issio n e r, focusing o n co rru ption
a n d /o r i n co m pete n ce.
2 We re there oth e r reasons fo r S i r
C h a r l es's res i g n ation?
3 Write a para g ra ph which exp l a i n s why
there was a crisis at the head of the

M etropol itan Po l ice i n the yea rs
1 870-1 889.
1.5 The organisation of policing in W hitec hapel

The Metropolitan Police was split up into different 'divisions' - each was responsible for
policing a different area of London. Whitechapel came under 'H' Division. In 1886, H
Division was extended eastwards, which gave it the territory set out on the map below.
Each division was run by a Superintendent Constable, who had a hierarchy of policemen
working under him.
Recru its
New constables were recruited by the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police, which from
1890 was at Scotland Yard. Once the recruits were accepted and trained they were sent out to
divisions that needed new men. Applicants filled out a form, giving details of their lives and
experiences, and which gave the addresses of people who could act as character references.
Sou rce A R e q u i re m e n t s for a p p l i c a n t s , f ro m the a p p li c a t i o n form for n ew re c r u i t s .
H e must not be under 2 1 years, n o r over 32 years of age
He must not be less than five feet nine inches in heigh t without his shoes
He m ust not have more than two children
He must not carry on any trade, nor will his wife be permitted to keep any shop
He must read and write legibly
He m ust produce sa tisfactory testimonials as to character
He must be certified as physically fit f... ] by the Surgeon of the Police Force
Successful applicants were given two weeks' training in military drill exercises (marching to
order) followed by one week of'beat' duty alongside a more experienced constable in B or C
Division (see map below) . They were then assigned to the division that they would work in .
..6. A map showing the different divisions of the Metropolitan Police. B Division is Chelsea
and C Division is Mayfair and Soho . H Division included the Whitechapel area.
Who we re t h e re cru its?

Recruitment of the right kind of candidate was very important. It was thought that the
best policemen were men who had been brought up in the countryside, as they would be
bigger and healthier than those from London. Character was thought to be very important.
Recruits would have to show that they had good 'discipline' - that they would take orders
and not break rules and regulations. The 1871 Instruction book for Candidates and Constables, a
handbook for new police recruits, is very clear about the qualities the police were looking
for {see Source B ) .
Sou rce B Extracts f r o m t h e Instruction Book for Can didates a n d Constables ( 1 8 7 1 ) .
He is to speak the truth at all times and under all circumstances and when called upon to give
evidence to state all he knows .. . ] without fear or reserva tion.
Perfect command of temper is indispensable. A [constable] m ust not allow himself to be moved or
excited or by any language or threat. however violen t. The cooler he keeps himself the more power
he will have over his assailan ts.
A constable m ust act with energy, promptness and determination, for if he wavers, or doubts the
thief may escape or the opportunity to render assistance may be lost.
The police offered a steady job in an age when work was usually poorly paid and temporary.
Right from the start of the Metropolitan Police it was decided that senior jobs would be
given to serving policemen - so good policemen who stayed in their jobs could expect
promotion. After 1860, a pension was given after 30 years in the service. The police even
set up sports clubs for those who wanted to play cricket or football, and awards for good
service or bravery.
A survey of recruits in 1874 suggested that 31 per cent of new recruits came from the
countryside around London - many were farm labourers and 12 per cent came from the
military. The historian Haia Shpayer-Makov's research suggests that the more wealthy or
skilled the recruit, the less likely they were to stay in the police for their whole careers perhaps because they had other options to earn money.
TA map of Whitechapel and
surrounding areas .
H Division
In 188S, Dickens's Dictionary ofLondon listed 19 inspectors, 44 sergeants, and 441 constables
in H Division. This made a force of SOS policemen to cover Whitechapel's population of
about 176,000 people. The numbers of H Division's forces
went up and down, but even at its peak during 1888 there
were only around S7S police officers, including both
constables and detectives. This meant that there was one
policeman for every 300 people living in Whitechapel
in normal times. Across the whole of London the force
was 14,000 for a population of about S.S million people,
about one policeman for every 390 people. To compare, the
population of London in 201S is around 8.6 million and
there are approximately 32,000 police officers - about one
policeman for every 268 people who live in London.
St G e o rg e
S t Pa u l
i n t h e East
Shadwell
St J o h n of
Wa p p i n
Lem a n Street Po lice Station

Just north o f the place where the Peabody Estate would b e
built (see page 127), but south o f the Whitechapel Road, i s
Leman Street and the main police station for H Division,
and the Whitechapel area. In 1891, it was moved to specially
built premises on the site of a theatre that had been
demolished a few doors down. Most of the records of this
station for our period have not survived, but we can get an
idea of the work of the policeman from other sources.
For instance, we could use information in the Census returns for Leman Street. In 1881,
the Census records list two sergeants and 42 police constables as staying there on the night
of the Census. It also records six prisoners as well as one 'destitute' person sleeping on the
street outside. The 1 9 0 1 Census, taken when the station had moved to a new and bigger
building, lists 63 police constables, seven prisoners, eight police families and interestingly,
three sergeants and five inspectors. Inspectors were not mentioned at all on the earlier
Census record from 1 8 8 1 .
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What do the n u m bers of people living a n d b e i n g h e l d in Lem a n Street Po l ice Stati o n

between 1 8 88 a n d 1 901 s u g g est about h ow H Division w a s ch a n g i n g ?
2 W h y m ig ht the enteri n g , co pyi n g a n d reco pying o f n a m es fro m returns t o reg i sters m a ke
resea rch m o re d ifficult fo r h isto rians?
3 See if you ca n i d e ntify on the 1 8 81 return (Sou rce C) what the priso n e rs n o r m a l l y d i d fo r a
l ivi n g , a n d the p l a ces they were born.
4 What m i g ht the b i rth p l a ces of th ose stayi n g i n Lem a n Street o n the n i g ht of the Census te l l
you a bout t h e popu l ation of Wh itech a p e l ?
SOURCES AND PROBLEMS

Ad d a few m o re ideas to the l ist of s o u rces that you sta rted on page 1 1 8 . I n pa rticu l a r, can
you think of t h i n g s that the Census m i g ht te l l yo u, as we l l as some of its d rawbacks?
Source C A digital scan

of the Census record for
Leman Street in 1 88 1 . Each
entry was copied by hand
from the Census return
filled in by the residents,
or, in this case, probably a
police sergeant on duty that
night at the station .
.A.
Tha m es Po lice Co u rt
If we want to find out more about the kinds of things that constables did as part of their
work we could look at reports of cases that were taken to the Thames Police Court, which
was the court for the whole area of Whirechapel down to the Thames. It heard thousands
of cases relating to crimes that could be tried without a jury.
Crimes of forgery, assault, attempted drownings in vats of wine, and others can be found in
these reports. The most serious cases of murder or attempted murder and other crimes that
the magistrate felt needed harsher punishments were sent to the Old Bailey. Here there was
a jury, and the judge could impose more serious sentences, but the dividing line between
these serious crimes and those that stayed at the Police Court was not clear.
Though there are no official records derailing what was said at these cases, the court
register for the year 1888 has survived. This document lists the cases, defendants and the
crimes they were charged with. The historian Drew Gray has studied the register to find
out the proportion of the different crimes that were committed (see Source D ) .
Sou rce D H e a r i n g s a t t h e T h a m e s P o l i c e C o u rt , J a n u a ry 1 8 8 7- D e c e m b e r 1 8 8 7, f ro m t h e
c o u rt re g i ste r. Fro m D rew G ray, London's Shadows , p u b li s h e d i n 2 0 1 0 .
Type o f offence
Male
Female
Tot a l
65 [ 1 6%)
41 7 [24%)
44 [1 5%0
288 [1 7%)
P ro p e r t y
381 [85%)
7 4 [ 1 6%)
D i s o rd e r ly
337 [62%)
208 [38%)
Violence
Reg u latory*
To t a l
3 5 2 [84%)
244 [ 8 5 % )
1 ,3 1 4 [77%)
391 [23%)
455 [ 2 7 % )
545 [32%)
1 ,705
* T h e s e t e n d e d to b e c r i m e s s u c h a s b re a k i n g t h e r u les o f t h e Wo r k h o u s e b y ru n n i n g away,
d r i v i n g a c a rt d a n g e ro u s ly o r r u n n i n g away from the a rmy.
Using what you already know about what Whitechapel was like, can you explain why
crimes of 'disorderly behaviour' might be the most common?
Source D tells us a lot about the types of crime, and proportion of crimes that the H
Division constables would have faced. So, the most common type of crime was disorderly
behaviour, but this was only slightly more frequent than crimes against property (which
means theft, or fraud) and crimes of violence.
COMBINING INFORMATION FROM SOURCES
O n e of t h e p ro b l e m s with sou rces l i ke t h e reg iste r, a n d ta b l es based on t h e m , is that each
cate g o ry cove rs a very l a rg e ra n g e of crimes. Vio l e n ce co u l d mean a nyth i n g fro m t h e th reat
of v i o l e n ce, or fea r of b e i n g h u rt, r i g h t up to atte m pted m u rd e rs, sta b b i n g s a n d beati n g s . If
I want to know m o re about t h e kinds of cri mes and d iffi cu lties that t h e Wh itech a p e l p o l i ce
fa ced, I need to l o o k at m o re t h a n o n e sou rce, a n d l e a rn fro m t h e m tog eth e r.
The ro l e of the beat co nsta b l e

The role o fthe constable was to prevent crime by being an obvious
presence, and to arrest those caught committing a crime.
U n ifo r m a n d eq u i p m e nt
The beat consta ble's uniform was woollen trousers and jacket,
both a deep blue-black colour, with shiny buttons and (until
1863) a top hat. This uniform was meant to stand out in the
crowd, because one of the jobs of the policeman was to be seen. A
truncheon was carried to help defend a constable under attack, and
handcuffs or 'come along' cuffs were used for bringing unwilling
citizens back to the station. The oil-fired bulls-eye lamp - the 'dark
lantern' - gave heat as well as light, which was especially welcome
on cold nights. The flame could be hidden from view in order to
help the officer creep up on suspected criminals.
The initial 'stovepipe' top hat didn't give enough protection from
blows to the head, so, from 1863, a new design of the helmet, called
the custodian, was introduced. The design of this helmet was
supposed to deflect a downward blow to the side.
T h e beat
There are lots of mentions in the records of the Old Bailey, and in the
newspaper reports from Whitechapel, of policemen being called by
witnesses to a crime, or happening to come across a crime in progress.
This wasn't just luck. Without radios, CCTV, computer surveillance
or motor patrols, the main tactic for preventing crime was 'the beat'.
This was a specific area that each constable would have to patrol,
using a route that had been given to him by his sergeant. The beat
was timed precisely - and the constable would be expected to reach
certain places, and to be at the end of the beat, at specific times so
that his sergeant could meet him or contact him when necessary. In
the days before radio, this was the only way in which a sergeant could
track his constables, and the only way he could get messages and
instructions to him. As you can see from Source E, the instructions
about the speed of his walking were very precise.
Source E Fro m t h e Candidates and Constables Instruction Book, 1 8 7 1 .
He is to walk at a gentle pace, about 2Vz miles an hour, keeping the
outer or kerb side of the street by day, and walking close to the houses
by night. He m ust not loiter or stand in an idle and listless manner, or
gossip. He is not on any account to receive drink from any one. If he
requires refreshment. he can obtain the permission of his Sergeant to
purchase it.
THE BEAT
1
H ow d i d p o l i ce m e n 's u n iform h e l p them in the p revention

of cri me?
2 Can you co m e u p with two possi b l e reasons why?
3 Why was the beat timed so p recise ly?
The 'beat' ro uti n e

A t the start o f the day's duty a squad o f policemen would leave their station i n single file,
each peeling off at the start of their beat.
During the day the beat was about half an hour. At night the beats were made half as
long - so that the route was walked every fifteen minutes. This meant that burglars and
thieves had less time to carry out crimes during the cover of night. Each shift would last
nine hours - eight of which would be spent walking in boots made with wooden soles ! In
the hour before their beat began, officers would study their orders of the day, which listed
wanted criminals or crimes that had happened in the shift before theirs, and put on the
black and white striped armband which showed that they were on duty.
Policemen usually travelled the beat alone, unless they were working in a particularly
dangerous area. They were expected not only to learn the route of their beat, but to know
the shops, warehouses, pubs and other businesses and the people who worked there, as well
as the alleyways, yards and squares that led off their routes. After a month a policeman
would be moved on to another beat. This was to prevent corruption between officers and
locals - it was often the case that shopkeepers might give a constable a cup of tea, in return
for being extra vigilant when walking past their shop, or in case there was trouble from
customers in the future. The landlord of a pub might leave a pint of beer on the window for
a constable as he walked past, in return for a good word from the officer when the
application to renew the pub's licence came up. Officially this was frowned upon, but
sergeants and inspectors saw that the constable needed to get to know the people on his
beat. They were encouraged to share a cup of tea with the watchmen (today we might call
them security guards) who patrolled larger commercial buildings like warehouses, so that
they could share information on suspicious persons and potential suspects.
Disadva ntages
The obvious downside to the beat system was that, after

watching each policeman for a little while, a criminal would
be able to work out the route, and commit his crime when
the policeman was on another section of the beat. The
constable would try to alter his beat a little on each route,
or might sometimes walk it the other way round, so that his
position was less predictable. This was not the only
complication. At night, constables were expected to check
doors and downstairs windows of the premises that they
walked past. Some would use tricks like leaving strips of
paper wedged in the doors of places that might be targeted
by thieves. If they walked by again and noticed that the
paper had gone, they could then investigate further.
THE BEAT
1 What were the advantages a n d d isadva ntages of the
.,
beat syste m ?
2 W h y were t h e beats s h o rte r a t n i g ht?
3 H ow do the beat syste m a n d the u n iform of the
con sta b l e s u g g est that the j o b of the p o l i ce was m a i n ly

to p reve nt cri m e?
.& Source
F A redrawn map from one of the 'beat books' for

H Division . This one is from the 1930s but the beat system
had not really changed since the end of the 1800s.
The development of the Centra l I nvestigation Division (CI D)

From the first days of the Metropolitan Police in 1829, people were suspicious of the idea of
d etecting crime - it seemed too much like snooping. So a detective force wasn't set up until
1842, but even then this was only a small unit which worked the Metropolitan Police's
headquarters at Scotland Yard. In 1870 Commissioner Henderson decided to recruit more
detectives, bur also to move them out to the divisions, so that they could work with the
constables and use their local knowledge.
These detectives didn't perform very well. There were cases
of mistaken identity which led to arrests of the wrong
person. In 1877, a group of detectives were found guilty of
accepting bribes in return for protecting a gang which had
stolen thousands of francs from French gamblers in an
international betting seam. This 'Trial of the Detectives'
led to a reorganisation of detectives in London. They were
brought back under the control of a new single organisation
called the Criminal Investigation Division or CID, based at
Scotland Yard in Westminster.
Howard Vincent was given the job of leading the CID - and
he set our new ways of working. He centralised control of
the CID, and increased the pay of detectives in order to
attract the best constables. He also encouraged detectives to
do more plain-clothes operations, and to investigate crimes
that they suspected might happen - rather than wait for
them to be reported.
He h a d trave l l ed w i d e l y
i n E u rope a n d t h e n
tra i n e d a s a l awye r.
H e spent the w h o l e of
1 87 7 studyi n g P a r i s i a n
p o l ice d etective
tech n i q u es.
H ea d of t h e C I D
betwee n 1 7 78 a n d 1 8 84.
Was g ive n t h e j o b of
reform i n g t h e C I D
afte r t h e 'Tra i l o f the
Detectives.'
P u b l i s h e d the fi rst Po l i ce Code in 1 8 89, w h i c h set
out g u i d e l i n e s fo r co l l ecti n g evi d e n ce a n d d etecti n g
cri m i n a l s .
However, detectives still worked in local divisions so that

they knew their patch, its p eople and policemen well. One
example is Inspector Reid. He worked his way up from
constable to the role of detective in Bethnal Green, and was very experienced in policing
the East End, before being given the job of inspector (an inspector was a more experienced
policeman who oversaw the work of several sergeants and his constables) at H Division. He
replaced Inspector Frederick Abberline, who had spent most of his career in Whitechapel,
and was promoted to a role at CID in Scotland Yard (before being sent back to work with H
Division during the Whitechapel murder investigation) .
The day-to-day wo rk of the d etective

Detectives often worked in plain clothes, so that they could 'shadow' suspects - follow them
to observe their activities or make arrests. Each day they would receive a report from the chief
inspector in each division, which listed the unsolved crimes and ongoing investigations in
each area. In addition, from 1878, they also had to look out for 'habitual criminals' - those
who repeatedly committed crime. Details of these criminals were kept in a 'Register of
habitual criminals' at Scotland Yard, where the CID's headquarters were. Detectives also
had the job of supervising prisoners who had been released early for good behaviour. These
men had to visit a police station at least once a week, and were given a 'ticket ofleave' which
explained their crime, and which they had to produce if asked by a policeman.
The detective's main job was to observe and gather information. As we'll see, however,
before 1 9 0 0 there were few forensic investigation techniques. Detectives were starting
to use photography, but there was no reliable way of gathering fingerprint evidence.
The analysis of fibres or DNA marching was unimagined, and the most usual method
of getting evidence was to gather descriptions and witness statements, take casts of
footprints, or to get a tip from an informant.
ATTITUDES
TOWARDS
DETECTION
1
Describe the attitude

towa rd s d etective work
d u ri n g this period .
2 Describe the ro l e of a
d etective p o l i ce m a n
d u ri n g t h i s period .
3 I n what ways d i d
the d etective's ro l e
d eve l o p d u ri n g the
period?
Fo l l owi n g u p a sou rce

Source H Fro m a re p o rt
i n t h e Graphic Ne wspaper,
28 D e ce m b e r 1 8 9 5 , I s s u e
1 3 61 .
So, I grabbed the brother
who was kicking out at my
shins. I got a good hold of his
neck with my right hand . . . I
thought that as I was alone
among a rare lot of 'em, men
and women, pushing and
crowding and cursing, and
the nearest ones beginning
to get me wedged in, I had
better blow my whistle;
and no sooner did the other
brother see both my hands
busy than he came straight
for me with a knife.
S o u rce I Deta i ls f r o m P C
W i l l i a m S h o rt 's e n t ry i n
t h e H D i v i s i o n a l R e g i s t e r.
Collar No: 6 1 5
Warran t N o : 70668
Occupation: Farm Labourer
From: Parkham Bideford,
Devon
Age: 22
Da te of joining: 1 1 May 7885
Heigh t: 6 ' 1/4 "
Transferred to: A Division 8
February 1890
Source G A picture published in 1895 in the Graphic Newspaper which shows a scuffle
described to a j ournalist by PC H6 1 5 when he stepped in to stop a fight .
_.
This looks like an interesting story - and I would like to know more about it! To do
that I need to work out which details in the source I can follow up, and where and how
I might search for more information. The most obvious person to focus on is the police
officer. I know that he worked in H Division in Whitechapel (because of the H on his
collar number) . The collar number is useful as these were given when a constable joined a
particular division. Like numbers on a football shirt, they were re-used and given out again
as people joined and left the division. This means I can search the H Divisional Register,
which will tell me who used that collar number.
Not all of the Divisional Registers have survived, and they are in paper form - they have not
(yet) been digitised, so they have to be searched by hand. I was lucky because the Heritage
Centre of the Metropolitan Police agreed to do the search over the phone - otherwise I
would have to have visited in person. The Divisional Register had one person using that
collar number between 1885 and 1890, then another person using that number from 1 9 1 1 .
That was great for me, because the incident I was investigating happened before 1895
(that's when the story was published) . So, it looked like William Short used the collar
number in the picture. From the Divisional Register I learned several interesting things
about PC William Short (see Source I) .
RECRUITMENT
1
Loo k back at page 1 3 8 then at W i l l i a m S h o rt's reco rd in Sou rce I . What m a d e S h o rt the
i d e a l ca n d i d ate to j o i n the M etro p o l itan Po l ice?
Loo k back at the pictu re o n page 1 44. Consideri n g S h o rt's age and h e i g h t i n the d ivisi o n a l
reco rd , d o e s the pictu re s e e m l i ke a n accu rate i m a g e o f h i m ?
Warrant numbers were given t o each new recruit a s he was accepted into the force and
he kept this number, even if he moved between divisions. Now that I have a warrant
number, I can search the Attestation Ledgers and Joining and Leaving Ledgers. These
were handwritten record books of when people joined and left the force. They have been
digitised and are searchable online at the National Archives. They tell me a little more
about Short - he left H Division in 1890, five years before the publication of the story in the
Graphic. If it is Short in the news article, perhaps he left Whitechapel because of incidents
like this one. He stayed in A Division for another 21 years, leaving in 1 9 1 1 - when he would
have had a full police pension after such long service.
In this case the ledgers can't tell me much more. But I have more details from the picture
(Source G) that I might want to follow up. In the background I can see a police station. I
can use a map, and the details that I have from the article to find more information.
Short (if it was him) says that the incident took place near Pearl Street, and near a public
house and a police station. Source ] shows the station as being on a fairly sharp corner - the
building narrows at the corner quite a lot. It is also across the road from a pub (in the
left-hand corner) . The junction of Commercial Street and Elder Street has a pub nearby and
a police station on the corner, and it is very near Great Pearl Street.
T Source J A recreation of the 1894 street map , showing the Commercial Street
Police Station, the public house on the corner of Wheler Street , Great Pearl Street and
Commercial Street .
Quaker Street
P.H .
S alvation
Army Shelter
KEY ITEMS
H ow co u l d each of
th ese ite m s be usefu l fo r
fo l l ow i n g u p a sou rce?
e
Attestation l e d g e r
J o i n i n g a n d l eavi n g
ledger
Wa rra nt n u m be r
e Co l l a r n u m be r
National
Telephone
Works
Key
P.H . Public house
Lamb S treet
''"""
THE INCIDENT IN SPITALFIELDS

1
Loo k closely at Sou rces G a n d J . C a n you work out where the a rtist stood w h e n h e fi rst
sketched out the pictu re?
.,
2 Sou rce G is n ot a p h otog ra p h , but a d rawi n g of the eve nts. H ow does this c h a n g e the way
that you m ig ht use it as evid e n ce?
Now I have the warrant number and name I can use these details to follow up searches of
newspaper reports. One of the most important sources for crime at this time is newspaper
reports. Newspapers often printed short items about criminals and victims appearing
at the Police Court. It looks like the event recorded in the Graphic happened at least five
years before the publication date of 1895, because by this time Short was in A Division in
Westminster, a long way from Great Pearl Street. However, the details of when he joined
and left Whitechapel Division help me narrow the newspaper search down even further.
Unfortunately in our case I cannot find any reference to the fight that is mentioned in the
story in the Graphic. This doesn't mean that it didn't happen, just that it didn't get into the
papers at the time. The story seems to match with the details on the ground, and PC615
was serving in the Whitechapel area around the time of the Graphic story. In fact, there are
local newspapers that I could search in local museums and libraries that might have details
of this story, so there's still more following up that I could do. The search was not a waste
of time either - browsing through these stories and sources I started to get a picture of the
work of the police and some of the problems they were facing in Whitechapel.
SEARCHING THE ARCHIV ES
Looki n g in o l d editions of s o m e news p a p e rs is m u ch easier t h a n it used to be, because
m a ny h ave been d i g itised . H oweve r, what we're able to l o o k at o n l i n e m ay n ot g ive us
t h e whole pictu re, a s these re po rts o n ly re p rese nt a s m a l l fraction of co u rt cases. The
news p a p e rs te n d to cove r t h e m o re su rpri s i n g cases, o r the m ost i nte resti n g d eta i l s - l i ke
t h e c h a rges a g a i n st a wo m a n w h o d ressed as a m a n i n o rd e r to fo l l ow h e r h u s b a n d , i n t h e
h o p e of d i scove r i n g h i s affa i r, o r t h e case of a wa re h o u s e m a n accused o f crue lty t o a d o g
- h e h a d been seen th row i n g it a s fa r a s h e co u l d b y i t s fro n t l e g s . T h e rea d i n g p u b l i c we re
very i n te rested in t h e cri m es that h a p p e n e d in less wea lthy a reas l i ke Wh itech a p e l , a n d
sto ries a b o u t cri m e t h e re wou l d often re-a p p e a r i n news p a p e rs u p a n d d ow n t h e co u ntry.
S o m e of t h e cases in t h e p a p e rs a re very o d d - l i ke t h i s o n e in S o u rce K, w h i c h te l l s u s
a b o u t a l o u d i nte rruption t o a S u n day re l i g i o u s service.
S o u rce K From a re p o rt o f a ca s e a t the T h a m e s Police C o u rt f r o m T h e Wa tchman and
Wesleyan A dvertiser, N ove m b e r 1 8 6 0 .
The defendant did unlawfully molest, let, disturb, vex, and trouble the said Thomas Dove, a
clergyman in holy orders, ministering in the parish church of St. George, during the celebration
of divine service. He occupied a pew near the reading-desk, and said the responses very loudly.
Mr. Churchwarden Thompson wen t to him and requested him not to make so m uch noise,
when he turned round and said, Don't interrupt me, sir, and continued his loud reading. The
Churchwarden then called in the police, and had him removed.
-
1.6 Difficulties of policing W hitec hapel

Large parts ofWhitechapel were slums at the start of the
period and this remained the case despite work done by
charities such as the Peabody Trust. The layout of the streets
and the buildings themselves made policing difficult.
Criminals could hide from the police in the rookeries, and
use the alleys and yards as places from which to watch for
victims, hide after committing a crime, or to run criminal
activities from. However, there were other difficulties which
the police faced in Whitechapel. In this section we're going to
study these.
RECORDING YOUR RESEARCH
Use a table l i ke the o n e b e l ow to reco rd information fro m
pages 1 47-1 50 about the d ifficu lties to p o l i c i n g caused by
l ife in Wh itech a p e l .
Issue
W h a t d ifficu lties
did it ca use?
W h a t did t h e
pol ice try to do
about this issue?
A l co h o l a n d
p u bs
Gangs
P rostitution
V i o l e nt
d e m o n strati o n s
a n d attacks o n
J ews
A l co h o l
As we have already seen (see page 129), alcohol played a large
part in the work of a policeman. It made some people more
vulnerable to becoming victims of crime, like John Watson,
who, according to a report on 22 July 1870 in the Clerkenwell
News, had fallen in with a couple of young women in a pub in
Gowers Walk, Whitechapel. He became 'intoxicated' and the
women were caught relieving him of his watch in the street
by Constable Deddnould from H Division.
The case ofWilliam Froomberg reported in the East London
Observer on 3 May 1879 (see Source A) shows that alcohol
could also make small disputes much worse, and that it could
also make work harder and more dangerous for policemen.
Froomberg was shouting at a watchman in front of the Sailors'
Home (a place for sailors to sleep when their ship was in
dock) . The watchman of the Sailors' Home blew his whistle,
summoning PC Gallagher, who was off duty and enjoying a
drink in a local pub, but arrived when he heard the whistle.
At the same time PC Gunter also arrived. Froomberg did not
co-operate. Though 'no more violence was used than was
absolutely necessary to get [Froomberg] to the police station',
he made two complaints. The first was that he had been

assaulted by the policemen, and the second was that both
constables had been drinking. Gunter admitted that he'd had
half a pint, in a shop doorway, but denied that he had been in
the pub with Gallagher.
Drink also had a large part to play in many of the cases of
violence and abuse within families - like the case from June
1878 of Henry S eigenberg of Cable Street, whose drunken
father beat him so badly that the injuries, when shown in
court, 'caused quite a groan of execration to run through
the Court'. The case was so serious that it was committed
for a full trial at the Old Bailey.
P u bs
Making sure that landlords of pubs did not break the terms
of their licences was also an important part of the work of
the police. Policemen would check that landlords were
closing their pubs on time, and that they were not allowing
gambling or illegal boxing to take place on their premises.
After 1870 it was illegal to serve alcohol to someone who
was already drunk. As the period went on it was harder and
harder for landlords to keep their licences if they had
broken the law, and as a result most landlords worked hard
to make sure that they were on the right side of the police.
JUST A DRINK?
1
What p ro b l e m s d i d a l co h o l cause fo r the pol ice i n

Wh itech a p e l ?
2 W h y w a s the a l l eg ation a g a i nst G u nter so serious?
3 What d eta i l s i n the re port about H e n ry Seigen berg 's
beati n g co u l d you fo l l ow u p?
S o u rce A F ro m East L o n don Observer, 2 0 O c t o b e r 1 8 7 7.

Sergeant Singer 13H said that on the 1 1th he visited the [Prince
of Denmark Public House]. There were two or three men and
some women in front of the bar. One of the men, a sailor. was
staggering about drunk . . . . For the defence the defendant and
two other witnesses said tha t they did not believe that the man
was drunk, he was merely excited. [The] Defendan t said that he
wan ted to get the man out of his house, but he would not go.
SAILING INTO TROUBLE
Loo k at the m a p on page 1 3 8 . Why do so m a ny

Wh itech a p e l repo rts m e ntion s a i l o rs?
2 Why were s a i l o rs attracted to Wh itech a p e l ?
3 W h y m i g ht m e n fa r fro m h o m e i n Lo n d o n be m o re l i kely
to g et into tro u ble?
Gangs
Alcohol was also involved i n some o f the racketeering that
went on in Whitechapel - illegal pubs and unlicensed
boxing matches being some of the most common rackets.
Some were run by well-organised gangs. In 1 935 W.G .
Cornish, who had been a detective in the Whitechapel area
in the later 1800s, wrote in his memoirs about 'Bessarabian'
gangs that ran protection rackets which threatened the
owners of]ewish businesses. The immigrants that the gang
preyed on were already scared of the authorities - as many
of them had come to London to escape persecution by the
army and secret police in Russia. They tended to try to pay
up, or to sort out their problems without getting the police
involved. This means that they have left very little evidence
behind. An 'ex-detective Sergeant Leeson' did publish some
memoirs and stories during the 1930s when he retired,
which contained references to these immigrant gangs (see
Source B ) .
with a well-dressed man. This man had drawn her into

a side court where the other members of the gang were
waiting. This report also shows us how difficult it is to
know what is happening, because the papers didn't always
write in plain language about the people of Whitechapel.
The reference here to the woman spending part of the
evening with a sea captain and then taking up with another
man is meant to signal to us that she was a prostitute,
without directly saying so.
Many of the problems that the police had with young people
were much less dramatic than this - the Standard from 15
July 1884 tells of the arrest of a group of young men who
had created a disturbance in a street near Regent's Canal at
the far end ofWhitechapel Road. This group were gambling,
bathing and 'running about the towing path in a nude state' !
Prostitution
The 'Bessarabians', or the 'Stop-at-nothing ' gang, were the

greatest menace London has ever known. The public little
guess how much they owe to the Me tropolitan Police for the fact
that London to -day is free from a terror that made it - in the
early days of this cen tury - almost as dangerous a place as . . .
Chicago . . . a t its wildest. *
Prostitution was not i n itself a crime - though after 1885

keeping a brothel was illegal. It is sometimes called 'the
oldest profession', but for many women in Whitechapel it
wasn't a job, but a necessity in really desperate situations, or
when their lives were affected by alcoholism. For instance,
all of the victims of]ack the Ripper had sold sex in order
to pay for lodgings or alcohol, but they had all done other
work before, and sometimes after, they had started to work
as prostitutes.
* E a r ly i n t h e 1 8 0 0 s C h i c a g o h a d a re p u t a t i o n s i m i l a r to
W h i te c h a p e l 's - i t was seen a s a place of p rost i t u t i o n ,
g a m b l i n g , t h eft a n d m u rd e r.
The case of Emily Warder illustrates the way that

prostitutes were dealt with in newspaper reports and the
ways in which they could end up in trouble with the police.
Sou rce B Fro m A n East En d Detective b y B . L e e s o n ,

pu blished i n 1 936.
GANGS OF LONDON?
1
Fro m the to n e a n d content of Sou rce B, what evi d e n ce

ca n you fi n d that Leeson m i g ht be exa g g e rati n g the
danger of the Bessa ra b i a n g a n g ?
2 W h a t d o y o u know a b o u t these g a n g s t h a t wo u l d te l l
us h ow m u ch o f a th reat they were t o d iffe re nt kinds of

people living in Wh itech a p e l ?
It is very hard to get much evidence to back up these stories.

Most reports about gangs in the newspapers seem to be
about small groups of younger people getting into fights,
or taking opportunities to rob and steal. A typical report is
that from Lloyd's Weekly in 1888 during the Jack the Ripper
murders, which describes a gang of women and bullies
who robbed 'a young woman who had been spending the
evening with a sea captain', after which she had taken up
E m i ly Wa rd e r, 28 was c h a rg e d . . . with b e i n g d r u n k
a n d d isorderly outside t h e S a i l o rs' H o m e, H a l f Street
Wh itech a p e l . The priso n e r had been fo u n d by a
consta b l e d a n c i n g a b o u t at n i g h t outside t h e h o m e
i n a s u i t of m e n 's clothes, b e l o n g i n g t o a yo u n g s a i l o r
w h o was stayi n g w i t h h e r.
Julia Le Fair, one of the few women actually referred to directly

as a prostitute in the newspaper records of the Thames Police
Court, shows how this work could lead to involvement in
crime, as well as making the women very vulnerable in other
ways (see Source C).
PROSTITUTION
1 What l i n ks between d ri n k, cri m e a n d p rostituti o n can
you see i n the case of J u l i a Le Fa i r?
2 What attitu de towa rds p rostitutes can we d etect in the
n ewspa per re port (see S o u rce C) a n d i n the ch a rges

a g a i nst Le Fa i r?
Visible learning
Sou rce C Fro m a re p o rt in the East L o n don Observer, 2 2

S e p te m b e r 1 8 7 7.
Thinking carefully about sou rces
SHOCKING ASSAULT ON A SAILOR - Julia Le Fair 32, a prostitute,

was charged with feloniously [seriously] cutting and wounding
a sailor, named Jackson . . . it appears that on Tuesday night last.
the prisoner and the injured man were in one of the low lodging
houses in the vicinity of Wellclose-Square. A quarrel broke out
between them in the course of which ... they then had a struggle
and fell on the ground together, knocking over a paraffin lamp.
The prisoner is then said to have caught hold of the lamp and
struck the man on the side of the head with it ... causing him to
lose a great deal of blood.
When yo u use a sou rce, there a re th ree stages to th i n k about:
1
2
What is it te l l i n g you a b o u t t h e s u bject of t h e e n q u i ry eith e r d i rectly o r th ro u g h w h at you c a n i n fe r?

What d oes t h e i nfo rmation a b o u t t h e a u t h o r o r s p e a ke r,
a n d d eta i l s s u c h as t h e d ate, s u g g est a b o u t h ow
re l i a b l e o r u sefu l t h e sou rce is fo r the e n q u i ry?
H ow d oes yo u r k n ow l e d g e of t h e to p i c h e l p you decide
h ow usefu l t h e sou rce is? For exa m p le, fro m yo u r
k n ow l e d g e, does a n acco u n t seem typica l of oth e r
a cco u nts o f t h e s a m e to pic?
I m m i g ration
As w e have seen, tensions also came from the presence o f
Jewish and other minority communities i n Whitechapel. The
stories in the archives often focused on stereotypes of the
greed or dishonesty ofJewish criminals - so there are tales of
Jewish bigamists and false doctors defrauding young Jewish
women of all their money. In one article in the Derby Telegraph
Mr Montague Williams (who had been a magistrate at the
Thames Police Court) described how difficult he found it
to decide cases where each side was Jewish (see Source D ) .
Jewish shopkeepers and tailors were i n competition with
other traders and workers. Suspicion and anti-Semitism also
caused problems for Jewish people living in Whitechapel.
In turn, especially more recently arrived Jewish immigrant
communities tended to try to police their own problems.
They were in fact unlikely to go to the police if they were
victims of crime, because they were treated so badly by the
police in their homelands of Russia and Poland.
The police themselves were made nervous and suspicious by
the presence of many eastern European Jews in
Whitechapel. In 1904 the Superintendent of Whitechapel
Division wrote to the Home Office to ask for funds to pay
for language lessons in Yiddish, a language often spoken by
Jewish immigrants (see Source E ) .
IMMIGRATION
1 Which words a n d p h rases fro m Sou rce D te l l us that
there was p rej u d ice a g a i nst J ewish people?
2 What t h i n g s meant that m a ny i m m i g ra nts d i d n ot m ix
with oth e r people living i n Wh itech a p e l ?
1 . What va l u a ble i nfo rmati o n does each re p o rt g ive m e ?
2 . D o e s W i l l i a m s [Sou rce D J seem we l l - i nformed a n d

does h i s evid e n c e a g ree w i t h oth e r s o u rces?
3 . Does my kn owled g e of h o w Jewish people were
treated s u g g est these s o u rces a re u sefu l evid e n c e ?
S o u rce D A n extract f ro m a n ews a rt i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n

1 8 8 9 re p o r t i n g t h e words o f M r M o n t a g u e W i l l i a m s , a
m a g istrate at T h a m e s P o l i ce C o u rt .
[Jews] though t no more of taking a n oath to a lie than they did
of drinking a glass of wa ter. He often felt bewildered in the
attempt to decide disputes between the foreign Jews living in
fWhitechapell, and it was quite certain that if one side told half a
dozen lies in their cases, witnesses [for the other side] would be
forthcoming to tell as many lies.
S o u rce E From a Letter to t h e H o m e O f f i c e f ro m t h e

S u p e r i n te n d e n t of W h i t e c h a p e l D i v i s i o n , 1 9 0 4 .
Bills a n d circulars in this language are distributed a n d posted
all over the division, but police know nothing of their [meaning].
As it is known that a number of these people are members of
Continental Revolutionary Societies it would be very desirable
to have members of the service who could speak this language.
So, just before the Whitechapel murders the MET seemed to be in chaos. Two chief
inspectors had resigned in little more than two years following corruption scandals and
riots that had been too lightly controlled and protests which had been too violently put
down. James Monro, the head of the CID had resigned just before the first Ripper murder,
and his replacement was on a long holiday in Switzerland. Combined with their inability to
prevent the Ripper's killing spree, these events made the MET look ineffective.
Sou rce F Fro m a re p o rt in
t h e So uth Wa les Echo , 1 0
M a rc h 1 8 8 8 .
A FIEND I N HUMAN FORM
Thomas Supple {50},
labourer. was charged
with violen tly assaulting an
old Jewish woman named
Miriam Uta/ ... on Thursday
evening [when] she was
standing at her door on
Old Mon tague Street,
Whitechapel. The prisoner
who was drunk and a
stranger to her. came up
and seizing her by the hair.
dashed her head against the
wall several times, saying,
"I will knock your Jewish
brains out. '
S o u rce G A n extract f ro m
t h e East L o n don Observer,
26 O cto b e r 1 8 7 8 .
The Conversion of the Jews
Lewis lsaacs was charged
with riotous behaviour.
and lsaac Cloth . . . with
assaulting a police officer.
and Marcus Cohen was
charged with a ttempting to
rescue [Cloth] from police
custody. Witnesses saw
the defendant lsaacs; he
was standing on the kerb
opposite the ch urch, waving
his hat, and shouting out
something in a foreign
language. There were about
250 people, who he seemed
to be addressing. [The
police were compelled to
take lsaacs] in to custody.
Po l itica l d e m o nstrat i o n s a n d stri kes

The politics of some of the new Jewish immigrants, and their reaction to the low wages
and long hours they had to work, also caused problems for the police. This can be seen in
the report of a riot which followed a protest on 16 March 1889. This protest march had set
off from the International Workers' Association headquarters in Berner Street towards
the Chief Rabbi's synagogue in Aldgate.
The protestors wanted the rabbi to preach
against their low wages and long hours - he
refused. When the protestors returned to
Whitechapel, the police raided the IWA on
B erner Street, and arrested the leaders of the
march. They were found guilty of assaulting
police officers during their arrest, and
one was given three months' hard labour
as well as a 40 bond for good behaviour
afterwards. That autumn there was a strike
of 10,0 0 0 sweatshop tailors, which was more
successful than the protests in March. They
demanded, and got, a maximum twelve
hour working day.
Atta c ks o n J ews
Newspaper reports also contain stories of
crimes and attacks carried out against Jewish
people. In most of these cases the victim's
religion was not the cause of the assault,
which often happened during robberies.
However, some Jews were targeted because of
their religion (see Source F) .
Source H From Illustra ted Police News

2 7th October. This image was taken from
the front page in 1888, showing how
those living outside Whitechapel saw the
immigrant communities who lived there .
.A.
CONFLICT BETWEEN J EWS AND CHRISTIANS

T h e re were s o m et i m e s re po rts of confl i ct betwe e n peo p l e beca use of t h e i r re l i g i o u s
d iffe re n ces. I n Octo b e r 1 878, a n a rticle i n t h e East London Observer cove red a d istu rba n ce
outside St M a ry's (see S o u rce G ) . T h e re is a tra d ition i n s o m e fo r m s of Ch risti a n ity that
J e s u s will return to ea rth when t h e J ews h ave conve rted to Ch risti a n ity. St M a ry's was we l l
k n own as a p l a ce w h i c h p rea ched t o t h e J ews. lt is c l e a r that n ot a l l J ewish p e o p l e l i v i n g i n
Wh itech a p e l a p p reci ated t h e atte m pt t o convert J ews t o Ch risti a n ity, a n d p o l i c i n g these
te n s i o n s was one of t h e d ifficu lties that H Division fa ced . The p o l ice h a d to b ri n g t h i s crowd
u n d e r contro l , but it seems that t h ey h a d a n ot h e r p ro b l e m . M r Lush i n gto n , a m a g i strate
at the T h a m es Po l i ce Co u rt who was n ot known fo r l etti n g peo p l e off l i g htly, d i s m issed
t h e evi d e n ce a g a i nst t h e t h ree J ewish d efe n d a nts - and h e n oted i n p a rticu l a r that o n e
p o l i ce m a n 's story w a s very d iffe re nt fro m t h e oth e rs, w h i c h s u g g ests t h a t Lu s h i n gton h a d
d etected a nti-se m itic b i a s i n t h e testi m o ny o f a t l east o n e o f these con sta b l es .
1.7 How did t he police try to capture t he Ripper?

Between 3 1 August and 9 November 1888 five women
were murdered in strikingly similar and gruesome ways
- as we can see below. There was a frenzy of coverage in
the press, and a large number of letters from hoaxers to
the papers and to the police, claiming to be the murderer
- one of whom signed himself as 'Jack the Ripper'. This
nickname stuck - it highlighted the brutal way that the
killer opened the bodies of his victims, often taking body
parts as 'souvenirs'. The crimes got grizzlier as they went
on - until they suddenly stopped after the terrible murder
and mutilation ofMary Kelly in November 1888. There
had been women murdered before in Whitechapel, and

there were others afterwards, but only these five have been
conclusively linked to the Ripper.
As we will see, the failure of the police to capture the killer
made them seem incompetent. Cartoons and newspaper
articles (see page 158) presented them as helpless, perhaps
even clueless, in their response to the Ripper. In reality, the
police worked extraordinarily hard, and tried a number of
ways to capture the killer, though none were successful.
There is even evidence that the police improved their use of
some techniques as the case went on.
THE RIPPER'S V ICTIMS

Elizabeth Stride and
Catherine Eddowes,
30 Se ptember
Stride was fo u n d fi rst, at
O utfi e l d 's Ya rd, outside
t h e theatre w h e re J ewish
soci a l ists h a d been m eeti n g
i n B e r n e r Street. Strid e's
th roat was cut - but
n oth i n g e l s e was d o n e
t o h e r, poss i b l y because
t h e ki l l e r was i nte rru pted .
E d d owes' body, fo u n d
h o u rs late r i n M itre S q u a re,
was b a d l y m ut i l ated a n d
d isem bowe l l e d . T h i s t i m e
t h e ki l l e r h a d c u t at t h e
fa ce - t a k i n g a p a rt o f h e r
n ose a n d p a rt o f o n e e a r.
Late r that m o r n i n g , pa rt
of h e r a p ro n was fo u n d
at G o u l ston Street. Th ese
ki l l i n g s beca m e known as
t h e 'd o u b l e eve nt'.
Mary Nichols, 31 August
Annie Chapman, 8
Mary Kelly, 9 November
N ichols was the fi rst victi m whose death

seems to m atch the Ripper's m ethods.
She was fou n d i n Bucks Row, to the
north-east of Wh itechapel. Her th roat
had been cut. lt wasn't rea lised that her
a bdomen had been cut open u nti l she
was exa m i n ed at the mortuary.
Se ptember
Ke l ly's body was the m ost badly 'ri pped',

perhaps because u n l i ke the oth e r ki l l i n gs,
her m u rder had taken place inside h e r
room at M i l l er's Court i n Dorset Street.
H e r i nju ries were terri b l e {-} pa rts of
h e r body we re cut com p letely out a n d
strewn a ro u n d the room . The police m a n
who fi rst s a w the b o d y thro u g h a b roken
window said that it was 'indescri babl e'.
C h a p m a n was fo u n d n e a r some ste ps i n

G e o rge's Yard off H a n b u ry Street, n e a r
C o m m e rci a l Street t o the n o rth o f the
Wh itech a p e l Roa d . T h e re were signs
that s h e h a d been stra n g l e d befo re h e r
t h roat w a s cut. S o m e o f h e r i ntesti n e s
h a d been p u l l e d o u t of h e r body.
INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES
We a re g o i n g to stu dy the fo l l ow i n g
tech n i q u e s :
e
t h e s e tech n i q ues. For e a c h tech n i q u e

y o u n e e d t o reco rd a few sente n ces
about:
ca refu l observatio n
a u topsy
p h otog raphy a n d sketches
i nte rvi ews a n d fo l l owi n g u p c l u es
i d entifyi n g suspects.
h ow the pol ice used this tech n i q u e

t h i n g s that made this tech n i q u e
m o re o r l ess effective
e ways i n w h i ch this tech n i q u e was
d eve l o p i n g .
Create six n ote cards so that you can

reco rd what you l e a rn about each of
Ca refu l o bservation
The Police Code, written b y Howard Vincent, s e t out what
constables were supposed to do when they came across the
scene of a crime. Mainly, this was keeping the area clear of
onlookers so that evidence wasn't disturbed before an
inspector or detective arrived. The job of the inspector was
to make a careful note of the scene, so that this could be
used for investigating the crime and identifying
the criminal.
Source A
A mock-up of
the cover of the
Police Code - a
set of instructions
designed by the
head of CID to
improve the way
the police collected
evidence . It was
used from the early
1880s.
.:\
POLI CE COD E
= !:P.w
Ca re.f.ul ab-S.eYati!ll,_____
Ibe t:10!!c uud obeervatjon to be!pthem gatheches andevldeno
_____
the body had been disembowelled, and his report contains a

detailed record of what Nichols was wearing. At the scene of
Annie Chapman's killing, Inspector Chandler made a very
detailed observation which included noticing the pattern of
blood spots on the fence and floor next to her neck.
MAKING OBSERVATIONS
1
2
3
Why did the Po lice Code order that the scene of a cri m e
s h o u l d n ot be touched befo re a detective or i nspector
a rrived?
Exp l a i n two i m portant o bse rvations that the p o l i ce m a d e
d u ri n g the R i p p e r i nvestig atio n .
H ow accu rately were pol ice a b l e t o esti mate times o f death?
4 What s i m i l a rities were there between th ese cri m es which
m a d e the pol ice th i n k they were looking fo r o n e suspect?
ll't
C.E. HOWARD VINCBI<T, 1!""Q. C.B. !oLP..

1.-rU Dir(or q OrrmtMr !ftetsltro"
SlXTfl A.BilrD G Sll &rH1"1.0N
I'BBCBI)CD 6f
ADDRES.liES 0,\T POLICE! DUT1ES
THE IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION

The reco rd of the bru ises a n d m a rks on t h e b o d i es of t h e
R i p p e r's victi m s were v e r y i m po rta nt i n h e l p i n g d e c i d e
h ow h e k i l led t h e m . T h e re was n ever a ny b l ood o n t h e
fro nt w h i c h s u g g ests that t h ey were o n t h e i r backs w h e n
t h e i r th roats were c u t . T h e bru ises o n t h e i r fa ces a n d
n ecks p e rh a ps te l l u s h ow t h i s w a s d o n e - it seems t h ey
were stra n g l e d , eith e r to death o r to u n co n s c i o u s n ess
befo re h a n d . T h ey we re dead befo re t h ey were cut o p e n .
This observation of the scene wasn't always possible, as

Inspector Spratling's report from the night ofMary
Nichols' murder shows. Instead of waiting for the arrival of
an inspector, the doctor had called for an 'ambulance'
(really a kind of wheeled stretcher) to take the body to the
mortuary (a place where bodies are examined and stored
before burial) . However, it was Spratling who noticed that
Source B The outside of Mary Kelly's lodging house at 1 3

Miller's Court taken the day after her murder. The arrow
on the picture shows the broken window through which
Bowyer made his discovery.
Photog ra p hy a n d s ketch es
The Metropolitan Police made limited use of photographs during our period. Photographs
were commonly taken of bodies before and after a post-mortem, although they were used for
identification of the victim rather than to help solve the crime. We might argue that, during
the Ripper investigation, the Metropolitan Police seem to have developed their use of
photography (as we will see when looking at the Mary Kelly murder scene) - possibly because
they worked more closely with the City of London Police, which had made much more use of
this technology. However some historians think that even the photographs taken at the scene
ofKelly's murder were actually taken by a photographer from the City of London Police, which
would suggest that the use of photography by the Met was still limited.
SKETCHES OF A KIL LER
The n ewspa pers p rod u ced seve ra l pictu res of J a ck the Ripper, l i ke Sou rce C. H oweve r,
these were n ever part of the offici a l i nvestigation, a n d it is n ot clear on what i nfo rmation
the sketches were m a d e, oth e r than descriptions g iven at co ro n e r's i n q u ests o r perhaps in
state m e nts l i ke the o n e that M atth ew Packe r g ave (see S o u rce H ) .
SKETCHES OF
THE RIPPER
1
.,
Why did the papers

publish sketches like the
one in Source C even
though they had no clear
description of the Ripper?
2 I n what ways d i d the
M etropol itan a n d City

Po l ice d iffe r i n the way
they reco rd ed a cri m e
sce n e?
3 H ow accu rate do you
th i n k the esti m ates of

the time of d eath of
each victim we re?
S ketches
Today when we think of a police sketch we might think of an identikit drawing from a
witness statement. This technique was not used by the police until the mid-1890s, years
after the Ripper killings stopped. The City of London Police did collect detailed drawings
of Mitre Square and the doctor called to Catherine Eddowes' crime scene made a sketch of
the position and condition of her body before she was moved. The City Police also asked
Frederick William Foster to make drawings of the position of her body in Mitre Square, for
the inquest.
When Mary's Kelly's body was discovered on the morning of9 November 1888, the room in
which she was lying was not opened for more than two hours after her body was spotted
through a broken window by her landlord's servant. The inspector on the scene was hoping
that bloodhounds could be brought to use to track the murderer and did not want to confuse
them by disturbing the scene. At the same time a photographer was called to document it.
Pictures were taken from outside, through the broken window, and then of inside the room
and Mary's body. These pictures are horrible, but they did record the crime scene, and have
been used since by criminologists and historians studying the case.
'
Source D A sketch by the police surgeon of the City of

London Police of Catherine Eddowes' body at Mitre Square .
.A.
.A.
Source C Sketches of Jack the Ripper, from Illustra ted
Police News, 2 0
October 1888.
Autopsy
I nte rviews a n d fo l l owi n g u p cl u es
Post-mortem or autopsy examinations (looking at and

inside the body of the victim) have been happening since
classical times. We read about Lucy Fisher's autopsy on page
120, and all the Ripper's victims had autopsies, the details
of which were given to the police. From the start the police
thought that they were looking for a left-handed murderer,
from the way that the bodies were injured.
The police went to houses and businesses in the areas around

where each of the bodies were found. After the murders of
Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes on 30 September
1888 (known as 'the double event' - see page 151), they made
a full-scale search oflodging houses in the Whitechapel area,
in the hope of finding evidence that would lead them to the
killer. This led to them questioning more than 2,000 people,
with a focus on butchers and slaughter-men. The
Metropolitan Police also printed handbills and posters to be
displayed and handed out in Whitechapel.
CORONER'S INQUESTS
Coroner's inquests a re officia l meeti ngs at which the coroner,
someone g iven the job of i nvestigating suspicious deaths,
makes a decision about wheth er the person has been kil led or
has died natu ra l ly. M ost of the orig i n a l coroner's papers h ave
not su rvived. So, how do we know about what h appened at
coroner's inqu ests? Fortu nate ly, because inquests were public
meeti ngs, newspa pers reported them.
POLICE NOTICE.
T O TH E O C C U P I E R
S o u rce E A re p o rt o f the c o ro n e r's i n q u e st o n M a ry Kelly 's

b o d y f r o m t h e Morn ing Pos t, 1 3 N ove m b e r 1 8 8 8 .
O n t h e m o r n i n g s of F r i d a y, 3 1 st
Thomas Bowyer. 2 7, stated that h e was a servant to fvfr fvfcCarthy

and served in his chandler's shop. At a quarter to eleven on Friday
morning he was ordered to go to Mary Janes room, No. 73 to get
the rent which was in arrears. He knocked at the door but received
no answer: He knocked again, and, as there was still no reply he
went round the house and where there was a broken window he . . .
pulled the curtain aside, looked in a n d s a w two lumps of flesh lying
on a table close by the bed. The second time he looked he saw a
body lying on the bed and blood on the floor:
A u g u st
30th
m u rd e red
8th,
1 888,
in
or
and
S u n d a y,
Wo m e n
near
were
Wh itec h a pe l ,
s u p posed b y s o m e o n e resi d i n g i n t h e
i m m e d i ate
yo u
n e i g h b o u rh ood .
Shou ld
k n ow o f a n y person t o w h o m
s u s p i c i o n i s attached, y o u a re e a r n est l y
req u ested
to
co m m u n icate
at
o n ce
with t h e n e a rest Po l i ce Stat i o n .
Metropol ita n Police Office,

30th Septem ber, 1 888
BODY TEMPERATURE : TIME OF DEATH

One of the m ost im porta nt observations that cou l d be made
was the temperatu re of the body. Using thermometers, in
1 868 two doctors at G uy's H ospita l had produced tables
that showed how q u ickly bodies lost heat, so that the time of
their death could be ca lcu lated . H owever, this was a very new
tech nique, and the common practice in the pol ice at the time
was to fee l the arms and legs to see if the ends of them had
cooled down . PC La m b 252 H, who took control of the scene
of El iza beth Strid e's m u rder on the night of 30 September, felt
that her face was sti l l wa rm . Th is, and the fact that a lthough
her th roat had been sl it, she had not been 'ri pped', made the
pol ice th i n k that she had n ot been dead for very long. They
a lso thought it likely that the ki l l e r had been i nterru pted before
he cou l d start to cut open her body.
S a t u r d a y,
Sept.
Source F The words on one of 8 0 , 0 0 0 handbills that were

handed out in the days after 30 September 1 8 8 8 .
.&.
Descri be two featu res of:
a) the use by the p o l ice of p h otog ra p h i c evi d e n ce

b) t h e use by the p o l ice of s ketch e s
H ow usefu l a re S o u rces A (on p a g e 1 52) a n d D ( p a g e
1 53 ) fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto h ow t h e p o l ice i n vestig ated
the R i p p e r crim es? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swe r u s i n g S o u rces
A a n d D a n d yo u r k n ow l e d g e of the h istorica l context.
H ow co u l d you fo l l ow u p S o u rce C o n p a g e 1 5 8 to fi n d
o u t m o re a b o u t h ow t h e p u b l i c fe lt a b o u t t h e R i p p e r
i nvesti g at i o n ? Use t h e fo l l owi n g h e a d i n g s :
a) Deta i l i n S o u rce C t h a t I wou l d fo l l ow u p
b) Q u esti o n I wou l d a s k
c) What t y p e o f sou rce I co u l d use
d) H ow t h i s m i g ht help a n swe r my q u esti o n .
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Witn ess state m e nts

Howard Vincent's Police Code, which was in use from 1881, set out the way in which
statements should be recorded by the police. The statement was written using only the
words of the witness, and then read back to them. Errors were corrected by crossing out so
that the error should still be seen, after which each page was signed. Statements were also
taken at coroners' inquests. A witness statement was given by a Mr Hutchinson after the
death ofMary Kelly (see Source G ) .
Sou rce G A n extract fro m G e o rg e H u t c h i n s o n 's w i t n e ss state m e n t . H u t c h i n s o n t h o u g h t h e
s a w Ke l ly t a l k i n g to a m a n i n C o m m e rc i a l Street j u s t b e f o re h e r m u rd e r.
I heard her say alrigh t to him and the man said you will be alrigh t for what I have told you, he then
placed his right hand around her shoulders. He also had a kind of a small parcel in his left hand,
with a kind of a strap around it. I stood against the lamp of the Ten Bells Queens Head Public
House, and wa tched him. They both then came past me and the man hid down his head, with his hat
over his eyes. I stooped down and looked in the face. He looked a t me stern.
Fo l l ow i n g up c l u es
Inspector Chandler was sent to follow up clues such as
a scrap of paper in Annie Chapman's possessions, which
had come from an army regiment in Hampshire. Inspector
Abberline went to Gravesend in Kent to arrest a delirious
ex-pub landlord who matched the description of a man
who had been seen at Chapman's murder. According to the
historian Neil R. A. B ell, after house-to-house enquiries
after 'the double event' the police then followed up 3 0 0
lines of enquiry and arrested 80 people across London for
further investigation and questioning. All these clues and
leads came to nothing, but they show how active the police
were in tracing them to the end.
WERE THERE ENOUGH POLICEMEN?

Plain-clothed and extra officers
As ea rly as 29 S e pte m b e r 1 8 88, o rd e rs were g iven fo r
m o re con sta b l es to work i n p l a i n c l othes - six i n tota l . T h i s
h a d g rown to m o re t h a n twenty b y t h e e n d o f Octo b e r.
T h i s was i n a d d ition to t h e a p p roxi m ate ly 50 co n sta b l es
w h o were tra n sfe r red te m po ra ri l y to Wh itech a p e l to work
o n t h e Ripper case, and to h e l p kee p o rd e r as t h e p u b l i c
b e g a n t o p a n i c.
I d e ntification tech n i q u es
The main identification technique available was for police to take notes from the
descriptions given by witnesses. A good example is that of Matthew Packer, who claimed
that he had seen Elizabeth Stride in Bern er Street, just before she was murdered.
Sou rce H A n extract fro m M a t t h ew P a c ke r's state m e n t , s u m m a r i s e d by C a r m i c h a e l B ru c e ,
w h o was s t i l l sta n d i n g i n a s h e a d of C I D .
On Sat night about 7 7pm a young man from 25-30 - about 5. 7 with long black coa t buttoned up - soft
felt hat, kind of Yankee hat ra ther broad shoulders - rather quick in speaking, rough voice . . . He had a
frock coat on - no gloves. He was about 7 7/2 inch or 2 or 3 inches - a little higher than she was.
As you can see, this is quite a detailed description. The only problem with it is that it was
probably made up, as we will see. The police realised that Packer was not a reliable witness.
So, descriptions like these were only helpful if they were based on real information, and
they took time to note down as well as to follow up.
The art of identification sketches was only just developing and was not used in the Ripper
investigation. The ideas of a Frenchman, Alphonse Bertillon, were taken up as official
policy in the 1890s - the use of m u g -shots and facial measurements to reconstruct sketches
of suspects from descriptions. However, this was not available to the police investigating
the Ripper murders. Similarly, the idea of using fingerprints had been suggested, but it
wasn't until the early years of the twentieth century that they were actually first used in
criminal investigations.
IDENTIFYING
CRIMINALS
1
?,
Why d i d the
M etropol itan Po l i ce fi n d
it h a rd t o i d e ntify t h e
Ripper?
2 What i m p rove m e nts
were taki n g p l a ce
i n the m ethods of
i nvestig ation a n d
d etecti o n t h a t the
p o l i ce had?
3 What evidence is there
that the M etropolitan

Po lice cou l d have made
bette r use of some of
these tech n i q u es?
Identity parades were used from the beginning of the

Whitechapel murder investigations, but without success,
although they were useful in ruling out suspects such as
Jack Pizer or 'Leather Apron', whose nickname was
circulated in the press (see page 158) .
ABSTRACT OF
TU ANTHROPOJri2TlUCAJ, SIGNALMENT
C ri m i n a l p rofi les
The Ripper investigation was the first documented use of a
criminal profile. These involve using the evidence gathered
about the criminal and from the crime scene to work out the
type of person that the police should be looking for. Following
the murder ofMary Kelly, Dr Thomas Bond was asked to
prepare a profile of the killer. Bond was a police surgeon at the
scene of Kelly's murder, and had carried out her autopsy. He
was then given the papers and records of the other four
killings in order to write a report on the case as a whole.
Sou rce I F ro m Dr B o n d 's re p o rt on t h e m u rd e re r.
The m urderer in external appearance is quite likely to be a quiet
inoffensive looking man probably middle aged and nea tly and
respectably dressed. I think he must be in the habit of wearing
a cloak or overcoa t or he could hardly have escaped notice in
the streets if the blood on his hands and clothes were visible
. . . he would probably be solitary and eccen tric in his habits,
also he is most likely to be a man without regular occupa tion,
but with some small income or pension. He is possibly living
among respectable persons who have some knowledge of his
character and habits and who may have grounds for suspicion
that he is not quite right in his mind at times.
INTERVIEWS AND CLUES

1
What evid e n ce is there that the M etro p o l itan Po l ice were

worki n g h a rd to catch the Ripper?
Exp l a i n h ow the p o l i ce m a ke witness state m e nts as
accu rate as poss i b l e .
3 Why d i d t h e q u esti o n i n g fo cus o n b utch e rs a n d
s l a u g hte r m e n ?
BLOODHOUNDS
1. Height.
Length
of hea4.
7 Lefr foot .
,., Reach,
3 Trunk.
I. LeFt middle linser.
9-
W'ldth of head.
6. Right eu.
A A diagram explaining Bertillon's system for
Left foreorm..
photographing criminals , from a book published in 1896 in

the USA as a guide for American police .
O n e d eve l o p m ent that was n ot carried t h ro u g h was the use

of b l o od h o u n d s . The M et Co m m issio n e r Cha rles Wa rren
had o rd e red a tri a l of t h e i r use and a pair b red by Mr Edwin
B ro u g h , who had a re putati o n fo r b reed i n g exce l l ent dogs,
we re b ro u g ht down fro m Scarboro u g h i n Yo rks h i re. The
tri a l at the start of Octo b e r went we l l , a n d the n ext stag e in
the plan was to use the dogs at a m u rd e r sce n e . H oweve r,
there was a l u l l betwee n the 'd o u b l e eve nt' a n d the m u rd e r
o f M a ry Ke l l y - a n d M r B ro u g h too k the dogs b a c k to
Scarboro u g h on 1 N ove m b e r, frustrated at the d e l ays.
1.8 How did t he press make it more difficult for t he

police to investigate t he Ripper case?
During the Whitechapel murders those in charge of the
police seemed to be in chaos. Two chief inspectors had
resigned in little more than two years, after corruption
scandals and riots, which the papers reported in great
detail. James Monro, the head of the CID, had resigned just
before the first Ripper murder, and his replacemenr was on
a long holiday in Switzerland. This seemed to leave the CID
without a leader at a crucial point. The fact that they could
not capture 'the Ripper' seemed to confirm that the police
could not do their jobs properly. However, as we have seen,
the police on the ground were working very hard to find the
killer - but they didn't seem to get any credit for this work
in the press.
The papers themselves were full of criticism, as well as
suggestions from those who thought that the police should
be doing more than they were. The Reverend Samuel
Barnett, a vicar from a nearby church, wrote to The Times
claiming that the murders were partly caused by the failure
of the police to revoke the licences of 'criminal haunts'
pubs in which criminals and prostitutes mixed. Other
letters suggested that the police should use bloodhounds,
or even set up a team of policemen disguised as prostitutes
so that they could trap the Ripper.
CORNELL NOTES
You need to reco rd the information in this sectio n so that

you re m e m be r h ow the p ress affected the Ripper
investigatio n . Yo u ca n use a 'Corn e l l N otes' Know l e d g e
O rg a n iser t o h e l p y o u d o this. S p l it yo u r page into th ree, as
s h own i n the d i a g ra m b e l ow. As you read th ro u g h pages
1 57-1 61 you s h o u l d m a ke n otes, as you m i g ht d o n o r m a l ly.
When you h ave d o n e this read t h ro u g h yo u r n otes, a n d i n
the w i d e r m a rg i n o n the l eft write s o m e q u estio n s t h a t a re
a n swered by yo u r n otes. For i n stan ce, you m ig ht write
' P u b l ished M atthew Packe r's story that he sold g rapes to
"J ack" a n d E l iza beth Stride' w h e n you a re fi rst m a ki n g
n otes, a n d then ' H ow d i d the p ress e n co u ra g e fa lse
stori es? ' when you co m e back to review th ese n otes. In the
botto m box you ca n write fu rth e r q u estions that yo u 'd l i ke
to fi n d out the a n swers to, or m a ke a n ote of a nyth i n g that
confuses yo u .
=l-
where you write

1e
ons that are answered
r notes.
f-
This is where you make otes 4

first time you read through
the
1, he pages.
This is where you write :u rther

r--Lquestions you would like the
I lanswers to.
Source A A cartoon from the news magazine Punch ,

October 1888 the posters are advertising newspapers
filled with horrible details of the murders .
.A.
ACTIVITY
1
Try to re m e m be r why the M et was in trou b l e in 1 88 1 .

M a ke a l ist of eve nts that s u g g est the M et was in crisis.
Looki n g back ove r pages 1 32-1 36, h ave you m issed
a nyth i n g ?
2 W h y were peo p l e so worried a n d fasci n ated with cri m e
i n Wh itech a p e l ? M a ke a l ist o f a l l the reasons a n d then

check back ove r pages 1 28-1 3 1 to see if you h ave
re m e m bered everyth i n g .
Sensati o n a l Sto ries

The Ripper murders were an opportunity for the
newspapers to sell copies. There was fierce competition
between the thirteen morning and nine evening daily
papers being sold in London. This led to stories that
sensationalised the details of the murders - and witnesses
even made things up.
SENSATIONALISM
We ofte n fi n d referen ces in n ewspa per sou rces to seve n ,
e i g h t a n d even te n , e l even o r m o re victi m s o f the Ripper.
The papers were a d d i n g to the l ist victi m s of m u rd e rs that
h a pp e n ed before the fi rst Ripper ki l l i n g of M a ry N ic h o l s
o n 3 1 Aug ust. They conti n u ed t o add oth e r m u rd e r victi m s
afte r the ki l l i n g o f M a ry Ke l ly o n 9 N ove m b e r - despite the
fa ct that they d i d n ot m atch the very u n us u a l m ethods used
to m u rd e r the 'ca n o n ical' victims.
TWO PRIVATE DET ECT IVE

S ON
T H E TRACK O F T H E ASS
ASS IN.
WHERE HE HOUGHT THE GRAPES FOUND
BESIDE THE M LJRDERED WOMAN.
MATTHEW PACKER 'S STORY.

INTERVIEW WITH THE MAN WHO
SPOKE TO THE MURD ERER.
Source B Headlines from the London Evening News,

4 October 1888.
THE MISSING GRAPES

Packer h a d been i n te rviewed by t h e p o l ice on 3 0
S e pte m b e r, t h e m o r n i n g afte r t h e m u rd e r o f E l izabeth
Stri d e . H e l ived j u st n ext door to t h e ya rd w h e re her ki l l i n g
h a d t a ke n p l a ce a n d to l d t h e p o l ice that h e h a d seen a n d
h e a rd n oth i n g , a n d n e i t h e r h a d h i s wife n o r t h e i r l o d g e rs .
B y t h e n ext d a y h e h a d g ive n a n i nterview t o re po rters
fro m the Eve n ing News, a n d had been t a ke n by two
p rivate d etectives (see p a g e 1 60) to i d e ntify E l iza beth's
body. H e was n ow c l a i m i n g that h e h a d seen a n d s p o ke n
t o E l izabeth a n d a m a l e co m pa n i o n s h o rtly befo re s h e
w a s ki l l e d . T h e g ra pes m e nt i o n e d i n t h i s story m a ke n o
a p p e a ra n ce i n t h e oth e r sou rces a b o u t Strid e's body.
Packe r's descripti o n was used by s o m e p a p e rs to d raw
a sketch of 'the suspect', desp ite t h e fa ct that t h e p o l ice
t h e m s e lves did n ot th i n k that h e was a re l i a b l e witness.
The police did not give very much information about the
murders - beyond the details that might help identify the
victims. Journalists had to rely on speaking to people that
gathered when the body had been found in order to get a
description. This led to the press printing many details and
stories that weren't true or exaggerated. Annie Chapman's
rings had been ripped from her fingers, and were never found
- but in some stories the journalist claimed that they had been
arranged at the feet of the body.
The p ress a n d the re p utation of

the police
As the newspapers filled with apparent witnesses and
descriptions of the murderer it made it seem even more
incredible that the police had not caught the killer.
Cartoons which presented the police as incompetent made
this feeling even worse. On 1 October, the Pall Mall Gazette,
which had been a critic of Charles Warren even before the
Ripper attacks, gleefully reported on a demonstration in
Victoria Park in Bethnal Green at which speakers called for
Warren's resignation (see Source C ) .
Source C Fro m a re p o rt o n a p u b li c d e m o n stration i n Beth n a l
G re e n , p u blished i n t h e Pall Mall Gazette, 1 October 1 88 8 .
After several speeches upon the conduct of the Home Secretary
and Sir Charles Warren, a resolution was unanimously passed
that it was high time both officers should resign and make
way for some officers who would leave no stone unturned for
the purpose of bringing the murderers to justice, instead of
allowing them to run riot in a civilised city like London.
Warren did not help matters. In early October the Board of

Works (a kind of local council for London) published a
statement which called on the police to do more to stop the
Ripper. Warren published a reply which claimed, 'Statistics
show that London, in comparison to its population, is the
safest city in the world to live in' and went on to suggest
that the Board should provide more street lights to make it
harder for criminals like the Ripper.
LEATHER APRON
The ru m o u rs that the n ewspa pers p u b l ished a l s o led
to dead e n d s, a n d to suspects going i nto h i d i n g . O n ce
such suspect was J o h n Pize r - a J ewish co b b l e r known as
' Leath e r Apron'. Pizer was a stra n g e and violent man who
had th reate ned p rostitutes. A suspect with h i s n i ckn a m e was
re po rted i n the paper, a n d Pizer was then arrested hiding at
the h o m e of a fa m i ly m e m ber. lt beca m e clear that Pizer h a d
a good a l i b i fo r the m u rd e rs a n d h e w a s re leased .
The Ri pper Lette rs

The press also published many of the letters that they received
from people claiming to be Jack the Ripper - in fact it was one
of these letters, signed by 'Jack the Ripper', that gave the killer
his nickname. The first two were published at the request of
the police - in the hope that they might lead them to the
identity of the killer. They were in the same handwriting, and
made references which made them convincing.
Sou rce D A Letter received by t h e Central N ews Ag e n cy on 2 7
Septe m b e r, a n d p a s s e d o n to t h e po lice o n 1 O c t o b e r 1 8 88.
Dear Boss,
I keep on hearing the police have caught me but they won t fix me
just yet. I have laughed when they look so clever and talk about
being on the right track. That joke about Leather Apron gave me
real fits. I am down on whores and I shant quit ripping them till
I do get buckled. Grand work the last job was. I gave the lady no
time to squeal. How can they catch me now. / love my work and
want to start again. You will soon hear of me with my funny little
games. I saved some of the proper red stuff in a ginger beer
bottle over the last job to write with but it went thick like glue and
I cant use it. Red ink is fit enough I hope ha. ha. The next job I do I
shall clip the ladys ears off and send to the police officers just for
jolly wouldn't you. Keep this letter back till / do a bit more work,
then give it out straight. My knife 's so nice and sharp I want to get
to work right away if I get a chance. Good Luck.
Yours truly
Jack the Ripper
Look back at page 1 5 1 and the description of ' the double
event'. Why might Catherine Eddowes' murder make this
letter (Source D) seem more likely to have come from the
killer?
The Wh itechapel Vig i l a n ce Com m ittee

George Lusk, a builder from Whitechapel, felt not enough
had been done to catch the killer and set up the Whitechapel
Vigilance Committee. The Committee hired two private
detectives to investigate the killings. These were the two who
questioned Matthew Packer after his press interviews led him
to claim that he had talked to the killer and sold grapes to
Elizabeth Stride just before she was murdered. They also took
Packer to the mortuary to identify Stride's body. Packer's story
(which as we've seen was probably false) caused a great deal of
interest in the papers and added to the panic on the streets of
Whitechapel.
The Committee also published posters offering a small
reward. They offered this reward after petitioning the
Home Secretary, Matthews, to offer an official reward.

The Government refused to do this, as neither the Home
Secretary nor Charles Warren thought that it would
produce useful information. In the past rewards had
seemed to create lots of allegations made on suspicion or
even made up completely. It was feared that these would
take up police time, so an official reward was never offered.
Lusk became very well-known, and started to receive hoax
letters from people claiming to be the Ripper. On 16 October
Lusk received a parcel containing a human kidney and a
letter with the address 'From Hell'.
S o u rce E A t ra n s c r i p t i o n of t h e ' F ro m H e ll' Letter.
From Hell.
Mr Lusk,
Sor
I send you half the Kidne I took from one woman and prasarved
it for you tother piece I fried and ate it was very nise. I may send
you the bloody knit that took it out if you only wate a whil longer
signed
Ca tch me when you can Mishter Lusk
Lusk had the kidney examined by a Dr Openshaw at the

London Hospital who confirmed that it was a human
kidney preserved in wine. He confirmed it was human, but
suggested that it could have been taken from any of the
numerous bodies that turned up in London autopsies in
normal times. Along with the dramatic letter, this seemed
to be a joke, possibly by a medical student.
Descri be two featu res of:

a) the treatment of the Ripper story by the n ewspa pers
b) t h e d eve l o p m e n t of t h e C I D.
H ow usefu l a re S o u rce F ( p a g e 1 54) a n d S o u rce I
( p a g e 1 5 6) fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto t h e tech n i q u e s used by
p o l ice to i d e ntify s u s pects? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swers u s i n g
S o u rces F a n d I a n d yo u r k n ow l e d g e o f the h i sto rica l
context.
H ow usefu l a re S o u rces C ( p a g e 1 5 8 ) a n d E ( p a g e 1 59)
fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto t h e attit u d e of Lo n d o n e rs to the
p o l i ce? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer u s i n g S o u rces C and E
a n d yo u r k n ow l e d g e of the h i storica l context.
1.9 Did t he City and Metropolitan Police work well

toget her?
We have already seen that rivalry and personality clashes
meant that James Munro, the man in charge of CID, resigned
just before the Ripper murders (see page 150), and that
criticism ofWarren (as well as a bad working relationship
with the Home Secretary) forced him to resign just before the
murder ofMary Kelly (see page 136) . This made it look as if
the top of the police force was in chaos - and accounts for
some of the bad press that the police received.
However, on the ground the different types of police force
and the different divisions of the Metropolitan Police,
worked very well together. The other divisions helped by
sending men to patrol the beat in Whitechapel. It was
hoped that this increased manpower would make it more
likely that the Ripper would be caught in the act. PC Long,
who found the piece of Eddowes' apron on the night of 3 0
September, had been drafted in from A Division in order to
increase the number of policemen on the streets, and is a
good example of this kind of co-operation.
was some anti-Jewish graffiti in chalk (see Source A) above

the piece of Eddowes' apron covered in blood on Goulston
Street, which PC Alfred Long found.
Eddowes' murder had taken place in Mitre Square, within
the City Police's territory. The City of London Police were a
separate and independent police force and not under
Charles Warren's control. Two City detectives did see the
chalk writing, and insisted that a photographer record the
words. However, many people had decided that the crimes
against women were being carried out by a Jew, and attacks
on Jewish people had increased during the crisis. Warren
decided that the risk of an anti-S emitic riot was too great to
wait for a photographer to arrive and so he made a copy of
the graffiti, and ordered that the writing be washed from
the wall. This did cause problems, and criticism from the
press. Warren had to write to the Home Office to explain
his actions.
S o u rce B Fro m a re p o rt w r i t t e n by C h a rles Warren a n d
s e n t to t h e H o m e O f f i c e o n 8 N ove m b e r 1 8 8 8 , s h o rt ly
b e f o re h i s res i g n a t i o n .
Sou rce A : A t ra n s c r i p t i o n of t h e g ra f f i t i s e e n a b ove

w h e re t h e p i ece o f E d d owes' a p ro n was s e e n - writte n by
C o m m i ss i o n e r C h a rles Warren at t h e sce n e .
i t was jus t getting ligh t, the public would be i n th e streets in

a few minutes, in a neighbourhood very m uch crowded on
Sun day mornings by Jewish ven dors and Christian purchasers
from all parts of London . . . The writing was visible to anybody
in the street . . . after taking in to considera tion the excited
state of the population in London generally at th e tim e the
strong feeling which had been excited against the Jews . . . I
considered it desirable to oblitera te th e writing at once, having
taken a copy.
The Juwes are

The men that
Will not
be Blamed
for nothing
In general there was also co-operation between the City and

Metropolitan Police forces. Donald Swanson, who was in
charge of the Whitechapel investigation at Scotland Yard,
worked well with Inspector James McWilliam, who was
in charge of the City's detectives. For instance, Swanson's
reports comment on how 'cordial' the relationship was.
However, during the investigation there was a point at
which the co-operation broke down - from the top down.
On the night of 'the double event' - the night that both
Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were killed - there
This seems to be the only point at which relations

were strained. It could even be argued that H Division
learned lots from the City of London Police during the
investigation. Mary Kelly's murder scene was preserved and
photographed. If we compare this to the way that the earlier
Ripper crime scenes were handled then we could see this as
evidence that H Division had learned from the City Police's
handling and recording of the Mitre Square site where
Catherine Eddowe's body was found.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
: Practice q u estions
1
Describe two featu res of t h e co- o p e ration betwee n t h e

C i t y a n d M etro p o l ita n p o l i ce d u ri n g t h e R i p p e r m u rd e rs .
H ow u sefu l a re S o u rces A a n d B fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto
coo p e rati o n betwee n the M etro p o l itan a n d City p o l i ce
fo rces? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer u s i n g t h e sou rces a n d yo u r
k n ow l e d g e o f t h e h istorica l context.
H ow co u l d yo u fo l l ow u p S o u rce A (above) to fi n d
o u t m o re a b o u t t h e G o u l ston Street g raffiti? Use t h e
fo l l ow i n g h e a d i n g s :
a ) Deta i l i n S o u rce A t h a t I wo u l d fo l l ow u p
b) Qu estion I wou l d a s k
c) What t y p e of sou rce I co u l d use
d) H ow t h i s m i g ht help a n swer my q u esti o n .
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Conclusions
What have I learned a bout cri m e a n d pol ici n g i n Wh itecha pel?
Fisher, made me think a lot about what would drive a mother
to take a sick child out on a cold night so that she could use
her for begging.
When I first started looking at this period I had a n outline of

the topic in my head. I expected to find lots of poverty, and
a violent society. My view of this part of London at that time
was definitely dominated by what I thought I knew about the
crimes of]ack the Ripper. I was convinced that Whitechapel
was positively dangerous. My view of policing at the time was
dominated by the idea of the detective - a Victorian hero,
perhaps modelled on Sherlock Holmes who used clues and
logic to solve crimes. Writing this book has meant that I have
been able to read lots more about the topic, and to learn that
the reality was much more complicated.
People turned to drink in response to their harsh lives. Some

became alcoholics, which meant they were more likely to get
involved in crime - in violent fights perhaps, or by becoming
victims of crime like the women murdered by the Ripper.
I have learned that Whitechapel was not just filled with a

violent or thieving underclass of people desperately taking
from each other what they could. Instead I found out it was
a mixed area, with some very poor people, often immigrants
from Russia, Ireland or elsewhere. Not all of these people
trusted the police. Poor people often lived in crowded
'rookeries' but only a few streets away middle class families
lived much more comfortably.
I have learned that the police were a relatively new force,

and that the tools they had to use to combat crime were
limited. Detection was viewed suspiciously - people were
worried that the police were snooping into their lives.
I learned that the conditions in which people lived, their

low wages and the fact that they often lost work without
any warning, meant that committing a crime was a way
of surviving. The first case we looked at, the death of Lucy
I learned that many middle-class and wealthy Victorians

were worried about poverty and crime. This led to
investigations like Charles Booth's or the clearance of
slums and the building of new model places to live like the
Peabody Estate.
I learned that crime was big news - people across London read
avidly about the work of the police in newspapers, and that
this interest became a frenzy in 1888 during the Ripper crisis.
Finally, I learned that the police had a tough job in catching
the Ripper, because they didn't have many of the forensic
tools that we might use today.
What next?
One of the reasons I chose to study and to teach history is
that it is never 'done'. There are always new questions that
can be followed up, and often there are new books, or new
pieces of research to read, or even more sources to consider
and fit into the jigsaw. The questions I would like to explore
next are :
To find out the answers I need to think about what kinds of

sources might help me. Here are some possibilities.
h o u s i n g and e m p l oyment
reco rds
Is there a ny rec o rd of how wo m e n i n Wh ite c h a p e l fe lt a bout
co u n ci l reco rd s
and rea cted to the J a c k the Ripper crisis?
Census ret u r n s
2 What wa s the i m pact of slum c l ea ra n ce o n crime in

Wh itecha pel i n the l o n g e r term ?
3 What patte r n s ove r t i m e ca n we see i n the types of c r i m e s
l o c a l p o l ice reco rds
p h oto g ra p h s
Lo n d o n n ews p a p e rs
natio n a l news p a p e rs
O l d B a i l ey reco rds of tria l s
Pu n ch ca rto o n s
coro n e r's re po rts
t h a t were co m m itted d u ri n g the period ? Did types o f
c r i m e c h a n g e a s the types of peo p l e l iv i n g i n Wh itec h a p e l

changed?
4 What d id H Division policemen th i n k o f t h e way the
M etropolita n Pol ice hand led the Ripper crisis?
5 Did the re p utatio n of the M etro p o l ita n Po l ice recove r
qu ickly?
ACTIVITY: WHAT NEXT?

Which of these reco rds a n d d o c u m e nts wo u l d h e l p m e
a n swer the five q u estions a b ove?
1 .1 1 Visi b le Lea rn i ng : Review a n d revise

Th i n ki n g a bout sou rces
The focus is, therefore, on asking questions, identifying
sources that would be relevant to the topic and would help
you answer the questions you ask, and on using your
knowledge of the topic. You can find more guidance on this
question on page 170 bur this activity will help you practise
asking questions and choosing sources.
This activity will help you practise asking questions and

choosing sources. We have done a lot of work already in this
unit to prepare you for questions 1 and 2 in paper 1 of your
exam. You can also find more guidance on the specifics
of tackling these questions on pages 168- 169. This page is
designed to help you with question 2b in paper 1 of your
exam. Question 2b will look like this:
2(b) H ow co u l d you fo l l ow u p S o u rce B to fi n d out m o re about

the p ro b l e m s i n (a topic wi l l be identified)? I n yo u r a n swer, you
m u st g ive the q u estion you wou l d ask a n d the type of source
you co u l d use. Co m p l ete the ta b l e b e l ow. (4 m a rks)
Choose one o f the topics i n the purple b ox below. Write
down at least two questions you want to ask about it to

deepen your knowledge.
2 Look at the sources in the blue b ox. Select one source

that might help you answer your questions, and then
explain how it might do this. You could choose different
Deta i l in S o u rce B that I wou l d fo l l ow u p :
sources for each question.
Qu esti o n I wo u l d ask:
Repeat these steps for at least one more topic.
What type of s o u rce I co u l d use:

H ow t h i s m i g ht h e l p a n swer my q u esti o n :
To p i cs to fi n d o u t m o re a b o u t
1
4
7
Types of cri m e a n d
cri m i n a l s
Wo r k h o uses
Lo d g i n g h o uses
J ew i s h i m m i g ra t i o n
Po l itica l activism
R e c r u i t m e n t to H
D iv i s i o n
1 0 I m p rove m e nts i n
1 1 N ewspa p e rs a n d c ri m e
Poverty a n d c a u s e s of
crime
I ri s h i m m i g ra t i o n
T h e ro l e of t h e
consta b l e o n t h e be a t
1 2 T h e d eve l o p m e n t of t h e
CID
d etect i o n tech n i q u e s
S o u rces yo u co u l d use
Co u n ci l reco rds
C e n s u s ret u r n s
D C h a r l e s B o o t h 's s u rvey
Wo r k h o u s e records
Loca l p o l ice records
G C o ro n e r's re p o rts
P h oto g r a p h s
Lo n d o n n ewspa p e rs
C I D reco rds
Housing and
e m p l o y m e n t records
O l d B a i l ey records of
tria l s
H o m e office p a p e rs
Pu n ch cartoons
Cementi n g yo u r knowledge
I n your examination you will b e asked three questions (see pages 164-165) . These
questions will be about the sources we use to find out about crime and policing in
Whitechapel and will also test your skills in enquiry, such as asking questions. To do well
in all the questions you also need a good level of knowledge about the topics you have
studied in this unit. Examiners will be looking to see how much you know and how you use
that knowledge in your answers. Therefore it is important that you make that knowledge
stick in your brain.
1 Test yo u rself!
T h e m o re y o u i d e ntify w h a t yo u ' re n ot s u re a b o ut, t h e m o re c h a n ce y o u h ave o f fi l l i n g t h o s e g a ps a n d d o i n g we l l i n t h e
exa m . H ow m a ny o f t h e s e c a n you get rig ht?
1 W h at k i n d s of tria l s took p l a ce at
t h e O l d B a i l ey?
4 W h at w a s t h e n a m e o f t h e m a n
w h o g ave m o n ey to h e l p b u i l d b ette r
2 W h e re
was the m ost n o to r i o u s
'rookery' in W h itech a p e l ?
d oss' m e a n s .
5 W h y d i d p rostitutes visit p u bs
h o u s i n g i n W h itech a p e l ?
7 Exp l a i n t h e d iffe r e n ces between
1 0 W h e n was t h e fi rst a n d l ast R i p p e r
1 1 Exp l a i n t h e b e a t syste m .
m u rd e r?
9 W h a t evi d e n ce is t h e re that
8 W h y did many p e o p l e in
W h ite c h a p e l t u r n to c r i m e ?
W h i c h i m m i g ra n t g ro u ps h a d b e e n
m o v i n g i n to W h ite c h a p e l ?
fre q u e ntly?
the Wo r k h o u s e and the C a s u a l Wa rd .
3 Exp l a i n w h a t ' h avi n g m o n ey fo r
Vi cto ria n s were worried a b o u t

p ove rty?
1 2 W h a t was t h e W h itech a p e l
Vig i l a n ce C o m m ittee?
2 Aski n g q u estions
W e h ave p rovided s o m e a n swers b e l ow, b u t i t is yo u r j o b t o co m e u p with s u i ta b l e m atch i n g q u esti o n s . Try t o m a ke each
q u esti o n a s d eta i l ed as possi b l e so that you a re using yo u r k n ow l e d g e to h e l p yo u word it.
1 Lo d g i n g h o uses
6 Sarah
F is h e r
2 S a i l o rs
7 T h e O l d B a i l ey
3 R o o ke ry
8 C o m m e rcia l Street
4 Bessa r a b i a n g a n g
9 W i l l i a m S h o rt
5 A l p h o n se B e rti l l o n
1 0 S i r C h a r l e s Wa rren
3 Te l l i n g sto ries
T h e tasks i n 1 and 2 a b ove focus o n i n d ivid u a l pieces of i n fo rm a t i o n , but you a l so n e e d to h ave a n u n d e rsta n d i n g of t h e
sto ries at t h e h e a rt of t h i s u n it. Ta ke each of t h e s e q u esti o n s a n d p re p a re a n a n swer that w i l l take yo u a m i n ute o r t w o t o
exp l a i n a l o u d . Exp l a i n i n g it a l o u d w i l l h e l p to ce m e n t it i n yo u r b ra i n .
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Why was Wh itech a p e l a p l a ce with l ots of c ri m i n a l activity?

H ow d i d t h e re putati o n of t h e M etro p o l itan Po l i ce c h a n g e d u ri n g t h e period?
What ste ps were b e i n g taken to m a ke Wh itech a p e l a bette r p l a ce to l ive?
H ow was p o l i c i n g o rg a n ised i n Wh itech a p e l ?
H ow d i d t h e n ews p a p e rs m a ke it m o re d ifficu lt to i n vestig ate t h e R i p p e r m u rd e rs?
What ste ps d i d t h e p o l ice ta ke to catch t h e R i p p e r?
What were t h e a i m s of the beat syste m ?
Why were n 't b l ood h o u n d s used i n t h e R i p p e r i nvesti g at i o n ?
H ow d i d m et h o d s of i d e ntify i n g c ri m i n a l s a n d i nvesti gati n g cri m e i m p rove d u ri n g t h e period?
H ow we l l d i d t h e M etro p o l itan Po l i ce co - o p e rate with t h e City of Lo n d o n Po l i ce and t h e CID d u ri n g t h e R i p p e r crisis?
Introducing t he exam
Simply knowing a lot o f content i s not enough to achieve a
good grade in your GCSE History exam. You need to know
how to write effective answers to the questions. Pages 1641 78 give you an insight into the exam and provide guidance
on how to approach the different questions. This page and
page 165 introduce the structure of Paper 1 of your exam.
The guidance on page 166 helps you approach your exam

with confidence.
Paper 1 is divided into two sections. Section A covers the
study of a historic environment on Whitechapel, c.1870 c 1 9 0 0 . Section B covers the thematic study o f crime and
punishment in Britain, c.lOOO -present.
Pa per 1 : Thematic study a n d h isto ric e nvi ro n m e nt

O ptio n : Wh ite c h a p e l , c.1 870-c.1 900 : Cri m e, p o l i ci n g a n d t h e i n n e r city
._.
Tim e : 1 h o u r 15 m i n utes
You m ust have :
S o u rce B o o k l et (encl osed)
A______..._ I nstructions
A n swer Questi o n s 1 a n d 2 fro m Secti o n A .
A.---"'" From Secti o n B, a n swer Q u esti o n s 3 a n d 4 a n d t h e n
I nformation
V
T h e tota l m a rk fo r t h i s p a p e r is 52 .
---..,-------- . T h e m a rks fo r each q u estion a re s h ow n i n b ra ckets.
EITH E R Question 5 OR Qu estion 6 .
S ECTION A: Whitechapel, c.1 870-c.1 900
..
..
Answer Questions 1 and 2.

1 . Descri be t w o featu res o f h o u s i n g i n Wh itech a p e l betwee n 1 870 a n d 1 90 0 .
Featu re 1
Featu re 2
e--.
(Tota l for Question 1 = 4 ma rks)
2. (a) Study S o u rces A a n d B in the S o u rce B o o k l et.

H ow usefu l a re Sources A (So u rce D o n page 1 54) a n d B (Sou rce A on page 1 58) fo r a n e n q u i ry i nto the
p roblems the police faced when i nvestigati n g the Ripper m u rders?
Exp l a i n yo u r a n swe r, u s i n g S o u rces A a n d B a n d yo u r own k n ow l e d g e of the h i sto rica l context.
(8 m a rks)
(b) Study Sou rce B
H ow wou l d you fo l l ow u p S o u rce B to fi n d o u t m o re a b o u t t h e types of cri m e co m m itted i n
Wh itech a p e l i n t h i s period?
I n yo u r a n swer, you m u st g ive t h e q u esti o n you wo u l d ask and t h e type of sou rce yo u co u l d use.
(4 m a rks)
Com p l ete t h e table below:

Deta i l in S o u rce B that I wou l d fo l l ow u p :
_
_
_
_
Qu esti o n I wo u l d ask:
What type of sou rce I co u l d use:
H ow t h i s m i g ht h e l p a n swer my q u esti o n :
_
_
_
_
(Tota l for Qu estion 2 = 1 2 ma rks)

TOTAL FOR S ECTI O N A = 16 MARKS
PA RT 3: Writi n g bette r h istory
S ECTION 8: Crime and punishment, c.1 000-present

Answer Q u esti o n s 3 and 4 . Then a n swer E I T H E R Q u estion 5 OR 6.
e---.
o----. 4.
Exp l a i n one way i n which tri a l s i n m e d i eva l E n g l a n d were s i m i l a r to tri a l s i n t h e seve nteenth centu ry.
(4 m a rks)
3.
(1 2 m a rks)
Exp l a i n why t h e re were ch a n g es to p o l i c i n g in the period betwee n 1 70 0 a n d 1 900.

Yo u m ay use t h e fo l l owi n g i n yo u r a n swer:
the g rowth of Lo n d o n
i n creased taxati o n
Yo u m u st a l so use i nfo rmation o f yo u r ow n .
Answer EITH E R Question 5 O R Question 6.

Spelling, punctuation, grammar and the use of specialist terminology will be assessed in this question.
EITH E R
' T h e ro l e o f t h e C h u rch w a s t h e m ost i m po rta nt facto r affecti n g law enfo rce m e nt d u ri n g t h e
M i d d l e Ages.'
H ow fa r d o you a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer.
(1 6 m a rks)
Yo u m ay use the fo l l owi n g i n yo u r a n swer:
ben efit of t h e c l e rgy
tith i n g s
Yo u m ust a l so use i n formation o f yo u r own .
OR
6. ' T h e m a i n p u rpose o f p u n is h m e n t d u ri n g t h e period c.1 000-c.1 700 w a s t o d ete r p e o p l e fro m
co m m itti n g crim es.'
(1 6 m a rks)
Yo u m ay use the fo l l owi n g i n yo u r a n swer:
co rpora l p u n i s h m e n t
t h e i ntro d u ction of tra n s p o rtati o n
Yo u m ust a l so use i n fo rm ation o f yo u r ow n .
(Tota l fo r spelling, punctuation, g ra m m a r a n d the use o f special ist term i n o l ogy

(Tota l for Question 5 or 6
Ti m i n g ti p
It is important to time yourself carefully. One hour and fifteen minutes sounds a long
time but it goes very quickly! S ome students run out of time because they spend too long
on Section A, thinking that it is worth spending half their time on this Section. However,
Section A is worth 16 marks whereas Section B is worth 36 marks. The final two questions of
Section B are worth more marks than all the other questions put together. This shows the
importance of having a time plan and sticking to it.
Look at the plan on the sticky note to the right. You could use this plan or develop your
own and check it with your teacher.
4 ma rks)
20 ma rks)
Qvertio llf 1 a n d Z approx.

m i n vter
1.'5
Qvertionr a n d If approx.
m i n vter
1.'5
Eitloer Qvertion '5 o r (.,

approx. 1.'5 m i n vter
Pla n n i n g fo r su ccess
0 T H E S O U RCE B O O KLET
The exam paper on pages 164 and 165 gives you an idea
what your exam will look like. We have not included the
Source Booklet. For practice use the sources and activities
in Part 2 of this book (pages 1 14-163 ) . Make sure you
spend time reading and annotating the sources before you
attempt Question 2 in the exam.
0 FO LLOW I N ST R U CTI O N S CA R E F U LLY
Read the instructions very carefully. Some students miss

questions they need to answer while others waste time
answering more questions than they need to answer.
Remember to answer both parts of Question 2 and to
choose between EITHER Question 5 OR 6. You will also see
that for Question 1 you need to describe two key features
whereas with Question 3 you only need to explain one way
in which people's reactions were similar.
8 T H I N K CAR E F U L LY A B O U T W H I C H
Q U ESTI O N YO U C H OOS E
After Questions 1, 2, 3 and 4, you need to decide whether

to answer Question 5 or Question 6. Do not rush your
decision. Think carefully about which question you will
perform best on. Plan your answer - it is worth 16 marks,
nearly a third of the total marks for the paper.
0 S P E N D TI M E D E- CO D I N G Q U ESTI O N S
The marks for each question are shown i n brackets. This

gives you an idea of how much you need to write, as does
the space for your answer on the exam paper. However, do
not panic if you do not fill all the space. There will probably
be more space than you need and the quality of your answer
is more important than how much you write. The most
important thing is to keep focused on the question. If you
include information that is not relevant to the question you
will not gain any marks, no matter how much you write !
the source in its historical context. This is a challenging task.

Page 169 explains how to approach this question.
0 FO LLOW I N G U P A S O U RCE
This question has four parts. You need to fill in the table on
the exam paper. Page 170 provides advice on this question.
0 EXPLO R I N G S I M I LA R I T I ES A N D
D I F F E R E N C E S B ETW E E N P E R I O DS
This is the first question that tests you on your knowledge

and understanding of crime and punishment in Britain from
c.lOOO to the present. It will ask you to explain a similarity
or a difference between the key features of two different
periods. Page 171 explains how to answer this question.
0 EXPLAI N I N G W H Y C R I M E AN D
P U N I S H M E N T P RO G R ESS E D (O R STAY E D TH E
SAM E)
Questions such as this test your ability to write effective
explanations. You may be asked to explain why crime and
punishment progressed so quickly or why there was little
change during a period. Pages 172-173 help you write a good
answer to this question.
G U S I N G T H E STI M U LU S M AT E R IAL
When you attempt Question 4 and either Question 5 or 6 you

will have bullet points as stimulus material to help plan your
answer. You do not have to include them but try to use them
to get you thinking and to support your arguments. You must
bring in your own knowledge too. If you only use the stimulus
material you will not gain high marks for your answer.
- MAKI N G J U D G E M E N TS
Read each question carefully before you to start to answer

it. Use the advice on de-coding questions on page 167 to
make sure you focus on the question.
This question carries the most marks and requires a longer

answer that needs careful planning. You will be provided
with a statement. It may be about the pace of change in a
period (for example Question 5) or the significance of an
individual or a discovery (for example Question 6). Pages
174-175 provide advice on answering this question.
0 D E S C R I B I N G KEY FEATU R E S
f) C H ECKI N G TH E QUALITY O F YO U R
The first question asks you t o describe two features of

an aspect of the historic environment you have studied.
Headings on the exam paper help you write about each feature
separately. Advice on how to gain high marks is on page 168.
0 EVALUAT I N G T H E U S E F U LN ESS OF A
S O U RCE
This question asks you to evaluate how useful two sources

are for a specific enquiry. Use the Source Booklet to annotate
the sources. Make sure you use your own knowledge to place
WRITI N G
Make sure you leave five minutes at the end of the exam
to check your answers. If you are short of time check your
answer to the final question first as spelling, punctuation,
grammar and use of specialist terminology are assessed
in this question. You can gain 4 additional marks on this
question - page 176 provides advice on what to focus on.
However, remember that the accuracy of your spelling,
punctuation and grammar is important in all questions as
it affects the clarity of your answer.
PA RT 3: Writi n g bette r h istory
De-coding exam questions

The examiners are not trying to catch you out: they are
giving you a chance to show what you know - and what
you can do with what you know. However, you must stick
to the question on the exam paper. Staying focused on
the question is crucial. Including information that is not
relevant or misreading a question and writing about the
wrong topic wastes time and gains you no marks.
To stay focused on the question you will need to practise
how to 'de-code' questions. This is particularly important
for Section B of the exam paper. Follow these five steps to
success :
Step 1 Read the question a couple of times. Then look at

how many marks the question is worth. This tells you
how much you are expected to write. Do not spend too

long on questions only worth a few marks. Remember it
is worth planning the 12- and 16 -mark questions.
Step 2 Identify the conceptual focus of the question.
What is the key concept that the question focuses on? Is
it asking you to look at:
the significance of a discovery or individual
causation - the reasons why an event or
development happened
similarities between the key features of different
periods
change the extent of change or continuity, progress
or stagnation during a period?
-
The c o n ceptu a l foc u s i s c h a n g e a nd conti n u ity - yo u n eed to
Step 3 Spot the question type. Are you being asked to :
describe the key features of a period

explain similarities between periods or why
something happened
evaluate how useful a source or collection of
sources is
reach a judgement as to how far you agree with a
particular statement.
Each question type requires a different approach. Look for key

words or phrases that help you work out which approach is
needed. The phrase 'How far do you agree?' means you need to
weigh the evidence for and against a statement before reaching
a balanced judgement. 'Explain why' means that you need to
explore a range of reasons why an event happened or why the
pace of change during a period was fast or slow.
Step 4 Identify the content focus. What is the area of
content or topic the examiner wants you to focus on?
Step 5 Look carefully at the date boundaries of the
question. What time period should you cover in your

answer? Stick to this carefully or you will waste time
writing about events that are not relevant to the question.
Look at the exam question below. At first glance it appears
this question is just about punishment. This shows the
danger of not de-coding a question carefully. If you simply
describe what punishments there were you will not get many
marks as you are still not focusing on the actual question.
The date bo u nda ries fo r the qu estion a re c.1000 a nd c.1700.
rea ch a j u d g e m e n t o n how fa r d eterre n c e wa s conti n u o u s ly
If yo u i n c l u d e refe re n c e s to events i n the eig hteenth
the m a i n rea s o n be h i n d p u n i s h m e nts th ro u g h out the period,
and n i n eteenth centuries yo u will wa ste time a nd n ot pick up
o r wheth e r oth e r rea s o n s played a g reater pa rt at t i m es.
a ny add itio n a l ma rks.
6. 'The m a i n p u rpose of p u n is h m e n t d u ri n g the p e riod c.1 000-c.1 700 was
to d eter p e o p l e fro m co m m itti n g crim es.'

1 6 ma rks a re ava i la b l e - th i s
m ea n s the qu estion requ i res a n
exte nded a n swe r. it i s d efi n itely
worth pla n n i n g th i s a n swe r !
The content foc u s is m o re tha n
The p h ra s e ' H o w fa r do yo u a g re e ? ' m ea n s that t h i s qu estion requ i res yo u to rea ch
j u st p u n i s h m e nts that d ete rred .
a judgement a bo u t the state m e n t i n quotation ma rks. Th i s m ea n s (with exa m p les)
it is exp l o r i n g a wider t h e m e - th e
h o w p u n i s h m e nts we re u sed to deter c r i m e th ro u g h out the period . it a lso m ea n s
p u rpose of p u n i s h m e nts a n d so
we ig h i n g t h e i m po rta n ce o f deterre n c e a g a i n st oth e r rea s o n s fo r p u n i s h m e nts u sed
i n c l u des oth e r p u rposes .
c.1000-c.1700 (to h u m i l iate, refo rm or re m ove the cri m i n a l ) .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Loo k at the oth e r q u esti o n s in Section B of the exa m paper on page 1 65 .

B reak e a c h q u estio n d own i nto the five steps a n d check y o u h ave de-coded the q u esti o n effective ly.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descri bing key features of a period

'Describe' questions only carry 4 marks so it is important to get to the point quickly so you
do not waste precious time that is needed for questions that carry 12 or 16 marks.
Look at the question below.
1.
Describe two featu res of h o u s i n g i n Wh itech a p e l betwee n 1 870 a n d 1 900.

(4 m a rks)
Featu re 1 :
_
_
_
Featu re 2 :
Ti p 1 : Stay re l eva nt to the q u estio n
Ti p 2 : Kee p i t short a n d s i m p l e
One major problem with 'Describe' questions i s that students

write too much ! They include details that are not relevant to
the question. Make sure you stick to the question - describe
housing in Whitechapel in this period.
You can get 2 marks by simply identifying two features of the

housing in Whitechapel.
For each feature you identify add a sentence that adds
further detail and develops your answer.
You do not need to :
Look at the example below. Then practise your technique by

tackling the examples in the practice question box.
include more than two features (extra features will gain

you no more marks)
evaluate and reach a judgement as to which was the worst
or most important feature of housing in Whitechapel.
If you write too much you could run out of time later in the
exam when you are answering questions that are worth a lot
more marks and need longer answers.
An e;wer developed
Key featu re 1 identified

H o u s i n g in Wh itecha pel wa s often
of ve ry poor qua l ity.
Key featu re
1 m a rk
c==>
s l u m clea ra n ce.
Dea n Street w h o l e fa m i l ies wo u ld

re nt o n e roo m to l i ve i n .
1 m a rk
c==>
The Pea body Tru st k n ocked down

rookeries and lodg i n g h o u ses
Describe
Describe
Describe
Describe
Describe
Describe
two
two
two
two
two
two
featu res
featu res
featu res
featu res
featu res
featu res
1 m a rk
and b u i lt n e w h o u ses with better

ve ntilatio n , s h a red kitc h e n s
a n d bath roo m s .
1 m a rk
Ane;wer developed
identified
H o u s i n g wa s cha n g i n g beca u se of
In rookeries l i ke those in F lower a n d
of a n O l d B a i l ey tria l .
of t h e o rg a n isation of p o l i c i n g i n Wh itech a p e l .
of t h e effect of a l co h o l on cri m e i n Wh itech a p e l .
of i m m i g ration i nto Wh itech a p e l .
of t h e d ifficu lties of p o l i c i n g Wh itech a p e l .
of t h e p o l ice i nvesti g ation d u ri n g t h e R i p p e r m u rd e rs .
REMEMBER
Stay fo cused a n d kee p
it s h o rt a n d s i m p l e . Fo u r
sentences a re e n o u g h fo r
4 m a rks.
PA RT 3 : Writi n g bette r h istory
Evaluating the usefulness of sources

In Section A of the exam you will be asked to evaluate the
value of a source for a specific enquiry. Look at the example
below.
2.
(a) Stu dy S o u rces A a n d B. H ow u sefu l a re S o u rces

A a n d B fo r an e n q u i ry i nto the p ro b l e m s the p o l ice
fa ced when i nvesti gati n g t h e R i p p e r m u rd e rs? Exp l a i n

yo u r a n swe r, u s i n g S o u rces A a n d B a n d yo u r own
knowledge of the h istorical context.
(8 m a rks)
D Criteria 2 :
C o n s i d e r t h e p rove n a n ce of each
sou rce
You should annotate the sources in the booklet before you

start to write your answer. Also, to evaluate effectively we
need to use criteria. Use the criteria opposite to help you.
Look at the captions provided above the sources. Think

carefully about the following key questions and the
impact that this might have on how useful the source is.
T Source A Part of a picture printed on the front page of the

lllustra ted Police News,
Criteria 1 : Consider the content of the sou rce
Highlight or underline useful information for the enquiry

in both sources. Make sure you judge how useful it is for
the enquiry specified in the question. For this question the
sources need to help us understand some of the failings
that people accused the police of, as well as the frenzy
that the murders caused in the press. Start your answer by
highlighting how each source helps us with this enquiry.
October 1888.
What is the nature of the source?
What are the origins of the source ?
What is the purpose of the source ?
What type of source is it? How does this affect its utility?
For example, a private letter or diary can be useful
because the person usually gives his or her honest view.
Who produced it? Are they likely to have a good
knowledge of the events they talk about? Are they likely
to give a one-sided view?
Why was it produced? How might this affect the reliability of

the source? For example, a politician's speech or a newspaper
report might be produced for propaganda purposes - to
make people more angry with the police. The PallMall Gazette
often criticised Sir Charles Warren, for instance.
D Criteria 3 :
Use yo u r own k n owl e d g e of t h e

h isto rica l co ntext t o eva l u ate t h e sou rce
Sou rce B Fro m a re p o rt on a p u b l i c d e m o n s t ra t i o n i n

B et h n a l G re e n , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Pa ll Ma ll Gaze tte,
1 O c t o b e r, 1 8 8 8 .
Compare the information and key messages contained in

the source with your own knowledge of the enquiry topic.
Do the CAT test. Ask yourself these three key questions:
Afte r seve ra l s p e e c h e s u p o n t h e c o n d u c t of t h e H o m e
S e c reta ry a n d S i r C h a rles Wa rre n . a res o l u t i o n was
u n a n i m o u s ly passed that i t was h i g h t i m e b o t h off i c e rs
s h o u ld res i g n a n d m a ke way fo r s o m e off i c e rs w h o wo u ld
Leave n o sto n e u nt u r n e d fo r t h e p u rpose of b ri n g i n g t h e
m u rd e re rs to j u st i c e , i n st e a d of a l lowi n g t h e m to r u n r i o t i n
a c i v i l i s e d c i t y L i ke Lo n d o n .
REMEMBER
T h e q u esti o n is a s k i n g you h ow u sefu l t h e sou rces a re,
n ot h ow u s e l ess t h ey a re. T h e re w i l l n ot be any sou rces
that a re co m p l ete ly u s e l ess. Try n ot to g et b o g g e d down
te l l i n g t h e exa m i n e r j u st w h at is w ro n g with a sou rce. Look
at t h e stre n g t h s of each sou rce as we l l a s co n s i d e r i n g any
l i m itati o n s . Try to beg i n and end yo u r a n swer pos itive ly.
Sta rt yo u r a n swer by h i g h l i g ht i n g h ow each sou rce h e lps u s
w i t h t h i s e n q u i ry.
How omprehensive is the source ? Does it have any

limitations? What does it miss out?
How accurate is the source? Does it 'match' what you
know about the topic?
How !ypical is the source? Were the problems and
feelings described common or unusual?
Were there any other such problems or
are they unusual and untypical of what
went on for the majority of the time ?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
: Yo u c a n fi n d sou rces with p ractice q u esti o n s on pages

1 3 1 , 1 59 a n d 1 60.
l
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Following up sources
One of the key aims of this book is to help you understand how we use the enquiry process to
research history. As we said on page 1 16, asking the right historical questions is a crucial part
of enquiry and historical research. Exam questions like the one below provide you with the
opportunity to show the enquiry skills you have been developing throughout the book.
2 . (b) H ow cou l d you fo l l ow up the ta b l e of cri m es on page 1 1 8 to fi n d out m o re a bout the
types of cri m es com m itted i n Wh itech apel? In yo u r a nswer, you m ust g ive the q u estion you
wou l d ask and the type of sou rce you cou l d use. Com p l ete the ta b l e below.
(4 m a rks)
D et a i l in the s o u rce that I wo u l d fo l l ow u p :
Q u es t i o n I wo u l d a s k :
W h a t type of s o u rce I co u l d u s e :
H ow t h i s m i g ht h e l p a n sw e r my q u esti o n :
REMEMBER
T h i s q u esti o n is o n ly worth
4 m a rks . D o n ot g o i nto
deta i l ed exp l a n at i o n s of
why you chose to fo l l ow
up with a pa rticu l a r type
of s o u rce - you d o n ot
h ave t i m e . O n e o r two
sente n ces w i l l be fi n e .
__
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
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_
_
_
_
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The key tip with this question is to make sure that the four different parts of your answer
link together.
Step 1 : Link the deta il to the e n q u i ry
Start by i d e ntifyi n g t h e focus fo r t h e e n q u i ry - i n t h i s case t h e types of cri m e co m m itted
i n Wh itech a p e l . M a ke s u re that the d eta i l yo u say that you wo u l d fo l l ow up is l i n ked to
this e n q u i ry. For exa m p le, if the sou rce m e nt i o n e d h ow often a l co h o l was i nvo lved i n
cri m e, y o u co u l d i d e ntify t h i s as a d eta i l t h a t y o u wo u l d fo l l ow u p as t h i s is l i n ked t o t h e
m a i n e n q u i ry.
Step 2 : Li n k the q u estion to the deta i l
"'
fiio
..1
'&'
"'
The q u esti o n y o u c h o o s e m u st be l i n ked t o t h e deta i l you a re fo l l owi n g u p fro m t h e

s o u rce. D o n ot s i m p ly c h o ose a n i n te resti n g q u estion u n re l ated to t h e e n q u i ry ! I f w e
were fo l l owi n g u p t h e d eta i l a b o u t v i o l e n t c ri m e, we co u l d use ' W h a t types of v i o l e n t
cri m e were co m m itte d ? ' a s o u r q u esti o n .
Different types of
sou rces
National records
p.
..1
"'
.Wl
Step 3 : Li n k the type of sou rce to the q u estion
m
Step 4: Li n k this with you r own knowl edg:
Do n ot fo rget to exp l a i n t h e advantages of u s i n g t h i s type of sou rce a n d l i n k it to t h e

e n q u i ry. The sou rce t y p e m e nt i o n e d a b ove wou l d be p a rticu l a rly usefu l beca use t h e
reco rds of t h e tri a l s t h e m s e lves h ave been l ost o r d estroyed , a n d t h e news p a p e r re po rts
a re ofte n the o n l y d eta i l s that we h ave l eft.
Yo u n ow need to choose a type of sou rce that wo u l d be usefu l fo r fo l l ow i n g up that

q u esti o n . Loo k at the l ist in the box o p posite. M a ke s u re you c h o ose a sou rce that wou l d
h e l p with t h e q u esti o n . F o r exa m p le, i n t h i s case, n ewsp a p e r a rticles a b o u t tri a l s i n t h e
Po l i ce Co u rt m i g ht g ive u s a usefu l i n s i g h t a b o u t t h e cri m es t h a t we re co m m itte d .
n atio n a l n ewspa pers

reco rds of cri m es
a n d p o l ice
i nvesti g at i o n s
O l d B a i l ey reco rds
of tri a l s
P u n ch c a rto o n s .
Loca l records
..1
"'
housing and
e m p l oy m e n t reco rd
a n d co u n ci l reco rds
ce n s u s ret u r n s
Cha rles Booth's
su rvey
workhouse re cord s
l o c a l p o l ice reco rds
coro n e rs' re po rts
p h otog ra p h s
Lo n d o n n ews p a p e rs.
Exploring si milarities between t he key features of two

different periods
Question 3 is the first question that tests your knowledge and understanding of the
thematic study on crime and punishment in Britain, c.lOOO -present. Remember this is
where de-coding questions comes in useful. Look at the question below.
T h i s is a n 'expla i n ' qu esti o n . H o wever,
Th i s qu estion h a s a ve ry specific content foc u s . To save ti m e m a ke
as it is o n ly worth 4 ma rks, you o n ly
s u re you stay releva nt - o n ly write a bout tria ls d u ri n g the ti m e periods
h a ve to expla i n o n e s i m i l a rity.
m e n t i o n e d . T h e re i s n o n eed to m e nt i o n p u n i s h m e nts o r p o l i c i n g .
3.
Exp l a i n o n e w a y i n w h i c h tri a l s i n m e d i eval E n g l a n d were s i m i l a r t o tri a l s

(4 m a rks)
i n t h e seve nteenth centu ry.
The date b o u n d a ries a re

crucia l . Yo u m u st foc u s o n
the r i g h t c a s e stud ies, tria l
by o rd e a l c.1 000-1 21 5, witc h
h u nt 1 645-47.
The fi rst th i n g to n otice is that the
The c o n c e ptua l foc u s of t h i s qu estio n i s
qu esti o n i s o n ly wo rth 4 ma rks. it i s
'si m i la rities a n d d iffe re n ces' - the a b i l ity

to c o m pa re d ifferent periods of h i sto ry.
I n th i s case the foc u s is on s i m i la rities.
i m po rta nt t h a t yo u a re c l e a r o n the
foc u s of the qu estio n so that yo u ca n
keep yo u r a n swe r s h o rt a nd to the p o i nt.
Exp l a i n i n g si m i l a rities between ti me periods

As this is a n 'explain' question you must d o more than simply identify a similarity. You
will need to support your answer with specific details - a good motto is 'prove' don't 'say'.
Would your explanation convince the reader that there was a similarity between the ways
that trials were conducted in the Middle Ages and the seventeenth century?
For example, you might 'say' that one similarity between trials in the Middle Ages and
the seventeenth century was that there was some kind of ordeal used to decide guilt or
innocence. However, this would not get you high marks. Instead you need to prove your big
point about the use of ordeal by providing supporting information and 'killer evidence'.
BIG POINT - With a question only worth 4 marks do not spend time on an
introduction. Start your answer with your 'big point' - in this case an ordeal was
used to decide guilt or innocence.
I
SUPPORTING INFORMATION - You need to develop your initial 'big point' or

argument. You could explain how in both periods a form of trial by cold water
was used.
KILLER EVIDENCE - You now need to prove that this was the case by providing
specific examples from each time period. For the Middle Ages you could refer to the
use of trial by cold water. The accused was tied with a knot above their waist and
lowered into the water on the end of a rope. For the seventeenth century you might talk
about the 'swimming' test used to decide whether the accused was guilty of witchcraft.
It was believed the innocent would sink and the guilty would float. If they floated, the
accused would be examined for the 'Devil's marks' as a final proof of witchcraft.
Practice
q u estions
Yo u c a n fi n d fu rth e r
p ractice q u esti o n s o n
pages 1 3 1 , 1 59 a n d 1 60 .
REMEMBER
Yo u s h o u l d o n l y be
spe n d i n g a ro u n d five
m i n utes o n t h i s q u esti o n .
Kee p yo u r a n swer focused
o n exp l a i n i n g o n e way in
which people beh aved
or reacted in a s i m i l a r
way. Do n ot l i st l ots of
s i m i l a rities.
Tac kling 12-mark explain questions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
4.
Exp l a i n why t h e re were ch a n g es to p o l i c i n g i n t h e period betwee n c.1 700 a n d c.1 900.

(1 2 m a rks)
Yo u m ay use the fo l l owi n g in yo u r a n swer:
t h e g rowth of Lo n d o n
i n creased taxat i o n
Yo u m u st a l so use i n fo r m ation of yo u r own .
This question i s different i n two ways from Question 3 o n page 1 7 1 . Firstly, the conceptual
focus is different - in this case the key concept is causation (explaining why an event took
place or explaining the pace of change) . Secondly, this question is worth 12 marks. The
examiner will expect you to give a range of reasons why there were changes to policing in
the period between c.170 0 and c . 1 9 0 0 .
I t is important t o spend time planning this question during your exam. Follow the steps
below to help you plan effectively and produce a good answer.
Step 1 : G et focused
o n the q u estion
M a ke s u re you de-code
the q u esti o n ca refu l ly.
N ote that the content
focus is o n p o l i c i n g so
you d o n ot need to
exp l a i n about c h a n g es
to p u n is h m e nt or cri m e .
Ste p 2 : Ide ntify a ra nge o f factors

Try to cove r m o re t h a n one cause. If you r m i n d goes b l a n k a lways g o back to the key
fa cto rs that infl u e n ce c h a n g e in cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent (see page 1 0) . The sti m u l u s b u l l et
poi nts can a lso h e l p yo u . For exa m p l e, i n the q u estio n a b ove, the refe re n ce to i n creased
taxation s h ows h ow 'G overment' p l ayed a key ro l e i n c h a n g i n g p o l i c i n g m ethods. The
refe re n ce to the g rowth of Lo n d o n sh ows h ow 'Towns' were a n ot h e r i m portant fa cto r.
Tac kling 12-mark explain questions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
4.
Exp l a i n why t h e re were ch a n g es to p o l i c i n g i n t h e period betwee n c.1 700 a n d c.1 900.

(1 2 m a rks)
t h e g rowth of Lo n d o n
i n creased taxat i o n
Yo u m u st a l so use i n fo r m ation of yo u r own .
This question i s different i n two ways from Question 3 o n page 1 7 1 . Firstly, the conceptual
focus is different - in this case the key concept is causation (explaining why an event took
place or explaining the pace of change) . Secondly, this question is worth 12 marks. The
examiner will expect you to give a range of reasons why there were changes to policing in
the period between c.170 0 and c . 1 9 0 0 .
I t is important t o spend time planning this question during your exam. Follow the steps
below to help you plan effectively and produce a good answer.
Step 1 : G et focused
o n the q u estion
M a ke s u re you de-code
the q u esti o n ca refu l ly.
N ote that the content
focus is o n p o l i c i n g so
you d o n ot need to
exp l a i n about c h a n g es
to p u n is h m e nt or cri m e .
Ste p 2 : Ide ntify a ra nge o f factors

Try to cove r m o re t h a n one cause. If you r m i n d goes b l a n k a lways g o back to the key
fa cto rs that infl u e n ce c h a n g e in cri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent (see page 1 0) . The sti m u l u s b u l l et
poi nts can a lso h e l p yo u . For exa m p l e, i n the q u estio n a b ove, the refe re n ce to i n creased
taxation s h ows h ow 'G overment' p l ayed a key ro l e i n c h a n g i n g p o l i c i n g m ethods. The
refe re n ce to the g rowth of Lo n d o n sh ows h ow 'Towns' were a n ot h e r i m portant fa cto r.
Making judgements - tac kling t he 16-mark question

The last question on the exam paper carries the most marks
and requires a carefully planned, detailed answer. You
will be provided with a statement in quotation marks and
be asked to reach a judgement about how far you agree
with it. The phrase 'how far' is important as it is unlikely
that you will totally agree or disagree with the statement.
The examiner will be looking for you to show that you can
weigh the evidence for and against the statement.
Look at the example below.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
5.
'The ro l e of t h e C h u rch was t h e m ost i m po rta nt fa cto r

affecti n g law enfo rce m e n t d u ri n g t h e M i d d l e Ag es.'
H ow fa r do you a g ree? Exp l a i n yo u r a n swer. (1 6 m a rks)
b e n efit of t h e c l e rg y
tith i n g s
Yo u m u st a l s o u s e i n fo r m at i o n of yo u r ow n .
(Tota l fo r s pe l l i n g , p u n ctuation, g ra m m a r a n d t h e u s e of
special ist term i n o l ogy 4 m a rks)
=
(Tota l fo r Qu estion 5
20 m a rks)
Ste p 1 : Focus
The content focus is important - you have to reach a
judgement on the role of the Church in law enforcement
in medieval England. This includes information about
the religious basis of trial by ordeal, claiming sanctuary,
benefit of the clergy and Church courts. The conceptual
focus is on causation. You have to evaluate the extent to
which the role of the Church was the main factor affecting
law enforcement c.10 0 0 - c . 1 5 0 0 ?
In this example, you are being asked to reach a judgement

on role of the Church in medieval England, so you could
use the following two criteria:
What role did the Church play in influencing policing

methods or the trial system?
What other influences (the King, local communities)
affected policing methods and the trial system during
this period?
Ste p 3 : O rg a n ise
There are two ways of organising your answer.
Approach 1: Write about one criterion in each
paragraph :
Paragraph 1 - Evaluate the extent to which policing was

influenced by the Church or by other factors (weigh the
evidence for and against) .
Paragraph 2 - Evaluate the extent to which trials were
influenced by the Church or other factors (weigh the
evidence for and against) .
Paragraph 3 - Your final conclusion - weigh the evidence
- how far do you agree with the statement?
Approach 2: The simplest is to plan 'for' and 'against'

paragraphs :
Paragraph 1 - Evidence to support the statement (make

sure that you use the criteria - the role of the Church was
the most important factor affecting law enforcement
during the Middle Ages)
Paragraph 2 - Evidence to counter the statement (once
again use the criteria)
Paragraph 3 - Your final conclusion - weigh the evidence
- how far do you agree with the statement?
Ste p 2: I d e ntify
Ste p 4 : Prove
In 16-mark questions you are required to reach a judgement

on a statement. In order to do this effectively you need to
identify clear criteria for reaching that judgement. Just as you
need to cover a range of factors in 'explain' questions, you need
to cover a range of criteria in 'judgement' questions.
Remember to tie what you know to the question. Do not

include information and think that it will speak for itself.
Some students think that simply dropping in examples to the
right paragraphs is enough. One of the stimulus points refers
to the benefit of the clergy. The following statement from a
student could be further developed and gain more marks.
Possible criteria for reaching a judgement:
If you are judging the importance of an event or

development you could analyse and evaluate the
immediate impact, the short-term impact and the long
term impact.
If you are judging the extent of change you could
analyse and evaluate how many people were affected
(was everyone affected by the role of the Church or was it
mainly churchmen?) .
The use of benefit of the clergy had a big impact on law

enforcement beca use churchmen could be tried in Church
courts.
This does not prove that benefit of the clergy affected law
enforcement. To gain more marks, the student would need
to go on to explain that benefit of the clergy affected law
enforcement because those tried in Church courts avoided
the death penalty and could expect more lenient treatment
than in royal courts.
Ste p 5 : Co ncl u d e
Your conclusion i s a crucial part o f your answer. You have been asked to reach a judgement
on a statement. You need to clearly state how far you agree with it and your reason why. It
would be easy to sit on the fence and avoid reaching a final conclusion. But sitting on the
fence is a dangerous position. Your answer collapses and you lose marks.
Instead of sitting on the fence, you need to be confident and reach an overall judgement.
Imagine that you have placed the evidence on a set of scales. How far do they tip in favour
of the statement or against it?
You can then move on in your conclusion to explain your judgement. Do not repeat everything
you have already written. Think of the scales - what are the heaviest pieces of evidence on each
side? Build these into your conclusion in the following way:
J U D G E M E N T - Start with yo u r j u d g e m e nt - try to i n co r p o rate
To a l a rg e extent, I d i sa g ree that the ro le of the C h u rch
words from the q u esti o n i nto t h i s sentence.
wa s the m o st i m po rta nt fa cto r affect i n g law e n fo rcement

i n the med ieva l period .
C O U N T E R - S h ow that yo u a re awa re that t h e re is s o m e
The Ch u rch d i d have s o m e i n f l u e n c e ove r the tria l system,
evi d e n ce t o cou nter t h i s a n d g ive t h e b e s t exa m p l e .
especia l ly tria l by o rdea l .
S U P P O RT - Exp l a i n why, ove ra l l , yo u h ave rea c h e d t h e

j u d g e m e n t y o u have. G ive yo u r key reason o r reaso n s why.
H oweve r, local c o m m u n ities were t h e ba s i s of n ea rly a l l

p u n i s h m e n t m e t h o d s a n d l o c a l j u ries sat i n j u d g m ent of
m o st cases .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
Practice
q u estions
Yo u c a n fi n d fu rth e r
practice q u esti o n s o n
p a g e s 1 3 1 , 1 59 a n d 1 60.
Leave e n o u g h t i m e to check you r a n swe r ca refu l ly fo r spe l l i n g , p u n ctuatio

F o u r cru cial m a rks a re ava i l a b l e (th i s is as m u ch as yo u r a n swer to Qu estio n 1 ,
Yo u w i l l be m a rked fo r t h e a ccu ra cy of yo u r s pe l l i n g a n d p u n ctuati o n .

Yo u w i l l a l so be m a rked fo r yo u r g ra m m a r - does yo u r work m a ke sen se?
Are yo u r a rg u m e nts c l e a r?
F i n a l ly, t h e exa m i n e r w i l l co n s i d e r yo u r use of 'speci a l i st terms' - h ave you
used a wide ra n g e of h istorica l terms?
W hat are t he key ingredients of effective

writing in G CS E history?
The language you use to express your ideas is very important. One of the ways to get better
at history is to be more precise with your use of language. For example, rather than simply
saying that you agree or disagree with a statement you can use language that shows whether
you agree to a large extent or only to some extent. Look at the different shades of argument
below and experiment with using some of the phrases. Use them when you are debating or
discussing in class.
Th i n ki n g ca refu l ly a bout the l a n g uage yo u use

Stro n g
language
Tentative
language
Va rying you r language to show how fa r you a g ree with a

statement:
Va ryi ng you r l a n g u a g e to show how im portant a factor/

cause is:
I tota l ly/enti re l y/co m p l ete ly/a bs o l utely a g ree with .. .
. . . was by fa r t h e m ost i m po rta nt reason why . . .
I su bsta nti a l ly/fu n d a m e n t a l ly/stro n g l y a g ree with . . .
T h e key/cr u ci a l /essenti a l fa cto r was . . .
I a g ree to a l a rg e extent with . . .
. . . was t h e m a i n cause of . . .
I m a i n ly/m ostly a g ree with . . .
T h e m ost i n fl u e n ti a l cause was . . .
I a g ree to s o m e exte nt with . . .
. . . p l ayed a sig n ificant/i m po rta nt/m aj o r ro l e i n . . .
I pa rtia l ly/pa rtly a g ree with . . .
. . . was of s o m e i m p o rt a n ce i n . . .
I o n ly a g ree with . . . to a l i m ite d /s l i g ht exte nt
Va rying you r l a n g u a g e to show the significa nce or

im portance o f a n i n d ivid u a l , d iscovery, eve nt or
development:
Va ryi ng you r language to show the extent of cha n g e :
. . . m a d e t h e m ost i m po rta nt/sig n ifi cant contri bution to . . .
. . . was revo l ution ised i n . . .
. . . h a d a cruci a l /m aj o r/h i g h ly s i g n ificant i m pact o n . . .
. . . tota l ly c h a n g e d d u ri n g . . .
. . . h a d a n i m p o rtant/i nfl u e n ti a l i m pact on . . .
. . . was tra n sfo r m e d d u ri n g . . .
. . . was of s o m e i m po rt a n ce/s i g n ifica n ce
. . . t h e re was fu n d a m enta l ch a n g e i n . . .
. . . o n ly m a d e a l i m ite d /pa rti a l /s l i g ht/m i n i m a l contri bution to
T h e p e riod saw s i g n ificant/i m p o rtant p rog ress in . . .

. . . saw s o m e c h a n g e s i n . . . . . . saw s o m e p rog ress i n . . .
. . . saw l i m ite d /s l i g ht/m i n i m a l p ro g ress i n . . .
H e l pfu l ph rases and se ntence starters

When you wa nt to explore
the oth er side of a n
a rg u ment:
O n t h e oth e r hand . . .
H oweve r . . .
Altern ative ly, it co u l d be
a rg u e d that . . .
When you wa nt to
hig h l ig ht simila rities :
In t h e s a m e way . . .
S i m i l a rly . . .
T h i s i s s i m i l a r to t h e way that
...
L i kewise . . .
When you want to m a ke a n

additional point to support
a n argument:
W h e n you wa nt t o show
that a n individual, event or
d iscove ry was i m porta nt:
Also . . .
. . . was a cruci a l tu rn i n g point

in . . .
Ad d i ti o n a l ly . . .
I n a d d ition . . .
M o reove r . . .
Fu rth e r m o re . . .
When you wa nt to l i n k
points or show t h a t o n e
thing led to another:
W h e n y o u wa nt t o refe r to
evidence in a sou rce :
When you want to g ive

exa m ples to s u p port a
point:
T h e refo re . . .
S o u rce A s u g g ests/i m p l ies/

i n d i cates that . . .
D u e to . . .
Acco rd i n g to S o u rce B . . .
For i n sta n ce . . .
Conseq u ently . . .
S o u rce A s h ows/i l l u strates/

d e m o n strates that . . .
This can be seen w h e n . . .

T h i s i s c l e a rly s h own by . . .
O n e conseq u e n ce of t h i s
was . . .
For exa m p l e . . .
. . . a cted a s a n i m po rta nt
cata lyst fo r . . .
With o u t t h i s event/
d eve l o p m ent/ d iscove ry . . .
wo u l d n ot h ave h a p p e n e d .
T h i s h a d a n i m m e d i ate
i m pact o n . . .
I n t h e s h o rt term t h i s
tra nsformed /revo l ution ised . . .
I n t h e l o n g term t h i s h a d a
l a sti n g i m pact on . . .
T h i s i s s u p p o rted by . . .
T h i s i s p rove n by . . .
T h i s caused . . .
T h i s l e d to . . .
T h i s res u lted i n . . .
T h i s m e a nt that . . .
You can use the progression grid below to get an idea of what getting better at history looks like.
This is designed to give you a general idea of what you need to do to produce good answers in
the exam. It focuses on the four key things in the coloured squares on the bingo card (page 178) .
The H isto ry p rog ression g rid

Qu estion focus
High level
Line of a rg u ment
S u p porti ng
information
The a n swer is
consistently focused o n
t h e q u esti o n .
T h e a n swe r is structu red

very ca refu l ly a n d
exp l a n at i o n s a re
co h e re n t t h ro u g h o ut t h e
a n swer.
The l i n e of a rg u m e nt
is very c l e a r a n d
convi n c i n g . lt fl ows
t h ro u g h o ut t h e a n swer.
S u p p o rt i n g i nfo rmation
h a s b e e n p recisely
s e l e cted, a n d s h ows
w i d e - ra n g i n g k n ow l e d g e
a n d u n d e rsta n d i n g .
T h e a n swer is m a i n ly
focused o n t h e q u esti o n .
T h e a n swer is we l l
o rg a n ised but s o m e
pa rts l a c k co h e re n ce .
The l i n e of a rg u m e nt i s
c l e a r, convi n c i n g a n d
g e n e ra l ly m a i nt a i n ed
th ro u g h the a n swe r.
S u p p o rt i n g i nfo rmation
is accu rate a n d
re l evant, a n d s h ows
g o o d k n ow l e d g e a n d
u n d e rsta n d i n g .
T h e a n swer h a s weak
o r l i m ited l i n ks to t h e
q u esti o n .
S o m e state m ents a re
d eve l o p e d .
The l i n e of a rg u m e nt is
pa rtly convi n c i n g but n ot
m a i nta i n ed th ro u g h the
a n swer.
S u p p o rt i n g i n fo rm ation
is m a i n ly a ccu rate a n d
re l evant, and s h ows
s o m e k n ow l e d g e a n d
The l i n e of a rg u m e nt is
u n c l e a r o r m i ss i n g .
S u p p o rti n g i nfo rmation

is l i m ited o r n ot re l evant.
T h e a n swer h a s n o rea l
l i n ks to the q u esti o n .
-
Orga nisation
T h e re is s o m e atte m pt
t o o rg a n ise t h e m ateri a l .
T h e a n swer l a cks
o rg a n isati o n .
Self-assessing and peer assessing your work

It is important that you check your own work before you hand it to your teacher to be
marked. Sometimes you may be asked to assess the work of someone else in your class.
In both cases you need to know what you are looking for. What are the key ingredients of
great writing in history?
You can use the bingo card as a checklist - get competitive and try and show that you have
covered all the squares and got a full house of ingredients !
The a n swer starts with a clear

focus on t h e q u estion (th e re i s n o
l o n g i ntrod u cti o n ) .
Key words fro m t h e q u esti o n a re
used d u ri n g t h e a n swer.
For l o n g e r a n swe rs, each
p a ra g r a p h is l i n ked t o t h e
q u esti o n .
T h e re i s a clear l i n e of a rg u m e nt
at t h e sta rt o f each p a ra g ra p h t h i n k o f it a s a sig n post fo r what
fo l l ows. The rest of the p a r a g r a p h
s u p p o rts t h i s a rg u m ent.
The l i n e o f a rg u m e nt fl ows
t h ro u g h o ut t h e a n swer b u i l d i n g up
t o a c l e a r co n c l u s i o n .
State m e nts and a rg u m ents a re

fu l ly d eve l oped a n d exp l a i n ed
- s h owi n g g o o d k n ow l e d g e a n d
Arg u m ents a re we l l supported
by accu rate, re l eva nt and we l l s e l e cted evi d e n ce.
Con n ectives a re used to h e l p

p rove a rg u m ents a n d s h ow
sig n ifica n ce/i m pact.
Lo o k fo r p h rases l i ke :
th is led to . . .
th is res u lted i n . . .
th is m e a n t th at . . .
Pa ra g ra p h s h ave been used to

p rovide a clea r struct u re.
T h e a n swer s h ows wide-ra n g i n g

k n ow l e d g e and u n d e rsta n d i n g .
Each p a r a g r a p h sta rts with a

d iffe re nt cause/fa cto r
lt co n s i d e rs a ra n g e of fa ctors/
c a u ses (ex p l a i n q u esti o n s) o r
exp l o res t h e evi d e n ce fo r a n d
a g a i n st a state m e nt (j u d g e m e nt
q u esti o n s ) .
(1 2- m a rk exp l a i n q u esti o n s)
or
a d iffe re nt t h e m e /crite ria
(1 6 - m a rk j u d g e m e n t q u esti o n s ) .
T h e l a n g u a g e used h e l ps to
con struct very p recise a rg u m e nts s h owi n g h ow i m p o rtant t h e writer
t h i n ks a cause/fa cto r, eve nt o r
i n d ivid u a l is.
A g o o d ra n g e of special ist
historica l voca b u l a ry has been
used .
T h e re is a clear concl usio n .

For exp l a i n q u esti o n s fa ctors/
c a u ses a re prio ritised o r l i n ke d .
For j u d g e m e n t q u esti o n s t h e re is a
focus o n ' h ow fa r' the writer a g rees
with t h e state m ent.
T h e a n swer h a s been ca refu l ly

checked fo r s pe l l i n g , p u n ctuation
and g ra m m a r.
T h e m ea n i n g is a l ways c l e a r
t h ro u g h o ut t h e a n swe r.
Glossary
Abscond Leave or escape to avoid arrest.
Criminal Investigation Department (CID) A
Absolute poverty When a person lacks the basics (food
and shelter, etc.) needed to survive for any length of time.
department in the police force that employs detectives to

investigate crimes.
Alibi A claim to have been elsewhere when a crime was
CS gas A powerful form of tear gas that creates a burning
committed.
sensation in eyes, nose and throat.
Anarchism A belief that opposes all forms of state
Curfew A time at which people must be at home, not on
government in favour of government on a voluntary, co

operative basis.
the streets or elsewhere.
Arrest warrant Permission from a Judge or magistrate to
Customs officers Officials who ensure nothing illegal is

brought into the country and that the necessary taxes are
paid on any legal goods entering the country.
make an arrest.
Assize judges Royal judges who travelled around the
country hearing serious cases. See Quarter Sessions.

Beat constable The lowest rank of police officer whose
usual duty is to walk 'the beat'.
Custody Being locked up.
Debtor's prison An early type of prison where debtors

were locked up until they paid back what they owed.
Detecting Investigating crime.
Benefit of the clergy The right to be judged in a Church
Deterrence To scare/warn people from committing a
court.
crime.
Black market The illegal buying and selling of goods.
Disembowel To cut open and remove the guts.
Blood feud The early Saxon right of a murder victim's

family to track down and kill the murderer in revenge.
DNA matching Using DNA to help trace victims and
Bloody Code Harsh laws, introduced in late seventeenth
Drug crime Includes possessing, consuming, selling or
and eighteenth centuries that made even minor crimes

punishable by death.
smuggling illegal drugs.

Fenian Committed to establishing an independent Irish
Board ofWorks A kind of council for London, but with
Republic in the nineteenth century.
very limited powers and money.
Forest Laws Norman laws that banned ordinary people
Borstal A type of prison set up especially for young
from hunting or gathering wood in the King's forests.
criminals.
offenders in the early twentieth century. Abolished in 1982.
Fraud A deliberate act of deception that results in personal
Capital crime A crime punishable by death.
gain.
Capital punishment The death penalty.
French Revolution Overthrow of the monarchy in France

in 1 789. Nobles and landowners lost their power and
privilege. Became increasingly bloody by 1793, creating
much fear in England.
Castration Removal of the testicles.

Chief inspector The person in charge of a division or in
charge of the CID.
Colliers Coal miners.
Compensation Money paid to the victim of crime or the
victim's family.
Compurgation The oath taken during the Middle Ages by
witnesses or people known to the accused in support of his
or her innocence.
Coroner An official responsible for investigating violent or
suspicious deaths.
Coroner's inquest A legal hearing which investigates
causes of death.
Corporal punishment A physically painful punishment.
Counterfeiting Making illegal copies or forgeries.
County Assizes See Quarter S essions.
Gamekeepers People paid to patrol private land to protect

game (animals for hunting) from poachers.
Gold rush The rapid influx of people hoping to make their
fortune once gold is discovered in an area.
Hard labour Being made to work hard as a punishment
while serving a prison sentence. This included pointless
work such as the crank and the treadmill.
Heresy The crime of holding religious beliefs different to
those of the monarch.

Highway robbery Stopping a coach and robing the
passengers.
Hoaxers People who make things up in order to make
money or to fool the police.

Home Rule The right to local self-government.
G l ossa ry
Home Secretary Minister responsible for the internal

affairs of England and Wales, including police and prisons.
Mortuary A building or facility where bodies are stored.
Horse patrol A mounted patrol to deter highway robbers.
Mug-shots Photographs of faces, which started to be used

by the police as way of recognising people.
Horsewhip A whip used to control horses or for corporal
Murdrum fine Norman law that made the whole
punishment.
community pay a heavy fine if a Norman was killed.
Houses of Correction An early type of prison where
Neighbourhood Watch An organisation set up in the
vagabonds and prostitutes were whipped and made to work

before being sent back to their parish. Also used to hold
petty criminals awaiting trial.
early 1980s to prevent crime in local communities.
Hue and cry Raising the alarm (by means of loud shouts
Ofsted An organisation that inspects the quality of

education in schools, nurseries and prisons.
or cries) when a crime has been committed. Everyone

within hearing distance was expected to join the hunt for
the suspect.
Hulks Old ships, often in derelict condition, used to house
prisoners in the nineteenth century.
Identity parades A way of identifying a criminal in which
a witness picks out a person they think they have seen from
a line of people.
Inspector A more senior policeman in charge of a station
or a group of sergeants.
IRA Irish Republican Army - terrorist group wanting an
independent Ireland that joined Northern Ireland with

Eire.
Irons Fetters or chains.
Justices of the Peace (JPs) Local magistrates appointed to
keep the peace, hear minor legal cases, and ensure the Poor
Laws were being maintained.
Knuckle-duster A metal guard worn over the knuckles in
fighting to increase the effect of blows.

Legal highs Legal highs contain one or more chemical
Non-custodial To do with an alternative to being locked
up in prison.
Open prison Prisons for low-risk category prisoners. Open

prisons allow prisoners freedoms such as day release and
work placements in the community.
Opportunistic thief A thief who acts on the spur of the
moment when the opportunity arises.
Pamphleteers People who printed and sold cheap news
stories or tales of crime.

Parish constables Men from every village or town who
were appointed to uphold law and order. This was part-time
and unpaid work.
Penal reform Reforms to the prison system.
Pepper spray A spray that irritates the eyes.
Pillory A wooden frame with holes in it that held the head
and hands of a convicted offender. Intended to publicly
humiliate the criminal.
Poaching The illegal hunting of animals.
Police surgeon A police officer with medical training,
often qualified as a doctor.
substances which produce similar effects to illegal drugs.

Little is known about their long- or short-term effects on
health.
Poor rates A tax paid by the wealthier members of a parish
Lock down A security or safety measure in prisons that
down a criminal.
confines all inmates to their cells.
Prison colony A settlement in a remote location used to
Lodging house A building converted into many rooms in
exile and separate prisoners from the general population.
which people could pay a small fee - 4 or 5 pence - to sleep

the night in.
Prison warders Prison guards.
Lord Chief]ustice The top judge in the country.

Lunatics Mentally disturbed people.
Magistrate See Justices of the Peace (]Ps) .
Manor courts Local medieval courts that dealt mainly
with minor crimes.

Market regulations Laws relating to the buying and
selling of goods in a market.

Mass A Catholic Church service.
Metropolitan Police Force The official name of the police
force responsible for London. Established in 1829.

Moral offences An action that offends the moral
standards of the majority of society.
to provide relief for the poor.

Posse A group of men called upan by the sheriff to track
Probation officer A person who manages offenders in

order to protect the public and reduce the chances of re
offending.
Protection racket A system of taking money from people
in exchange for agreeing not to hurt them.
Quaker A person of religious belief characterised by a total
rejection of violence.
Quarter Sessions Courts, held four times each year, used
to hear serious cases. See Assize judges.
Race crime A crime motivated by racial prejudice.
Reformation A period of violent change in religion,
especially in northern Europe, when Protestant Christians

rejected the Roman Catholic Church.
Repeal When a law is withdrawn.
Stocks A wooden frame with holes in it that held the feet
Residuum A word meaning the lowest possible class of
of a convicted offender. Intended to publicly humiliate the

criminal.
person - literally the 'dregs' of humanity.

Retribution Revenge.
Rookeries Overcrowded and poor-quality housing in slum
areas.
Sanctity oflife The belief that all life is sacred and
therefore must be protected.

Sanctuary A safe place within a church or cathedral. Once
a person claimed sanctuary they could not be removed by

force.
Scribe A person who writes books or other documents by
hand.
S erial killer A killer who has committed a number of
murders.
Sheriff The chief law officer in each county during the
Middle Ages.
Slum clearance A process begun in the late 180 0s, and
not completed until after the Second World War, which saw
destruction of unhealthy or dangerous housing.
Smuggling Bringing goods into the country illegally or
not paying tax on legal goods entering.
Snares A form of trap used to catch animals.
Social crime An illegal act that many people do not regard
as a crime.
Socialism A political and economic system in which most
forms of property and resources are owned or controlled by

the state.
Sociological research Studies of the way that people live,
using observation and by taking notes and measurements.

Solitary confinement Being locked up on your own and
totally separate from other people.

Stagecoaches Horse-drawn coaches that would stop at
intervals or 'stages' to refresh the horses or allow rest for
passengers.
Sweatshops Workshops, often making clothes or shoes,

where people were paid low wages (often only receiving a
small sum for each item they finished) .
Thief-takers People who made money from collecting
the rewards offered for the return of stolen goods or the

capture of criminals.
Tithings Groups of ten men who were responsible for each
other's behaviour. If a member of the tithing broke the law

then the others had to bring him to justice or face a fine.
Trade union An organisation of workers set up to defend
their interests and campaign for improvements in their

working conditions.
Transportation S ending convicted criminals overseas.
Treason Disobedience or disloyalty to the monarch (or the
government) .
Trial by combat A type of trial by ordeal. Guilt is decided
if the participant is defeated in combat.

Trial by ordeal A trial, held in or near a church, in which
God judges the accused with a sign of guilt or innocence.

Tribunal A panel of people brought together to settle some
type of dispute. Tribunals were sometimes used to decide

on the cases of conscientious objectors.
Vagabondage The crime of being a wandering beggar. Also
known as vagrancy.
Welfare state The system by which the government provides
support for the poorest and most vulnerable in society. Th s

includes health care, unemployment relief and other beneftts.
Wergild A form of compensation paid to victims of crime
in Saxon times.
Witchcraft The crime of using magic to cause harm to a
person or their property.

Young offenders' institutions Secure units for young
offenders that are run along the same lines as adult prisons.
Answers to crime su rvey on page 3

1 c; 2 d ; 3 d ; 4c; 5 b ; 6c; 7d
Index
Anglo -Saxons 14-19, 20, 2 1 , 23
army 49
arrest warrants 48
assize judges 47
B entley, D erek 1 0 0 - 1
Bloody C o d e 5 0 -2, 6 2 , 70 - 1 , 76, 1 0 2 , 1 1 1
B ooth, Charles 1 1 7, 1 1 8, 1 2 4, 125, 1 6 1
Bow Street Runners 68, 1 0 9
cap ital p unishment 8, 1 9, 2 1 , 3 4, 5 0
abolition of 9, 1 1, 1 0 2 - 3 , 1 1 2
executions 3 6 - 7, 70, 7 1 , 100, 102
car crime 8 7, 1 0 7
chronology 4 - 6
Church 1 2 , 2 8 - 9
benefit of t h e clergy 27, 2 8 , 49, 1 1 2
religious change 35, 3 9, 47, 1 1 2
Church courts 2 1 , 28, 4 7
combat, trial b y 2 1 , 1 0 8
Community S ervice Orders 9 7
comp urgation 1 7
comp uter crime 84, 8 7, 107
coroners 8, 2 4
cor p oral p unishment 2 , 8, 1 9
COs (conscientious objectors) 9 0 - 1
County Assizes 49
crime p revention 92
crime rates 52, 86
crime survey 3
Crown Courts 85
death p enalty see cap ital p unishment
drug crime 9, 84, 8 8 - 9
electronic tagging 9 7, 9 9
Ellis, Ruth 103
English Civil War 35, 47
Evans, Timothy 103
fines 5 1 , 9 7, 1 1 0
wergild 15, 1 9, 2 1 , 1 10
First World War 9 0 - 1
Fisher, Sarah 1 16, 1 1 7, 1 1 9, 1 2 0 - 1 , 1 2 6 ,
1 2 7, 1 2 8
Forest Laws 2 1
gangs 148
Gunp owder Plot 1 1, 38

guns 59
Habeas Cor p us 49
hanging 70, 71, 100, 102, 1 10
hate crimes 84, 8 7
highway robbery 9 , 589, 1 0 7
Ho p kins, Matthew 445
Houses of Correction 41, 51, 74
hue and cry 8, 15, 1 7, 24, 33, 48, 108
hulks 72, 75
industrialisation and social change 6 6 - 7
Jack the Ripp er murders 1 1 5, 1 2 4, 148,
1 5 1 - 60, 161
and the p ress 1 5 7-9

jury, trial by 15, 1 7, 108
Justices of the Peace (JPs) 48
kings 1 1, 1 2 , 2 8
magistrates 32, 48, 85
manor courts 8, 2 6
moral offences 2 8
murder 8 7, 1 0 2 , 1 0 3
murdrum fines 2 1
mutilation 1 9
Neighbourhood Watch 9
news p ap ers
and Jack the Ripp er murders 1 5 7-9
nobles 1 2
Normans 2 0 -2, 2 3
Old Bailey court 1 1 9 -20, 129
ordeal, trial by 8, 14, 1 8 , 2 7, 28, 29, 1 0 8
p arish constables 8, 2 4 , 48, 108
p easants 1 2
p illory 27, 33, 48, 5 1 , 1 10
p oaching 6 0 - 1 , 1 0 7
p olicing 1 1 , 48, 9 2 - 3
Metro p olitan Police 9 , 68 -9, 132-50
Whitechap el 1 1 7, 137- 60, 161
see also Jack the Ripp er murders
p oor rates 40
p overty 3 4, 8 6
p risons 9 , 15, 5 1 , 5 7, 74- 8 0 , 1 1 1
changes t o 9 4 - 6
p robation 9 7
p rostitution 148
Quarter Sessions 49
race crime 9, 84
retribution 16
royal courts 26, 5 7, 85
sanctuary 25, 2 9, 1 1 2
Second World War 9 1 , 102
sexual offences 5 1 , 87
sheriffs 8, 24, 25, 29
smuggling 9, 62-3, 8 8 -9, 107
social crime 21
stocks 27, 33, 48, 1 1 0
terrorism 8 7
Thames Police Court 140
theft 87
thief-takers 8, 68, 109
tithings 8, 15, 16, 1 7, 26, 33, 1 0 8
Tolp uddle Martyrs 6 4 - 5
town watchmen 48
trans p ortation 5 7, 65, 72 -3, 75, 1 1 1
treason 8 , 32, 3 6
unem p loyment 42, 43
vagabondage 33, 3 4, 40-3, 48, 107
violent crime 8 7, 106
Wainwright, Henry 1 1 5, 1 1 9
Warren, Sir Charles 1 3 5 - 6, 160
wergild 15, 1 9, 2 1 , 1 1 0
whi pp ing 41, 5 1 , 1 10
Whitechap el 1 14 - 6 3
a n d fear of crime 1 2 8 - 3 1
Jewish immigrants 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 149,
150
key p laces in 124-7

p olicing 1 1 7, 1 3 7-50, 1 3 7- 6 0, 1 6 1
see also Jack t h e Ri pp er murders
witchcraft 8, 32, 3 4, 44-7, 1 1 2
women 2 1 , 44, 45, 46, 5 1 , 148
and witchcraft 44, 45, 46, 47
see also Jack the Ri pp er murders
workhouses 120, 1 2 6
young offenders 9 , 9 8 - 9

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PART 1: Crime and punishment in Britain, c.1000-present

C h a pter 3 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n ea rly m o d e rn E n g l a n d , c.1 500-c.1 700

C h a pter 4 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n e i g hteenth- and n i n eteenth -centu ry B rita i n

C h a pter 5 C ri m e a n d p u n i s h m ent i n m o d e rn B rita i n , c.1 900-present

C h a pter 6 C ri m e and p u n i s h m ent i n B rita i n : Revisiti n g t h e b i g sto ries

PART 2: The historic environment: Whitechape1,

PART 3: Writing better history

PART 1: Crim.e and punishm.ent in

Is crime becoming more violent?

2. S h o u l d c a p i t a l p u n i s h ment (the d e a t h pena lty) be

b) Deterre nce - t o warn

b) Yes, for some m u rd e rs

c) Yes, for certa i n types of

3. S h o u l d physical p u n i s h m ents, such as w h i p p i ng, be

1 C ri m e a n d p u n is h m e n t i n B rita i n : T h e B i g Sto ry from c.1 0 0 0 - p resent

3. Yearly n u m bers o f m u rders a n d ki l l i n gs a re :

4. In the l a s t t e n yea rs, car cri me (theft of ca rs a n d

Crime & Punishment Through Time

Crime & Punishment Through Time