Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Stability and control characteristics of an airplane are referred as the vehicles handling or
flying qualities.
In the study of airplane stability and control, we will investigate
- What makes an airplane stable?
- How to design the control systems?
- What conditions are necessary for good handling?
- Flight data analysis and flight simulator
Airplane is a Nonlinear Dynamical System.
Airplane performance is governed by forces (along and normal to the flight path), with the
translational motions of the airplane as a response to theses forces.
Airplane stability and control are governed by moments about the CG(Center of Gravity),
with the rotational motion of the airplane as a response to theses moments.
Aerodynamic Nomenclature
To describe the motion of an aircraft, it is necessary to define a suitable coordinate system
for the formulation of the equations of motion.
Aircraft motion can be described by using two coordinate systems
- Inertial coordinate system: frame is fixed to the earth
- Body coordinate system: frame is fixed to the aircraft
The orientation and position of the airplane can be defined in terms of a fixed frame
Forces acting on an aircraft in flight: aerodynamic (L & D), thrust, gravitational forces
These forces can be resolved along an axis system fixed to the aircrafts CG.
Pitch Axis(Yb)
Yaw Axis(Zb)
Angular Rates
Velocity components
Ix
Iy
Iz
Product of Inertia
Iyz
Ixz
Ixy
Definition of ,
where velocity vector V does not in general lie in any of the coordinate planes. Its
orientation is defined by ,
Angle of attack ;
, (, are in radian)
3 controls on an airplane
Aileron
Elevator
Rudder
(change and control moments about the x,y,z axes) ; L, M, N
At zero lift
Also,
So, CM,ac is constant for angles of attack when the wing is @zero-lift L=0
Mac is called zero-lift moment.
The force and moment system on a wing can be completely specified by the lift and drag
acting through the a.c., plus the moment about the a.c.
Contribution to the moment about the CG of the airplane is
When the moment about the CG is zero, then the airplane is said to be trimmed.
chord line: straight line connecting the leading and trailing edge
We know that conventional cambered airfoils have slightly negative zero-lift angles.
Therefore, the zero-lift line lies slightly above the chord line.
Now, consider the wing pitched to the geometric such that lift is generated.
where : geometric angle of attack between the free-stream relative wind and the chord
line.
The angle between the zero lift line and the relative wind is equal to a = + L=0 :
absolute angle of attack.
When a = 0, then lift is zero no matter what the camber of the airfoil.
The use of a in lieu of is common in studies of stability and control. We adopt this
convention.
Stability
Aircrafts initial response when disturbed from a given , , or bank angle.
Stability is the property of an equilibrium state
- Static
- Dynamic
Equilibrium: If an aircraft is to remain in steady uniform flight (rest or in uniform motion),
Then, the resultant force as well as resultant moment about the CG must both be equal to
zero. State of equilibrium or flying at a trim condition.
Static stability: initial tendency of the vehicle to return to its equilibrium state after a
disturbance
(a) statically stable , (b) statically unstable, (c) neutral stability(boundary between static
stability and static instability)
If we are to have a stable equilibrium point, the vehicle must develop a restoring force or
moment to bring it back to the equilibrium condition.
Dynamic Stability: concerned with the time history of the motion of the vehicle after it is
disturbed from its equilibrium point.
Note that the vehicle can be statically stable but dynamically unstable.
Static stability does not guarantee dynamic stability.
However, for the vehicle to be dynamically stable it must be statically stable.
10
The aircraft motion break down into two motions with respect to the body fixed frame
-
In our general equations of motion, there exists coupling between the longitudinal and
lateral equations of motion. When small disturbance assumptions are applied,
longitudinal and lateral motions become effectively uncoupled.
An a/c can continue in steady un-accelerated flight when the resultant external force and
moment about the CG both banish.
11
a/c 1 would develop a negative (nose-down) pitching moment that would tend to
rotate the a/c back toward its equilibrium point
a/c 2 would develop a positive (nose-up) pitching moment that would tend to rotate
the a/c away from the equilibrium
12
Another point
Both satisfy the condition for static stability. However, only curve 1 can be trimmed at a
positive . (without > 0, a/c cant produce a positive lift)
Therefore, in addition to having static stability, we need
and Cm =
So far, we have considered the total a/c pitching moment. Now, lets consider the
consideration of the wing, fuselage, tail, propulsion to the pitching moment and static
stability characteristics of the a/c.
Total a/c moment coefficient:
13
where
= mean aerodynamic chord
= distance from the leading edge to aerodynamic center (a.c)
= distance from the leading edge to center of gravity (CG)
z = vertical displacement of CG
Pitching moment about the CG
Assume the angle of attack is small enough cos w ~ 1, sin w ~ w , and the term of
is negligible compared to other terms, we have the following approximation equations in
nondimensional format:
Lift of the Wing(divided by
14
where
For a wing-alone design to be statically stable, the a.c must lie behind the CG to make
A positive pitching moment about a.c can be achieved by using negative-cambered airfoil
section
Example
A wing-body model is tested in a subsonic wind tunnel. The lift is found to be at
zero at a geometric angle of attack of =-1.5o. At =5o, the lift coefficient is
measured as 0.52. Also, at =1o and 7.88o, the moment coefficient about the center
of gravity are measured as -0.01 and 0.05, respectively. The center of gravity
located at 0.35 . Calculate the location of aerodynamic center and
.
15
Solution
Calculate the lift curve slope
Evaluate at =1.0o
(1)
Evaluate at =7.88o
(2)
Two equations and two unknowns
Solving (1) and (2) and the value of
<0
>0
No good!,
16
17
18
where
: downwash angle
: average or effective relative wind at the tail
: tail angle (must be positive as shown) longitudinal dihedral
Contribution of the tail to the airplane lift (perpendicular to V)
Where is small and Dt can be neglected compared with Lt contribution of the tail to the
aircraft Lift=Lt
Note: Often
is based on the local q at the tail=q, so, tail efficiency factor =[0.8-1.2]
is introduced to represent =
at : lift-curve slope of the tail based on
19
where
Where VH is not a constant (although it does not vary much) since CG is not a fixed point
(varies with the loading condition and fuel consumption)
So, it is convenient to calculate the moment of the tail about a fixed point, the mean a.c. of
the wing-body combination
20
It is more convenient to calculate the moment of the tail about a fixed point (mean a.c. of
the wing-body combination)
Define,
which leads to
21
From the above total lift and pitching moment formula, we have some other important
results.
From definition:
Note that
of CG).
CG position h for which
-
= 0 is important.
22
The neutral point (NP) is defined as the CG position hn, such that
-
= 0.
=0
and
The difference between the CG position and the NP : Static Margin (Kn)
Kn = hn h
We must have h < hn or Kn > 0
- CG must be forward of NP
- The greater the Kn : more stable
23
Linear Lift
For linear lift: CL = a, recall that
Let
24
25
moment equation:
Effect of CG location on Cm
Longitudinal Control
The change of Cm by pilot or automatic control system
a change of propulsive thrust
change in Cm of configuration (using aerodynamics, elevator, wing flaps, spoilers,
horizontal tail rotation)
another way of changing the trim condition changing the center of gravity (i.e.
hang-glider)
26
+ e increases
27
Effects of e
A pilot
back)
1.
2.
3.
solves the trim problem manually by moving elevator control (stick forward or
28
Derivatives
Where ae =
is elevator effectiveness.
It is obvious that for a tailess airplane, only the first term applies where the subscript wb
can be dropped.
From previous discussion of pitching moment,
29
In linear case,
30
leading to
where
31
with elevator angle to trim, the slope of lift coefficient is slower, less sensitive to
change of , because configuration change due to e
with elevator angle to trim, a zero angle of attack = 0 still generates a lift, due to
e
32
for a given CG (forward) position, increase trim speed requires more elevator angle
deflection
for a given trim speed, the more CG forward (larger static margin), the less elevator
angle deflection requires
for a zero lift, there must have a positive deflection of e
33
34
Flight Determination of hn
The measurement of hn requires the measurement of
From trim, etrim equations
or
Measure
35
36
He : the moment about the elevator hinge line of the aerodynamic forces on the elevator tab
Se : the area of the portion of elevator and tab that lies aft of the elevator hinge line.
: Mean chord
In practice, it is often satisfactory to assume Che is a linear function of surface (wing or tail)
angle of attack s , angle of elevator e, and angle of tab t :
Tailless airplane: s =
Tailed airplane: s = t
(1) b0 = 0 for symmetric airfoil section of the tail
(2)
Then the coefficient Che for a tailed airplane becomes:
37
Trim Tabs: A certain elevator angle etrim is required for trim when flying at certain velocity.
The trim tabs are supplied to relieve the pilot of the load
38
Free Elevator
Stick-fixed condition is an ideal approximation. The opposite extreme is also of interest:
stick-free condition: Che = 0
where
39
40
Tailed Airplane
Tailless Airplane
41
Stick Forces
To deflect a control surface, the pilot must move the control stick or rudder pedals.
The forces exerted by the pilot to move the control surface is called the Stick Force. The
stick force is proportional to the hinge moment acting on the control surface.
where P is the force applied by the pilot (positive as shown in the figure), the work done by
the power boost system is Wb, hence we have
42
Recall
43
The larger the gradient, the more resistant the aircraft will be to disturbances in the flight.
44
45
When the aircraft is in straight horizontal flight at the same speed and altitude, the elevator
angle to trim is e, the control force to trim is P.
When in the pull-up, these change to
The ratio
- Elevator angle per g
- Control force per g
Consider an aircraft in straight level flight, for which the trimmed lift and moment
equations hold.
where
, T=D, qv=1/2V2
Using the load factor when the aircraft beginning a pure pull-up
Where,
Weight Coefficient for the Aircraft
46
Assume that the maneuver is gentle enough that the difference between the level-flight trim
state and the pull-up state is small
then
In matrix form
then
For this analysis of elevator angle per g, we are only interested in the elevator angle part
of the solution
Where,
Mass Ratio( m: mass of aircraft)
47
Obtain,
control is possible. We identify the associated mass center location a hm which is the value
of h for the equation goes to zero; namely
Note:
q derivatives dependent on h
(hm-h) - the elevator fixed or stick-fixed control margin, or control-fixed
maneuver margin.
If we approximate the q derivatives as being independent of h, we can write,
CG Limit
One of the dominant parameters of longitudinal stability and control is the fore-and-aft
location of the CG.
48
49
50
For static stability, an increase must generate a positive yawing torque (+N), which will
in turn tend to reduce . Positive yawing moment tends to turns the aircraft into the flow
direction.
"Weathercock" Stability always point into the relative wind
(stable)
51
Where
52
Where,
53
Yaw Control
Similar to the elevator on the horizontal stabilizer, the vertical stabilizer has a rudder for
yaw control. The local lift at the rudder
- Rudder Power
Rudder power should be big enough to maintain =0
So, the yawing moment for small is
Cn is the total yawing moment during steady . The rudder must provide yawing moment
to accommodate a number of situations in addition to correct side slip angle during
normal flight. These include
Coordinated turns
Cross-wind landing pilot requires to fly at
Asymmetric Thrust condition Engine failure
Spin recovery
Lateral stability and directional stability are closely related. If an aircraft has a lot of
directional stability, (most do) it tends to become unstable laterally. This is because the
"bank angle starts the aircraft turning", which speeds up the wing on the outside of the turn
(high wing). The fast wing produces more lift, which rolls the aircraft into a steeper bank.
54
All aircraft will exhibit negative lateral static stability (unstable) unless the designer adds
some combination of design features listed below
dihedral
high wing
swept wing
Sideslip produces two important effects other than those mentioned directional effects.
They are rolling moment and the side force.
Wing Dihedral
Wing dihedral can be the dominant stabilizing effect for roll. The action of dihedral,
however, is not a direct static effect. A roll disturbance leads to sideslip, sideslip interacts
with dihedral to return the aircraft to a wing-level situation. The key stability derivative is
CL which must be negative for roll stability
for Stability
55
56
For a steady value of sideslip and roll angle (ignore rate terms) the velocity seen by the
right wing and the left wing is different. In local reference frame we have (for small )
Thus relative to the reference flight condition the right wing sees an increased angle of
attack while the left wing sees the opposite.
The fuselage contribution to the lateral effect is a side force. The positiveness or
negativeness of the resulting rolling moment depends on the location of c.p. with respect to
the c.g.
57
Wing sweep generally enhances roll stability as the relative obliqueness between the left
and right wing changes with , Cl<0
58
Height of the vertical fin above the mass center can enhance the roll stability as the side
force lift changes with sideslip angle. For +ve +ve N (yawing moment) from force at
the tail, the higher the vertical fin's acting force results stronger roll moment
Roll Control-Ailerons
Ailerons provide the aircraft with ability to generate a controlled rolling moment by
introducing a differential lift on the right and left wings. Ailerons are used
to initiate and trim a bank angle for turning the aircraft
to set a roll angle to trim-out any side forces or rolling moments generated by the
vertical tail
59
Yawing Moment
Side Force
(Aerodynamics)
Sum of the Forces in y-direction
Sum of the Moments in x-direction
Sum of the Moments in the z-direction
3 equations, 5unknowns, , r, a, ,
60
Example
Level flight ==0
Assume that all aerodynamic parameters are known. Aircraft characteristics are
also known (velocity and altitude), flight conditions. Twin engine aircraft wing
mounted engine
1. One (left) engine out condition. Solve for , a, r
Assume Fy,thrust=0, Lthrust=0
Then Next=-Tl
61
DYNAMIC STABILITY
Aircraft Equations of Motion
Dynamic characteristics of an aircraft is important in assessing its handling and flying
qualities as well as for designing autopilot.
Lets look at the dynamic characteristics of an aircraft and the relationship of the motion to
the vehicles aerodynamic characteristics.
where
H Angular Momentum
F Contributions due to aerodynamics, propulsive, gravitational forces
acting on the aircraft
r Position of mass element to the center of mass
vc Velocity of the center of mass
m Element of mass of the aircraft
Velocity of the element mass relative to inertial frame
F Resulting force acting on the element
62
63
is zero
External force on the aircraft to the motion of the vehicle's center of mass
Moments on an Aircraft
In a similar manner, we can develop equation referred to a moving mass center.
For differential element of mass m,
M =
From
d
d
H = (r vm)
dt
dt
center of mass element to the center of mass), the total moment of momentum becomes,
64
Moment of Inertia
Then
The larger the moment of inertia of the object, the greater the resistance to rotate. We pick
the fixed body reference because the moment of inertia does not change in this reference.
In the inertial frame the moment of inertia changes depending on role, pitch and yaw of the
aircraft. We need the relationship between body frame and fixed inertial frame. We need
to use the inertial frame to express the attitude of the aircraft.
We need to determine the derivatives of vectors V and H referred to the rotating body
frame of reference for the force and moment equations below
65
Consider the derivative of an arbitrary vector A referred to the rotating body frame having
angular velocity . Therefore, the relationship between inertial frame and body frame is,
Then,
Moment scalars,
The Rolling Moment,
The Pitching moment
66
67
Rotation
1. Rotate the xf, yf, zf frame about 0zf through the yaw angle to the frame to x1,
y1, z1
Rotation
2. Rotate the x1, y1, z1 frame about 0y1, through the pitch angle bringing the
frame to x2, y2, z2.
Rotation (fi)
3. Rotate the x2, y2, z2 frame about 0x2 through the roll angle to bring the
frame to x3, y3, z3
Angles are limited to:
68
With the Euler angles, we can determine the flight velocity component relative to the fixed
reference frame. Let the velocity components along the xf, yf, zf frame be,
and subscripts 1 and 2 denote components along x1, y1, z1 and x2, y2, z2
and
u1 = u2 cos + w 2 sin
v1 = v 2
w1 = u2 sin + w 2 cos
u2 = u
v 2 = v cos w sin
w 2 = v sin + w cos
where u,v and w are velocity components along the body axis xb, yb, zb. Then the velocity
component along the inertial frame.
dx
dt
C C
dy = C S
dt
dz S
dt
S S C C S
S S S + C C
S C
C S C + S S u
C S S S C v
w
C C
Integration of the above equations yields the aircrafts position relative to the fixed frame of
reference. The relationship between the angular velocity in the body frame (p, q and r) and
69
) are
Gravitational force components acting along the body axis (function of aircrafts orientation
in space)
70
71
Moment Equations
Velocity of aircraft in the fixed frame in terms of Euler angles and body
velocity component
72
73
For convenience, the reference flight condition is assumed to be symmetric and propulsive
forces are assumed to remain constant with no angular velocity.
Also align x-axis so that it is along the direction of the aircraft velocity vector, then,
o reference angle of climb (not small)
uo reference flight speed
x-equation
Substituting
74
Simplify Further
Where,
75
Then we have,
Note:
X is the change in aerodynamic and propulsive force in the x-direction.
Or rearranging,
Dividing by m,
76
The change in aerodynamic forces and moments are function of motion variables u, v,
w and so forth. The aerodynamic derivatives usually the most important for the
conventional aircraft motion analysis follow.
77
Lateral Equations
Above two set of equations are both in the desired 1st order form
78
FORCES
MOMENTS
DISTANCES
79
VELOCITIES
ANGULAR VELOCITIES
MOMENT OF INERTIA
80
81
It is also possible to express the stability derivative in terms of the stability coefficient (Cxu),
Where,
In our analysis we will only use subsonic flight speed. The stability coefficients change
dramatically near Mach one and hence why we restrict our analysis to subsonic.
Therefore
Where the 0 subscript represents the reference condition at uo. Remember from before,
82
Where, the change in drag coefficient and changes in thrust coefficient can be expressed as,
The change in drag coefficient can also be estimated from a drag versus Mach number
graph using,
Where M is the Mach number of interest. The thrust term CTu is zero for gliding flight; and
a good approximation for jet aircraft as well. The change in thrust coefficient for a
propeller can be approximated by assuming it is equal to the negative of the reference drag
coefficient.
For a variable pitched propeller and piston engine power plant,
(for a propeller)
The change in lift can be estimated from the Prandtl Glauert formula (corrects the
incompressible lift coefficient for Mach effect, because Cp=(p-p)/q approaches infinite
at M = 1),
83
But,
This can be neglected for low speed but becomes of increase importance when approach the
critical Mach number.
The change in the pitching moment due to variations in the forward speed
The change in pitching moment M due to u can be expressed as,
or
84
Change in Lifting force acting on the tail with respect to pitch velocity
The pitching rate q causes a change in the angle of attack at the tail, which results in a
change in the lift force acting on the tail.
or
85
Where,
Therefore, the change in pitching moment coefficients with respect to pitch rate q is,
The coefficients for the complete airplane are obtained by increasing the tail values by 10
percent to account for the wing and fuselage contribution.
86
and
getting to the tail. As the wing angle of attack changes, the circulation around the wing will
be altered. The change in circulation alters the downwash at the tail; however, it takes a
finite time for the alteration to occur. The figure shown below illustrates the lag in flow
field development.
87
Therefore the force stability coefficient due to lag in downwash can be expressed as,
In non-dimensional form,
Therefore the moment stability coefficient due to lag in downwash can be expressed as,
Note: These equations are for a tail only, the entire aircraft coefficients can be obtained by
multiplying by 1.1 hence the following equations
88
an airplane rolls about its longitudinal axis, the roll rate creates a linear velocity distribution
over the vertical and horizontal, and wing surfaces. The velocity distribution causes a local
change in angle of attack over each of these surfaces that results in a change in the lift
distribution and consequently, the moment about the center of gravity On the portion of
89
the wing rolling down, an increase in angle of attack is created by the rolling motion. This
results in an increase in the lift distribution over the downward-moving wing. If we
examine the upward-moving part of the wing we observe that the rolling velocity causes a
decrease in the local angle of attack and the lift distribution decreases. The change in the
lift distribution across the wing produces a rolling moment that opposes the rolling motion
and is proportional to the roll rate, p. A negative rolling velocity induces a positive rolling
moment.
An estimate of the rolling damping derivative,
The incremental roll moment can be estimated by multiplying the incremental lift by the
moment arm y,
In coefficient form,
To simplify this integral, the sectional lift curve slope is approximated by the wing lift
curve slope as follows,
90
Therefore using the definition above, the roll damping coefficient can be expressed as,
91
92
yawing rate causes a change in the side force acting on the vertical tail surface. As in the
case of the other angular rate coefficients angular motion creates a local change in the angle
of attack or in this case a change in side slip angle of the vertical tail.
Where the change in side slip or change in angle of attack of the vertical tail (for a positive
yawing rate) can be expressed as,
v=Qv/Q
The stability coefficient
The term
is approximately
, therefore,
93
Substituting into the yawing moment equation and nondimensionalizing results in,
Where,
94
95
96
Example
Estimate the longitudinal stability derivative for the low speed STOL (Short takeoff and
landing) transport. Ignore Mach effect.
97
98
Given:
Find:
Solution
We are considering a low-speed flight condition so the terms related to M can be ignored.
Therefore the following can be ignored,
Then,
99
(ignoring Mach)
In order to use these coefficients in the equations of motion you must convert them to
dimensional form first. The dimensional derivatives are Xu, X, . The parameters for
dimensionalizing are,
100
101
Example
In a wind tunnel, a wing of mass m is suspended from a spring with constant k, movement
in the vertical direction only (no rotation). At rest, the wing is at zero angle of attack.
Derive the expression for the vertical position of the wing as a function of time t, if the
wing is pulled from its initial position and released.
Solution
Using Newtons second law by summing the forces in the z-direction results,
or,
The change in lift can be represented by,
Note:
for rotational
therefore, sub in
102
or,
or,
103
Where the imaginary part of the eigenvalue is the damped natural frequency,
The real part is the damping response,
The general solution
104
Magnitude
of
Type of Root
Time Response
<-1
0>>-1
Damping Ratio
part
=0
0<<1
negative
motion
=1
>1
105
The governing equations of motion can be found by using Newtons second law.
The pitching moment M and pitch angle can be expressed in terms of an initial reference
value indicated by a subscript, 0, and the perturbation by the symbol.
For restricted motion that we are examining, the variables are the angle of attack, pitch
angle, the time rate of change of these variables, and the elevator angle. The pitching
moment is not a function of the pitch angle but of the other variables and can be expressed
in functional form as follows:
106
If we align the body and fixed frames so they coincide at t=0, the change in angle of attack
and pitch angles are identical; that is,
This is true only for the special cases where the center of gravity is constrained. Then
Where,
etc.
This equation can be compared with the standard equation of a second-order system:
107
Note that the frequency is related to the airplanes static stability and that the damping ratio
is a function of the aerodynamic damping and static stability.
Solving the characteristic equation then the following roots are obtained,
Where,
Where,
trim = Change in trim angle of attack =
108
The solution is a damped sinusoidal motion with the frequency a function of Cm and the
damping ratio a function of
. The figure shows the angle of attack time
history of various value of the damping ratio . Note that as the system damping is
increased the maximum overshoot of the response diminishes.
The influence of stability coefficient on the roots of the characteristic equation can be seen
below. The curves show the effect of variations in
and
on the roots. This
type of curve is referred to as a root locus plot. Notice that as the roots move into the right
half plane the vehicle will become unstable.
109
The roots of the characteristic equation tell us what type of response our airplane will have.
1. If the roots are real, the response will be either a
I. Positive roots, pure divergence
II. Negative roots, pure subsidence
2. If the roots are complex, the motion will be either a damped (-) or undamped (+)
sinusoidal oscillation.
I. Negative real part (<0) decaying oscillation
II. Positive real part (>0) growing oscillation
110
The period of oscillation is related to the imaginary part of the root as follows,
A measure of the rate of growth or decay of the oscillation can be obtained from the time
for halving or doubling the initial amplitude of the disturbance. The figure above shows
damped and undamped oscillations and how the time for halving or doubling the amplitude
can be calculated. The expression for the time for doubling or halving of the amplitude is,
and the number of cycles for doubling or halving the amplitude is,
111
Example
Find the damping ratio , the undamped natural frequency n, and the damped natural
frequency of the following differential equation.
Sol.
Standard second order differential equation is
System undamped natural frequency,
n2=36.1 /s2
n = 6 rad/s
and 2 n=1.38
=0.115
damped natural frequency =
=5.96 rad/s
Aircraft motion consists of small deviations from its equilibrium flight condition
Motion of aircraft can be analyzed by separating the equations into two groups(X,Z
force and pitching moment equations, Y force, rolling and yawing moment
equations)
112
The Phugoid motion is lightly damped motions with the periods are long. The potential
and kinetic energy are continually being exchanged depending on where the aircraft is in
the oscillation. In this scenario, the aircraft has constant angle of attack (), these periods
are usually in the order of 30 seconds or more. Using the root locus plot it can be shown
that the eigenvalues of this type of system is closer to the imaginary axis. The motion
results in significant changes in amplitude () and speed (u) but the pitch rate and angle of
attack do not change much.
Short period motion is heavily damped and the motion occurs at nearly constant speed with
varying angle of attack. The flight path is damped rapidly. Using the root locus, the
eigenvalues are far from the imaginary axis.
113
x State vector
Control vector
The linearized longitudinal set of equations developed earlier are repeated here,
Where the state vector x and control vector are given by,
114
where
115
r Eigenvalues
Example
Given the differential equations that follows,
Where x1 and x2 are the state variables and is the forcing input to the system:
a) Rewrite these equations in state space form; that is,
b) Find the free response eigenvalues.
c) What do these eigenvalues tell us about the response of this system?
Solution
a)
Isolate the highest order derivatives yields in matrix form,
116
b)
The eigenvalues of the system can be determined by solving the equation,
Substituting the identity matrix and the A matrix results in,
c)
The complex eigenvalue shows two characteristics of the motion. The real part governs the
stability, positive being unstable. The complex part indicates that the motion will be
oscillatory. The time to double can be expressed as,
a)
Letting q= the equation of motion can be written in the form,
117
b)
Assuming the motion will follow a natural motion via,
The characteristic equation can be determined to be,
Note: you can also find the characteristic equation using the state space
representation shown below,
Therefore the roots or the eigenvalues can be found using the quadratic formula, which
results in,
c)
The natural frequency can be found from the differential equation from the third term,
The damped natural frequency is determined from the imaginary part of the eigenvalue as
shown below,
Damping ratio can be found from either the differential or the real part of the eigenvalue,
d)
Since the real part is negative and has a imaginary part the system is stable with an
oscillation,
Half or double time can be determined via,
118
Rouths Criteria
The dynamic stability of an aircraft is governed by the real parts of the eigenvalues. Its
characteristic equation is of quartic form.
Rouths criterion is a simple method of determining the stability of the system without
solving for eigenvalues.
The general characteristic equation,
Note: if bo term is zero, divide by to obtain the equation in the above term
The bs are real coefficients and all powers of from n to 0 must be present in the
characteristic equation.
A necessary but not sufficient condition for stable roots
all coefficients be positive.
If any coefficients other than bo are zero, or if the coefficient do not all have the same sign.
- there are pure imaginary root with + real root unstable.
When all the coefficients are present and +ve
- the system may or may not be stable.
The coefficients of the characteristic equation are arranged in the pattern used to
evaluate the constants.
119
Routh Table
Where,
For stability
Rouths
A,B,D,E>0
Discriminate R=D(BC-AD)-B2E>0
120
Longitudinal Approximations
Long-Period Mode (Phugoid Mode)
Long period or phugoid motion is a continually exchange of potential and kinetic energy.
Here we see that the long-period mode is characterized by changes in pitch attitude, altitude,
and velocity at a nearly constant angle of attack. An approximation to the long-period
mode can be obtained by neglecting the pitching moment equation and assuming that
the change in angle of attack is 0, that is,
121
Damping ratio,
We can further simplify the natural frequency and damping ratio by neglecting
compressibility (i.e. subsonic, low speed),
Where,
Therefore,
122
Then the change in z-force with respect to speed can be written as,
A couple of notes on the above approximated equations, the frequency of oscillation and
damping ratio are inversely proportional to forward speed and the lift-to-drag ratio.
Therefore, phugoid damping degrades as the aerodynamic efficiency (L/D) increases. To
improve the damping of the phugoid motion, the designer would have to reduce the lift-todrag ratio of the airplane. Because this would degrade the performance of the aircraft, the
designer would look for alternatives, such as an automatic stabilization sys to provide the
proper damping characteristics.
123
Short-Period Approximation
An approximation to the short-period mode of motion can be obtained by assuming u=0
and dropping the X-force equation. The longitudinal state-space equation reduces to the
following,
This equation can be written in terms of angle of attack by using the relationship,
Furthermore, one can replace the derivatives due to w and with derivatives due to
by using the following equations. The definition of the derivative M is,
Using these expressions, the state equations for the short-period approximation can be
rewritten as,
The eigenvalues of the state equation can again be determined by solving the equation,
124
Yielding,
The approximation short period roots can be obtained easily from the characteristic
equation and then can be expressed in terms of damping and frequency,
125
126
127
128
129
130
Root Locus
Moving CG rearward
131
132
or,
follows.
133
Where,
Recall that Cl p is negative; therefore the time constant will be positive. The rate time
history for this example will be similar to that shown below. The steady-state roll rate can
be obtained from the above equation, by assuming that time t is large enough that e-t / is
pss =
pss =
L a
Lp
Cl QSb /Ix
a
Cl
pssb
= a a
2u0
Cl p
134
The term (pssb/2uo) for full aileron deflection can be used for sizing the aileron. The
minimum requirement for this ratio is a function of the class of airplane under consideration.
Cargo or transport airplanes: pb/2uo=0.07
Fighter planes:
pb/2uo=0.09
Example
Calculate the roll response of the F104A to a 5o step change in aileron deflection. Assume
the airplane is flying at sea level with a velocity of 87m/s. The F104A has the following
aerodynamic and geometric characteristics:
Solution
135
Example
Find the aerodynamics stability coefficients Cla and Clp using the following graph.
Assume an aileron deflection of 5o, S=18 m2, b=6.7 m and a forward velocity of uo=87 m/s.
136
We constrain our model to just yawing motion. Therefore the equations of motion can be
expressed as,
The yawing moment N and the yawing angle can be expressed as,
N = N0 +N, = 0 +
Therefore the yawing moment reduces to,
Where,
Because the center of gravity is constrained, the yawing angle and the sideslip angle
are related by the expression,
137
Substituting these relationships into the yawing moment equation results in,
Where,
Therefore, the damping ratio and natural frequency can be written as,
For a step change in the rudder control will result in a damped sinusoidal motion, provided
the airplane has sufficient aerodynamic damping.
Note: The natural frequency is a function of the aircrafts static stability (directional
stability) and the damping ratio is a function of the aerodynamic damping derivative Nr.
138
The eigenvalues will result in two real roots and one pair of complex roots
In general, the roots to the lateral-directional characteristic equation consists of
- 2 real roots
- Pair of complex roots
Two real roots
- A slowly convergent or divergent motion: spiral mode
- A highly convergent motion: rolling motion
One pair of complex roots
- A lightly damped oscillatory motion having a low frequency: Dutch roll
mode(combination of yawing and rolling motion)
139
Roll Motion
Rolling motion is highly damped and will reach a steady-state in a very short time
Tendency of roll rate become constant roll damping(roll moment become zero)
Dutch roll motion
Strong lateral stability due to dihedral and weal directional stability(Worse at high altitude
due to thin air)
140
Spiral Approximations
For spiral divergence, the divergence aircraft angle increases slowly which causes the
sideslip angle to increase the aircraft flies in a tighter and tighter spiral.
In the figure above we can see that the tendency for the roll rate becomes constant, hence
roll damping (roll moment becomes zero)
As indicated in the figure above the spiral mode is characterized by changes in the bank
angle and the heading angle . The sideslip angle usually is quite small but cannot be
neglected because the aerodynamic moments do not depend on the roll angle or the
heading angle but on sideslip angle , roll rate p, and yawing rate r.
The aerodynamic contributions due to and r usually are on the same order of magnitude.
Therefore, to obtain approximation of the spiral mode we shall neglect the side force
equation and . Therefore the equations of motion can be approximated by,
The stability derivatives L (dihedral effect) and Nr (yaw rate damping) usually are negative
quantities. On the other hand, N (directional stability) and Lr (rolling moment due to yaw
rate) generally are positive quantities. If the derivatives have usual sign, then the condition
for stable spiral model is,
141
Increasing the magnitude of dihedral effect L or the yawing damping(Nr) or both can make
the spiral mode stable.
Rolling Approximations- only consider the p term
This motion can be approximated by the single degree of freedom rolling motion, which
was analyzed earlier in the chapter,
Lp rolling damping
142
143
The approximations developed in this section give, at best, only a rough estimate of the
spiral and Dutch roll modes. The approximate formulas should therefore, be used with
caution. The reason for the poor agreement between the approximation and exact solution
is that the Dutch roll motion is truly a three degree of freedom motion with strong coupling
between equations.
Example
Find the lateral eigenvalues of the general aviation airplane used in longitudinal motion
question. Also, compare the exact solutions with approximation solution.
144
145
146
147
Example
Suppose an airplane is constrained to pure yawing motion. Using data for a general
aviation airplane provided below find the following:
a) The yawing moment equation rewritten in state-space form
b) The characteristic equation and eigenvalues for the system
c) The damping ratio , and undamped natural frequency, n.
d) The response of the airplanes to a 5o rudder input. Assume initial conditions are
(0)=0, r(0)=0
Given data:
Example
Consider a model in a wind tunnel shown below. It is constrained to a pure yawing motion.
The model is displaced from its trim position by 10o and then released. Neglect the
fuselage and contribution, S=D2/4, =1,
a) Find the time for the motion to damp to half its initial amplitude
b) What is the period of the motion (P)
148
Frequency response
The magnitude and phase angle for the control transfer function is obtained by s by i
149
Where quantities are the perturbations in the inertial variables. The rotational gust
arises from the variation of
with position and time. The rotary
gusts
150
The linear variation of velocity across the span is the same as that produced on a rolling
wing.
The velocity normal to the wing at some point along the span
or
Using this analogy, the rotary gust velocity in terms of the gradient in the vertical gust field
In a similar way, the variation of the vertical gust velocity along the x-axis of the aircraft
151
or
Lateral equation
The longitudinal and lateral gust transfer functions can be determined by taking the Laplace
transform of above equations and then dividing by the gust function.
152
To provide some insight into the influence of atmospheric disturbances on aircraft response,
Lets examine the vertical motion of an aircraft that encounters a vertical gust fields.
Pure vertical or plunge motion
Consider an aircraft constrained so that movement is possible only in the vertical direction.
Lets examine the response of this constrained aircraft subjected to an external disturbance
such as a wind gust. The equation of motion
153
Then
Then
The aerodynamic force acting on the aircraft is a function of the
or
where
To simplify our analysis, we assume that the lag in lift term,
comparison to the
term
The change in
After substitution
becomes
or
154
is negligible in
where
The solution to above equation for a sharp edged or sinusoidal gust will now be examined.
Following figure shows an airplane encountering a sharp-edged or step gust and a
sinusoidal gust profile. Below figure shows the construction of an arbitrary gust profile as a
series of step changes.
155
Also, in the case of an arbitrary-periodic gust function the profile can be decomposed of an
airplane to an encounter with a sharp-edged gust can be modeled by expressing the gust
profile as a step function:
Where u(t) is a unit step change and Ag is the magnitude of the gust. The solution to above
equation for a step input can be obtained by taking the Laplace transformation of the
differential equation
which is the transfer function if the change in vertical velocity to the vertical gust input.
When the forcing function or input is a step change in the gust velocity,
The vertical velocity of the airplane grows exponentially from 0 to final value of Ag. The
initial slope of the curve at t = 0 is given by the derivative
156
or
157
158
Stability augmentation provides proper stability and ensures appropriate handling qualities
-
Roll damper
Pitch damper
Yaw damper
Control augmentation to control the mode and to provide the pilot with a particular type of
response to the control inputs
-
Roll rate
Pitch rate
Normal acceleration
159