UNIT-II

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Definition of Ecosystem: A group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM:
Structural components of Ecosystem

Abiotic

Inorganic
Organic

Biotic

Climatic
factors

Hetrotrophs

Autotrophs

Macro Consumers

Micro Consumers

Decomposers

Primary
Consumers

Secondary
Consumers

Tertiary
Consumers

Top
Carnivores

Omnivores

The ecosystem comprises two major components:

1) Abiotic components and 2) Biotic components
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: All non-living factors of an ecosystem is called abiotic component. They are as
follows:
i)

Inorganic substances: These include elements like C, H, O, N, P, S etc. They are absorbed by the
plants through the root hairs. With the help of sunlight, they are converted into food material. These
are again returned to the environment by the process of decomposition.

ii)

Organic substances: These are proteins, Carbohydrates, lipids etc. They form a link between the
biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.

iii)

Climatic factors: They include physical factors like temperature, light, atmospheric pressure, rainfall,
humidity etc which varies according to the region.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS: All living organisms of an ecosystem constitute the biotic components.
1. Producers: These are green plants (autotrophs) having chlorophyll. They manufacture energy-rich food
materials with the help of carbon dioxide, water, sunlight through the process of photosynthesis. Eg:
Green plants, photosynthetic bacteria, chemosynthetic bacteria.
2. Consumers: All living organisms which have no chlorophyll must obtain their energy from green plants
directly or indirectly.
A) Macro consumers: These are large sized animals which depend upon plants for their food. These
include
i)

Primary consumers: These are herbivores which eat the green plants are called primary
consumers. Eg. Grasshopper, Deer, Rabbit.

ii)

Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores which eat the herbivores. Eg. Frogs, centripedes,
mollusks.

iii)

Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores which eat primary and secondary consumers. Eg.
Snake eating frogs, birds eating fishes.

iv)

Top Carnivores: Carnivores which are not killed and eaten by other animals are called top
carnivores. Eg. Lion, Leopard, Tiger

v)

Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals Eg. Human beings, rat, crow

B) Micro consumers: These are known as decomposers. They include chiefly bacteria, fungi and
actinomycetes. They feed upon dead organic matter, bring about breakdown of the complex
organic compounds into simple and soluble compounds.
FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
These include i) Trophic level ii) Food chain iii) Food web iv) Ecological pyramids
v) Energy flow vi) Biogeochemical cycles vii) Ecological succession
i) TROHIC LEVEL: All organisms with similar feeding habits are grouped together is known as trophic
level. It is denoted by T. All autotrophic plants belong to the first trophic level (T1). Animals depending upon
producers for their food resources occupy second trophic level (T2). Third trophic level occupied by the animals
depends on herbivores (T3). Top carnivores occupy final level as (T4) in a linear way and the trophic level of
decomposers is denoted by (T5).

Producers

Herbivores

Carnivores

T1

T2

T3

Top Carnivores
T4

Decomposer T5

ii) FOOD CHAIN: The linear sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
Energy-rich food materials pass from producers to primary consumers (herbivores), from primary consumers to
secondary consumers (primary carnivores) and from secondary consumers to tertiary consumers (secondary
carnivores) and so on. This transfer of food energy from producers through a series of organisms is referred to a
food chain. It is classified into two types:
A) Grazing food chain: It stars with green plants and culminates in carnivores. Eg:
Grass

Rabbit

Snake

Grass

Zebra

Lion

Algae

Water fleas

Salmon

Hawk
Shark

B) Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and decomposers consume. Thus
it forms a link between dead organic matter and living organisms.
Dead leaf litter

Crab

Salmons

Kingfisher

iii) FOOD WEB: It is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic
level. Eg:
Mice
Grass

Rabbit
Deer

Algae

Water fleas
Crab
Water beetles

Snake

Hawk

Lion
Salmons

Shark

Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two most important
functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.

The food chains and food webs also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different
animals and thus, help maintain the ecological balance.

iv) ECOLOGICAL PYAMIDS: Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem,
starting with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is known as an ecological
pyramid. These are of three types
a) Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level.
i) Upright: Here in a grassland ecosystem or pond ecosystem the organisms are arranged according to their
number. The base is occupied by more number of grasses then followed by herbivores and carnivores and so on.

Shark
Salmons
Beetles
Algae

Top
carnivores

Lion, Tiger
Frogs, birds

Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers

Insects
Grasses

ii) Spindle: In a forest ecosystem big trees are less in number followed by herbivores including, insects
which form a much broader middle level and then carnivores and top carnivores are still narrow at apex.

Top
Carnivores

Lion, Tiger
Snakes, Foxes

Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers

Insects
Trees

iii) Inverted: Here a few big trees occupy narrow base followed by fruit eating birds acting like herbivores
which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs etc, grows as parasites on these birds, while still
greater number of hyper parasites like bacteria and fungi thus making inverted pyramid.

Hyper parasites

Bacteria, fungi
Lice, bugs

Parasites
Herbivores

Birds

Producer

Trees

b) Pyramid of biomass: It is based upon the total biomass at each trophic level in a food chain. It is of two types
i) Upright: This pyramid indicates forest and grass land ecosystem where the producers accumulates huge
biomass while the consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels, resulting in broad
base and narrowing top.
Carnivores

Frogs, birds

Herbivores
Producers

Rabbit, insects
Trees, Grasses

ii) Inverted: The biomass of producers are much less as compared to herbivores, carnivores, and top
carnivores so the pyramid shows an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex. As the water content in the
producer level is high compared to other trophic levels. This type of ecosystem is seen in pond, lake or ocean
ecosystem.
Carnivores

Fishes

Herbivores

Water beetles

Producers

Algae

c) Pyramid Energy: The amount of energy at each trophic level is represented in this pyramid. At each level there
is a huge loss of energy (90%) and only 10% of energy is transferred to next level. This also called as 10% law.
Always the ultimate source of energy is sun, so the pyramid of energy is always upright for any type of
ecosystem.
Carnivores
Herbivores

1%

10%
Producers
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM (10% LAW)

100%

In any ecosystem the energy transfers from produces to a series of consumers. This energy flow is always
unidirectional. It obeys two basic laws of thermodynamics.
1st Law: The energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another.
2nd Law: The energy from a more concentrated to dispersed form.
UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW MODEL

Producers convert solar energy to chemical energy but it cannot return the solar energy back once it is converted.
Similarly, the consumers build up potential energy by acquiring energy from the producers, but it cannot return
the same to the producers again. In this way the energy once acquired cannot be sent back to its source. The flow
of energy is always unidirectional. The green plants conserve only 10% of total energy it receives as net primary
production. The rest is lost as heat energy. The primary net production is used by the consumer but 90% of it is
lost again as heat energy and 10% incorporated in the body of the primary consumer as net energy. In this way the
energy is transferred to the next levels.
UNIVERSAL FLOW MODEL

The flow of energy was explained by E.P. Odum as the universal flow model. Here it denotes the energy storage
at a particular level. In this model the input energy comes from a source (solar energy, produces, and herbivores)
and stored in the form of standing biomass and transferring to the next level some amount of energy is lost which
gives an indication of obeying the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

SINGLE CHANNEL FLOW MODEL

The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner through a single channel from producers to carnivores.
This figure obeys the two laws of thermodynamics where after each trophic level the energy is reducing to the
next level. Some of the energy is transferred to the surroundings in the form of respiration. Similarly some energy
is wasted as not utilized and not assimilated. As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at
every level, there by resulting in less energy available at next trophic as indicated by narrower pipes (energy flow)
and smaller boxes (stored energy in biomass).
DOUBLE CHANNEL OR Y SHAPED FLOW MODEL

The modification of single channel flow model is the y-shaped model. This flow model obeys the two basic laws
of thermodynamics. The energy transfer from producers to carnivores and also included decomposers and
detritivores.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Definition: The successive colonization of different biotic communities in an area over a period of time is
known as ecological succession.
PROCESS OF SUCCESSION
Five major stages are involved in the process of succession

1. NUDATION: It includes a bare area with no vegetation or life. New area may develop on account of various
factors like volcanic eruptions, landslides, forest fires, large earthquakes, deforestation etc.
2. INVASION: In this stage a species is established in a new area. This involves in three stages.
a) Migration: This is the arrival of seeds, spores and vegetative propagules from other places. This is
affected by wind, water, animals and man.
b) Ecesis: The establishment of the pioneers in a new place is called ecesis. It consists of germination,
growth and reproduction.
c) Aggregation: The increase in the number of colonizing individuals is called aggregation.
3. COMPETITION: Large number of individuals in a limited area develops a competition mainly for space and
nutrition. The competition is mainly for space and nutrition. This may be intraspecific (among the individuals of
the same species) or interspecific (among individuals of different species). In this competition the weaker one are
eliminated and stronger ones are retained. The weaker one act as humus for the stronger ones.
4. REACTION: The reaction between new species and the environment takes place as a result, increasing in
relative humidity by transpiration, increase in rainfall etc.
5. STABILIZATION: The whole process of succession results in stabilization of the biotic communities and in
the development is called as climax community.
TWO TYPES OF SUCCESSION
HYDROSERE: The type of succession starts in water which culminates in a climax. The pioneer community
consists of phytoplanktons, which are free floating algae, diatoms etc. Gradually these are replaced by rooted
submerged plants followed by rooted-floating plants. Growth of these plants keep on adding organic matter to the
substratum by death and decay and thus a layer of soil builds up and shallowing of water takes place. Then Reed
swamp stage follows in which the plants are partly in water and partly on land. This is followed by a sedgemeadow stage of grasses then by woodland consisting of shrubs and trees and finally by a forest acting as climax.
XEROSERE: This type of succession originates on a bare rock, which lacks water and organic matter. The
pioneer community here consists of crustose and foliose lichens. These lichens produce some weak acids and help
in disintegrating the rock a process known as weathering. Their growth helps in building up gradually some
organic matter, humus and soil. Then comes the community of mosses, followed by herbs, shrubs and finally the
forest trees.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forest is natural plant communities with dominance of trees. The major forest biomes found in India are Tropical
rain forests, Tropical deciduous forests, Temperature broad leaved forests, Temperate needle leaf or coniferous
forests.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
It includes inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. The climate (temperature, light,
rainfall etc) and soil (minerals) vary from forest to forest.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
i) Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species diversity. In different forests producers are Butea
frondosa, Tectona grandis, Dipterocarpus, Shorea robusta, Quercus, Pinus, Cedrus, Picea and Abies.
ii) Consumers: These are animals which are grass eating and flesh eating. The insects like ants, flies, beetles, leaf
hoppers, bugs and animals like shrews, moles, deer, flying foxes, lizards, fox, lion, tiger.
iii) Decomposer: These are microorganism which may be bacteria like Bacillus, Clostridium and fungi like
Aspergillus and Alternaria.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
This type of ecosystem occurs in those areas where the climate is cold during winter and hot during summer.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
This includes the nutrients or elements present in the soil. Thus elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus etc are provided by water, carbon dioxide, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates present in air
and soil of the areas.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
i) Producers: There are no trees, only herbaceous plant cover dominated by a wide variety of grass species is
present. Main grass species are Dichanthium, Cynodon, Phragmites, Imperata etc.
ii) Consumers: These include deer, sheep, rabbits, mice. Some insect species such as Cicindella, Coccinella,
Dysdercus, Termites, millipedes, jackals, fox, hawks, snakes etc are present.
iii) Decomposers: This include Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicillium, etc which decomposes the dead and
decay parts.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Desert biomes occupy about 17% of the land where rainfall is very low and evaporation is high. The days are
extremely hot and nights cold. Deserts are characterized by scarcity of flora and fauna. Only organisms having
specialized structural, physiological and behavioral adaptation to withstand the extremes of temperatures and
aridity can survive there.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Temperature is very high and rainfall is very scanty. The nutrients of desert are very poor.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
i) Producers: These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses and very few trees. A few succulents like cacti
may be present. Some lichens and xerophytic mosses also occur.
ii) Consumers: Insects, reptiles, nocturnal rodents, birds and camels etc.

iii) Decomposers: These are very poor few because of poor flora and fauna, the amount of dead organic matter is
also. There are some bacteria and fungi, most of them are thermophilic.
POND OR LAKE ECOSYSTEM
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Water, light, temperature and several inorganic and organic substances like C, H, O, P, Ca, S, carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids are the abiotic components. Part of the nutrients is in solution form but most of them are
present stored in particulate matter as well as in living organisms.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Producers: There belong some algae or flagellates and macrophytes which are suspended or floating lower plants.
Common examples are Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Wolfia, Pistia, Azolla, Hydrilla.
Consumers:
i) Primary consumers: These include ciliates, flagellates, other protozoans, small crustaceans, benthos etc. These
animals drift in water along with phytoplanktons which act as their food.
ii) Secondary consumers: These include carnivores which feed on herbivores, eg: fish and some insects.
iii) Tertiary consumers: There are some large fish which feed on the smaller fish.
Decomposers: Some bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes represent this group.
RIVER OR STREAM ECOSYSTEM
The biotic community in streams and rivers is quite different from that in ponds and lakes.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
The river or stream water has lesser mineral content and greater penetration of light because it is clear water.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
i) Producers: In slow moving waters of banks, phytoplanktons, attached algae, water grasses and other
amphibious plants are the producers.
ii) Consumers: There may fresh water sponges, flatworms, leeches, water insects, snails, fishes and crocodiles.
Many birds and mammals also get their food from rivers and streams.
iii) Decomposers: Some bacteria and fungi.
OCEAN OR MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover about 70% of surface of the earth. The concentration of salts and minerals in the sea is always high.
The sea is in continuous circulation because air temperature differences between equator and poles set up strong
winds which, together with the rotation of the earth, create definite currents.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Marine ecosystem is more stable in chemical composition due to being saline. There are dissolved salts and
minerals in the water.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
i) Producers: There are phytoplanktons and large marine plants. Diatoms and dinoflagellates constitute the
phytoplanktons. Large plants include sea weeds which belong to chlorophyceae, rhodophyceae. Certain mangrove
plants represent the complex tidal woodlands.
ii) Consumers: These include herbivores like crustaceans, molluses and carnivores fishes like cod, Herring,
Haddock.
iii) Decomposers: Some bacteria and fungi actively take part in decomposition of dead organic matter.
ESTURINE ECOSYSTEM
An estuary is strongly affected by tidal action, and within which sea water is mixed with fresh water from the land
drainage. Common examples of estuarine ecosystems are river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and bodies of
water behind barrier beaches.
i) Producers: These are sea weeds, sea grasses, algal mats and phytoplanktons.
ii) Consumers: Oysters, crabs, shrimp and many commercial sport fishes etc.
iii) Decomposers: Very less bacteria and fungi.
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONVERATION
DEFINITION: The totality of genes, species, and ecosystem in a region is called biodiversity.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY:
GENETIC DIVERSITY: Genes are the basic information of an organism. It transmits information from one
generation to another generation. The variation among the genes is due to its different chromosomes and its
alleles. Due to this variation physical and mental behavior of the organism changes. For example rice variety has
30,000 genes, shows variation in colour, size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain. Similarly
observation is seen in case of other organisms also.
SPECIES DIVERSITY: The variability and variation of the species found in a community. It represents its
richness and their abundance in a community. To measure the species richness Shannon-Wiener index and
Simpson index is used.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY: The diversity in the ecosystems which shows variation in food chains, food webs,
biogeochemical cycles etc. The variation in ecosystem is due to variation in physical factors like moisture,
temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

S.No.

Biogeographic

Important flora and fauna

zone
1.

Trans-Himalayan

Pine, Deodar, Wild sheep, Yak, Tibetan ass, Snow Leopard

2.

Himalayan

Sal, Cork tree, Castor, Wild bear, Sikkim stag, Musk deer, Leopard

3.

Desert

Acacia, Zizyphus, Camel. Bustard, Wild ass, Fox

4.

Semi-arid

Date palm, Peepal, Gir Lion, Black bucks

5.

Western Ghats

Sheesham, Bahera, Reptiles, Mammals, Lizards

6.

Deccan Peninsula

Acacia, Teak, Sloth bear, Wild elephant, Wild buffalo

7.

Gangetic plain

Sal, , Bael, Black Chinkara, Alligator

8.

North-East India

Bamboo, Castor, Elephant, Rhinoceros

9.

Islands

Harar, Coconut, Cloves, Alligator, Dolphin

10

Coasts

Coconut, Palm trees, Banana, Cashew nuts, Turtle, Alligator, Fishes

BIODIVERSITY AT GOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS

GOBAL DIVERSITY
After 1992 Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro it has become important to conserve the biodiversity as well as to
name certain species which were not given nomenclature till now. Mapping the biodiversity has therefore, been
rightly recognized as an emergency task in order to plan its conservation and practical utilization in a judicious
manner. The tropical rainforests and other ecological niches are the storehouse of biodiversity which need to be
explored. More than one-fourth of the worlds prescription drugs are extracted from plant growing in tropical
forests. Out of 3000 plants identified by National Cancer Research Institute as sources of cancer fighting
chemicals, 70% come from tropical rain forests. One of the creeping vines in the rainforests at Cameroon has
proved to be effective in the inhibition of replication of AIDS virus. In this way globally many species are there
which have to identify so that it can be utilized in a proper way.
NATIONAL LEVEL
India is a nation rich with biodiversity. On the basis of the biodiversity, India has been divided into ten
biogeographical regions. The biodiversity of India is quite peculiar and highly categorized. Most of it is localized
to Western Ghats, North western Himalayas etc. India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world and
11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates.
LOCAL LEVEL
It is based upon their spatial distribution.

Point richness: The number of species found in a single point in a given space.

Alpha richness: The number of species found in a small homogeneous area

Beta richness: The rate of change in species composition across different habitats.

Gamma richness: The rate of change across large landscape gradients.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The Values of biodiversity in terms of commercial, productive, social and aesthetical are enormous. We get
benefits from biodiversity in many ways. Some plays very important role in controlling the diseases and some in
the form of food supply.
1. Consumptive value: Here biodiversity can be utilized directly as well as indirectly.
a) Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food and many more in the
form of grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea, coffee, meat fish egg, milk etc.
b) Fuel: Since ages our forests was used as fuel wood. A part from it, these were used as coal, crude
oil etc for electricity generation and transport facilities.
c) Medicines: Many plant extracts were used to cure diseases like Quinine from the bark of Cinchona
tree used to cure malaria. Digitalin from foxglove which is effective for curing heart alignments.
Similarly Penicillin from fungi Penicillium, tetracycline from bacterium.
2. Productive value: The products that can be marketed and sold commercially. It is widely used by the
scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. These may include silk
from silk worm, wool from sheep, fur of many animals, and lac from insects. But these products are
illegally traded in the market which worth billions of dollars. As these were traded to increase the number
of organisms in the wild but due to smuggling it became a threat to biodiversity.
3. Social value: These are associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of
the people. Many plants and animals are considered as holy and sacred in our country like tulsi, peepal,
lotus, bael, cow, snake, bull, peacock etc. Tribal people were very close to this wildlife in the forests.
4. Ethical value: It involves in the ethical issues like all life must be preserved. It is based on the concept
of Live and Let Live. For human race existence biodiversity survival is necessary.
5. Aesthetical value: No one of us would like to visit vast barren areas with no life. People from far and
wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of
biodiversity and this type of tourism is called eco-tourism.
6. Optional value: These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need
to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing
within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical rain forest. Thus optional value is the value of
knowing that there are biological resources existing on this biosphere that may one day prove to be an
effective option for something important in the future.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Population Growth: With seven billion people living on Earth and more arriving every day, basic human
needs for fresh water and fuel are making unprecedented demands on our global and local ecosystems.
Beyond the necessities of survival, there is increasing demand throughout the globe for more material
goods and services.
2. Global warming: It represents a profound and emerging threat to biodiversity around the world. As
temperatures rise, habitats for many plants and animals will change, depriving them of the homes and
niches to which they have adapted. For example polar bears could be affected by the loss of sea life.
According to the Nature Resource Defense Council:
i)

Sub alpine forest has invaded by sub meadows in Olympic National Park.

ii)

Mangrove forests are dying off in the Caribbean island.

iii)

Over past 25 years penguin populations have shrunk by 33% in parts of Antarctica.

iv)

Ranges for marine life are shifting northward along the Pacific coast.

3. Habitat fragmentation/ Urban sprawl: The single greatest threat to biodiversity around the globe is the
loss of natural communities to development. Between 1992-96 in US alone 16 million acres of forest,
cropland and grassland were converted to urban and other uses.
4. Exotic species: Plants and animals that are not native to an ecosystem can wreak havoc on the naturally
occurring species within that system. These species often out-compete native species for resource and
occupy much of this available habitat. Purple loose strife and Kudzu are good examples.
5. Over hunting/Poaching: Over hunting and illegal trade in endangered species is a prime threat to their
survival. Due to over hunting and poaching results in the extinction of the species. Example Dodo and
Passenger pigeon.
6. Environmental degradation. The usage of pesticides, insecticides, weedicides not only shown ill effects
to humans but it also shown effect to marine ecosystem. The usage of DDT in New England showed
traces at high concentration to Antarctica fauna.
7. Man and wild life conflicts: Instances of man animal conflicts keep on coming to limelight from several
states in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In
retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants. In Powar, Mumbai 2 people
were killed and 19 people were injured by the leopard attack. These killings are due to failure duties of
forest department. They are not growing any cultivable products for elephant grazing which led these
elephants to entire in to village and destroy crops. Similar in case of tiger and leopard.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the Red Data
Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals. The red data symbol indicates the
warning signal for those species which are endangered and if not protected are likely to become extinct in near
future. A few species of endangered reptiles, birds, mammals, plants are listed below:
Reptiles: Gharial, Green sea turtle, Python
Birds: Great Indian bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Siberian White Crane
Mammals: Red fox, Sloth bear, Indian lion, Golden cat
Primates: Lion-tailed macaque, Niligiri langur, Capped monkey,
Plants: Rhododendrons, Rauvolfia serpentine, sandal wood, cycas beddonei
Endemic species of India.
India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number of endemic species.
Plants species: Saparia Himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes khasiana.
Animals: Western Ghats are rich in amphibians (frogs, toads), reptiles (lizards, crocodiles).

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

DEFINITION: Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as
hot spots of biodiversity.
The term was introduced by Meyers in 1988.There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of
which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.
About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and found in these hotspots. Some of
the places in the world which have hot spots are Western Amazon, Madagascar, North and East Borneo, NorthEastern Australia, Brazilian Atlantic forests.
INDIAN HOTSPOTS:
The Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth and endemic species of plants but also reptiles, amphibians,
shallow tailed butterflies and some mammals.
Eastern Himalayas: It covers the Indo-Burma region stretching with 7298 Km2 contain 4250 plant species
showing 60% endemism. Certain species like Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm was sighted only twice
in this region in the last 70 years. Out of the worlds recorded flora 30% are endemic to India of which 35,000 are
in the Himalayas.
Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 Km2 covering a strip of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala (India-Sri Lanka Region), It consists of 40% of total endemic plants, 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are
endemic to Western Ghats. The major centers of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent valley-the New
Amambalam Reserve Basin.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

IN-SITU

EX-SITU

PROTECTED AREAS

OFF SITE COLLECTIONS

GENE BANKS
SEED BANK

NATIONAL
PARKS

ZOOS

BIOSPHERE
RESERVE
WILD LIFE
SANCTURIES

BOTANICAL GARDENS
ORTHODOX RECALCITRANT

ORCHARDS
TISSUE CULTURE
CRYO PRESERVATION

Conservation of biodiversity is protection, uplift and scientific management of biodiversity so as to maintain it at

its optimum level and derive sustainable benefits for the present as well as future strategies. There are two types
of conservation strategies-In-situ and Ex-situ.
IN SITY CONSERVATION
Good management of extant populations in the wild is essential for their survival. It is protection and
management of important components of biological diversity through a network of protected areas. These
protected areas ecological areas which is protected, maintained and managed through legal of other effective
measures. These areas are tropical rain forest to desert area. These protected areas are classified into National
Parks, Wild life sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.
NATIONAL PARKS
The areas are maintained by government and reserved for betterment of wildlife. Cultivation, grazing,
forestry and habitat manipulation are not allowed. There are 89 national parks in India, occupying nearly 1.1% of
geographical area. Some of the national parks of India are Jim Corbett national park, Yellowstone national park
(USA), Royal national park (Australia).
WILD LIFE SANCTURIES

These occupying 3.6% of geographical area. It has 492 wildlife sanctuaries. Other activities like collection
of forest products, harvesting of timber, private ownership of land, tilling of land, etc are allowed. Wild Ass
sanctuaries (Gujarat), Ghana Bird sanctuaries (Rajasthan), Hazaribagh sanctuaries (Bihar), Kambalakonda
(Visakhapatnam).
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
They are multipurpose protected areas which are meant for preserving wild life as well as taking care of
tribal population. India has 13 biosphere reserve namely Manas (Assam), Nanda devi (Himachal Pradesh)
Similipal (Orissa) etc. Each biosphere reserve has (i) Core Zone: No human activity is allowed. (ii) Buffer zone:
Limited human activity is allowed like resource use strategies, research and education. (iii) Transition Zone: It is
the outer most part of biosphere reserve where an active co-operation is present between reserve management and
local people for activities like settlements, cropping, recreation, forestry and other economic uses without
disturbing ecology.
Some of the animal and plant species of Kambalkonda of Visakhapatnam.

Asian Paradise-flycatcher

Indian Leopard

Russell's Viper

Tectona grandis

Quails

Abrus precatorius

EX-SITU CONSERVATION
It is conservation of selected rare plants/animals in places outside their natural homes. It includes offsite
collections and gene banks.
1. OFFSITE COLLECTIONS
They are live collections of wild and domesticated species in botanical gardens, zoos etc. There are 1500
botanical gardens having more than 80,000 species. The number of zoos/zoological parks is 800 contains
about 3000 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. By this method Black-Footed Ferret, Ginkgo
has saved from extinction.
2. GENE BANKS
They are institutes that maintain stocks of viable seeds, live growing plants, tissue culture and frozen
germplasm with the whole range of genetic variability.
i)

Seed banks: Seeds are of two types, orthodox and recalcitrant. Orthodox seeds are those which can
tolerate reduction in moisture content (up to 5%) and low temperatures of -10C to -20C example
cereals and legumes. Recalcitrant seeds are those which get killed on reduction of moisture and
temperatures example Tea, Cocoa, Jackfruit

ii)

Orchards: Plants with recalcitrant seeds are grown in orchards where all possible strains and varieties
are maintained example Litchi, oil palm, rubber tree.

iii)

Tissue culture: It is carried out through callus formation, embryoids, pollen grain culture and shoot tip
culture for those plants which are either seedless where clone is to be maintained. This method is
useful in maintaining a large number of genotypes in small area. Example Banana, Potato.

iv)

Cryopreservation: Preservation at -196C (liquid nitrogen) can maintain tissue culture, embryos,
animal cells etc.