Professional Documents
Culture Documents
John Andrew, PE
Definitions
1. Components are designed to withstand: direct forces, moments and torsion.
2. These loads may be applied gradually, suddenly, or repeatedly.
3. A static stress analysis leads to a dynamic stress evaluation.
4. Stress is Force per unit Area, = F / A (psi or Pa)
5. Strain is extension divided by original Length, e = x / L (number)
6. Strength is the Stress of a tested material at failure, S = Fmax / A (psi or Pa)
[ Note: ( * ) = Multiply ]
S=
=
=
F=
A=
e=
x=
L=
by
4.448
6.895
0.006895
25.400
0.0254
745.7
6600
9.549
57.2958
Cantilever Beam
The cantilever end load (F) and torque (T) are balanced by
bending and shear stresses within the beam.
The stress element (A) at the top surface of the beam above, is subjected
to a bending stress Sigma, (x) and torsional shear stress Tau, (xy).
Note: In this case, y = 0.
The maximum stress due to these two stresses are the principal stresses,
1 acting on the planes inclined at angle degrees and + 90 degrees.
1. Applied tensile stress, Sigma, = F / A = Force / Area (psi or Pa)
2. Applied bending stress, Sigma, = M * c / I = Load / Area (psi or Pa)
3. Tensile stress strength, S = Tested breaking load / Area (psi or Pa)
4. Strain, e = Extension / Original length = x / L (number)
5. Modulus of elasticity, E = Stress / Strain = / (psi or Pa)
Example:
The tensile stress at point (A) in the beam above is 5,000 psi due to
bending and the shear stress is 2,000 psi due to the transverse load (F).
Calculate the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress.
y =
x =
=
50000
psi
20000
psi
2000
psi
Calculations
Principal stress (1), 1 = (x + y)/ 2 + {[(x - y)/ 2]^2 + ^2}^0.5
1 =
50133
psi
Principal stress (2), 2 = (x + y)/ 2 - {[(x - y)/ 2]^2 + ^2}^0.5
2 =
19867
psi
Max shear stress, Tau:
max =
max =
Shear area shape factor, (K)
(1 - 2)/ 2
15133
Area
Solid Circle
Hollow cylinder
K
1.333
2.000
Rectangle
1.500
10. Direct shear stress, Tau, = Shear Load / Area = V / A (psi or Pa)
Strength and Fatigue Failure Theories
Ductile materials stretch 5% or more before breaking at their shear strengths.
Brittle materials stretch less than 5% and break at their tensile strengths.
1. Maximum allowable static direct stress.
Material static strength is determined by increasing the tension load until it fractures.
The compressive strength is equal to the tensile strength in ductile materials.
2. Distortion energy
Distortion energy or von Mises-Henky theory is the most accurate failure theory.
The von Mises' effective stress is the uni-axial tensile stress that would create the
same distortion energy as is created by the actual combination of applied forces.
The distortion energy stress () is the direct stress equivalent to any combination
of tensions and shears.
von Mises' effective stress, = [ ( 1^2 + 2^2 1*2 ]^0.5
von Mises' effective stress, = [ ( x^2 + y^2 x*y + 3*xy^2 ]^0.5
Material yield safety factor, N = Syt /
Syt = Material tension yield stress
In the case of pure torsion, x = 0 and y = 0.
= ( 3*xy^2 )^0.5
Material shear safety factor, N = Syt /
N = Syt /( 3*xy^2 )^0.5
N = Syt /( 1.732*xy)
Material shear yield stress, Sys = .577 * Syt
Input Data
4000
psi
2000
psi
Calculations
von Mises' effective stress, = [ ( 1^2 + 2^2 1*2 ]^0.5
=
3464
psi
1 =
1 =
Input Data
30000
psi
5000
psi
2000
psi
36000
psi
Calculations
[ ( x^2 + y^2 x*y + 3*xy^2 ]^0.5
28054
psi
Syt /
1.28
Syt /
10.4
.577 * Syt
20772
psi
Input Data
36000
Calculation
0.50 * Sy
18000
psi
psi
The stress element shown here illustrates torsion which causes pure shear.
The Moore circle diagram for torsion shows:
x =
y =
Principal stress, 1 =
Principal stress, 2 =
Max shear stress, max =
max =
Input Data
0
0
30000
20000
Calculations
(1 + 2) / 2
25000
psi
psi
psi
Material
Brass
Bronze
Cast Iron
Duralumin
Monel Metal
Mild Steel
Nickel-Chrome Steel
1 / 2
15000
x / 2
15000
psi
psi
E (psi)
10^7
1.50
1.70
1.40
1.05
2.60
2.90
2.90
G (psi)
10^6
0.55
0.65
0.60
0.38
1.00
1.15
1.18
[Note: * = Multiply]
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de Havilland Comet
The British, de Havilland D.H.106 Comet airliner built in 1949, used four de Havilland Ghost 50 turbojet
engines mounted in the wings.
After 500 hours of flight testing, commercial operations began in early 1952. A Comet mysteriously
crashed shortly after takeoff on 2 May 1953. Two similar crashes followed in early 1954.
After several thousand of cycles of repeatedly pressurizing and depressurizing the fuselage in water,
fatigue cracks developed at the square corners in the cabin windows. These cracks grew over time until
the cabin exploded.
The corners of all jet airliners are now rounded to reduce stress concentration.
Most fatigue testing has been done with metal that is round, small in diameter, and highly
polished. They have been tested through many cycles until fatigue failure occurs. This is
done at several stress levels and the results are plotted in a Stress vs. Number of Cycles
(S-N) diagram. Correction factors must be applied to parts that differ in size,
section shape, surface finish, temperature, and static strength.
psi
psi
if Sut < 200,000 psi
if Sut < 60,000 psi
if Sut < 48,000 psi
if Sut < 40,000 psi
P3
in
Calculation
For 0.30 < d < 10 in., Csize = 0.869 * d^ -0.097
Csize = 0.835
P4
Input Data
in^2
Calculations
Equiv area, A95 = 0.05*b*h
A95 = 0.100
in^2
P5
Input Data
Equiv area, A95 = 0.100
Equivalent diameter, Dequiv =
Dequiv =
Csize =
Csize =
Calculations
(A95 / 0.0766)^0.5
1.143
1.189*Dequiv^-0.097
1.174
Ground
Machined
Cold Rolled
Hot Rolled
As Forged
Input Data
in
in
A
1.340
2.700
2.700
14.400
39.900
b
-0.085
-0.265
-0.265
-0.718
-0.995
(kpsi)
Calculations
Csurf = A(Sut)^ b
Csurf = 0.923
Temperature Factor
For T <= 450 deg C, Ctemp = 1.000
Input
Temperature, deg C, T = 480
Calculation
For, 450 <T<550 deg C, Ctemp = 1-0.0058*(T-450)
Ctemp = 0.826
Input
Temperature, deg C, T = 700
Calculation
For, 550 <T<840 deg C, Ctemp = 1-0.0032*(T-840)
Ctemp = 1.448
Reliability Factor
Reliability
%
50.000
Creliab
1.000
90.000
99.000
99.900
99.990
99.999
0.897
0.814
0.753
0.702
0.659
P6
N2
1.0E+06
5.0E+06
1.0E+07
5.0E+07
1.0E+08
5.0E+08
1.0E+09
5.0E+09
Z
-3.000
-3.699
4.000
4.699
5.000
5.699
6.000
6.699
P7
1. The uncorrected endurance strength (Se' ) is calculated:
Input Data
Ultimate static strength, Sut = 94
Material endurance factor from above, Ke = 0.5
kpsi
Calculation
Uncorrected endurance strength,Se' = Ke * Sut
Se' = 47.0
2. Load factor from above (Cload)
Data from above, Cload = 1.00
Input Data
Input Data
Input Data
kpsi
A = 1.340
b = -0.085
Calculation
Csurf = A * Sut^b
Csurf = 0.911
5. Temperature factor (Ctemp)
See temperature factor calculation above, T = 700
Ctemp = 1.448
Input Data
Input Data
deg C
Reliability = 99.990
Creliab = 0.702
Se =
Cload*Csize*Csurf*Ctemp*Creliab*Se'
Se = 51.08
kpsi
kpsi
kpsi
9. The Stress vs Cycles, S-N graph is made from the results above.
10. The number of cycles at psi will now be calculated.
The fully reversed bending stress of psi intersects
the Sm to Se line at the endurance number of cycles (N)
at the fatigue failure point on the above graph.
P8
Input
kpsi
Calculations
The equation for the endurance stress line between P and Q is S(N) on a log-log scale:
S(N) = a * N^ b
b = -(1/3) * Log(Sm / Se)
b = -0.07304
Log(a) =
Log(a) =
a=
a=
Log(Sm) - 3 * b
2.146
10^ Log(a)
140.1
cycles
cycles
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P9
600.000
Input Data
150
4000
90
1.000
lbs
in-lbs
lb-in
in
Calculations
*D^2 / 4
0.7855
*D^4 / 32
0.0982
*D^4 / 64
0.0491
F/A
191
M*D / (2*I)
20369
T*D / (2*J)
917
in^2
in^2
in^4
in^4
in^4
psi
psi
40738.3832
psi
458.306811
psi
Calculations
From above, x = d + m =
From above, y =
From above, xy =
von Mises' effective stress, =
=
Material yield safety factor, N =
N=
Geometric stress concentration
factor (Kt) in static bending.
20560
psi
0
psi
917
psi
[ ( x^2 + y^2 x*y + 3*xy^2 ]^0.5
20621
psi
Syt /
1.75
D/d
6.00
3.00
2.00
1.50
1.20
1.10
1.07
1.05
1.03
1.02
1.01
A
0.87868
0.89334
0.90879
0.93836
0.97098
0.95120
0.97527
0.98137
0.98061
0.96048
0.91938
b
-0.33243
-0.30860
-0.28598
-0.25759
-0.21796
-0.23757
-0.20958
-0.19653
-0.18381
-0.17711
-0.17032
P1
Static stress concentration factor for the round shaft above:
Input Data
Larger diameter, D =
3.375
Smaller diameter, d =
2.250
Notch radius, r =
0.125
Calculation
D/d =
1.50
Input Data From Table
Enter value from table above, A =
0.93836
Enter value from table above, b =
-0.25759
Calculation
Kt =
A *(r / d)^b
Answer: Kt =
1.98
Kt is the stress concentration factor (Kt) in static bending.
Input Data
Calculated nominal direct stress, = 24000
Static notch concentration factor, Kt = 1.98
Calculation
Calculated max direct stress, = Kt*
= 47520
in
in
in
psi
-
psi
Kt Table
Geometric stress concentration
factor (Kt) in static bending.
r/d
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
D/d=6
Kt
1.41
1.48
1.58
1.73
2.50
2.68
D/d=1.2
Kt
1.35
1.40
1.46
1.52
1.50
2.07
P2
Kt is the stress concentration factor (Kt) in static bending.
Input Data
Notch radius, r = 0.125
Plate small depth, d = 1.250
Plate large depth, D = 1.500
Calculation
r/d = 0.10
D/d = 1.2
Input Data
Calculated nominal direct stress, = 30720
Static concentration factor from table, Kt = 1.50
Calculation
Calculated max static direct stress, = Kt*
= 46080
psi
psi
80
0.080
0.125
1.500
Calculations
Fatigue notch sensitivity factor, q = 1 / (1 + a^0.5/ r^0.5)
q = 0.815
Fatigue concentration factor, (Kf) = 1 + q * (Kt - 1)
Answer: (Kf) = 1.408
Sut (kpsi)
50
55
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
160
180
200
220
240
lbs
in^2
(a)^0.5
0.130
0.118
0.108
0.093
0.080
0.070
0.062
0.055
0.049
0.044
0.039
0.031
0.024
0.018
0.013
0.009
in-lbs
in^4
in
Calculations
nominal stress, nom = P/A + M*c/ I
nominal stress, nom = 3416
Design fatigue endurance stress, e = Kf * nom
From calculation above, Kf = 1.408
e = 4808
Rectangular Sections:
P3
psi
psi
Input Data
Base, inches, B = 0.500
Height, inches, H = 1.250
Calculations
Section Area, A =
A=
Section vertical second area of moment, I =
I=
B*H
0.625
B*H^3 / 12
0.081
Circular Sections:
in^2
in^4
Input Data
Diameter, inches, D = 1.500
Section Area, A =
A=
Section vertical second area of moment, I =
I=
Section polar second area of moment, J =
J=
Calculations
*D^2 / 4
1.767
*D^4 / 64
0.2485
*D^4 / 32
0.4970
in
in^2
in^4
in^4
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P4
200
0.500
1.250
1.500
0.125
20.000
20.000
80000
lbf
in
in
in
in
in
in
psi
E = 30000000
Reliability = 99.90
psi
%
P1
Calculations
Max moment is at fixed end, M =
M=
I=
I=
c=
c=
Sigma nom =
nom =
F*a
4000
b*d^3/ 12
0.0814
d/2
0.63
M*c / i
30720
in-lbf
in^4
in
psi
Calculations
Input Data
psi
-
psi
psi
in^2
in
from above:
d=
b=
1.25
0.50
Input Data
P2
Input Data
Okay
20.00
from above
20.00
from above
(F / (6*E*I))*(x^3 - 3*a*x^2 - (x - a)^3))
-0.218
in
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P3
QUIZ
200
0.500
1.250
1.500
0.125
20.000
21.000
80000
a. I = 0.081 in^4
b. I = 0.091 in^4
c. I = 0.101 in^4 ]
a. I = 0.081 in^4
b. I = 0.091 in^4
c. I = 0.101 in^4 ]
30000000
99.99
QUIZ
0.753
0.702
Input Data
1100
100
(Fmax + Fmin)/ 2
600
Assumptions:
Bracket breadth, b =
depth, d =
Beam root depth, D =
Fillet radius, r =
Force distance from wall, a =
Beam span, L =
Material ult stress, SAE 1040, Sut =
lbf
lbf
lbf
lbf
Input Data
2.00
1.00
1.13
0.50
5.00
6.00
80000
in
in
in
in
in
in
psi
b*d^3/ 12
0.1667
d/2
0.50
psi
%
in-lbf
in-lbf
in-lbf
in^4
in
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
Kf = 1 + q*(Kt - 1)
Kf = 1.16
Applied stresses due to moment and notch stress concentration:
Factored mean stress, av = Kf * nom-av
av = 10452
Factored alternating stress, alt = Kf * nom-alt
alt = 8710
psi
psi
psi
The max applied mean (av) and alternating (alt) stresses in the beam have been calculated above.
Now the allowable fatigue endurance stress for the beam material will be estimated.
Uncorrected fatigue endurance limit stress.
For steel, Se' =
Se' =
0.5*Sut
40000
from above:
d=
b=
dequiv =
1.143
Csize = .869*(dequiv)^-.097
Csize =
0.858
12. Remaining correction factors.
Cload =
A=
b=
Ctemp =
Input Data
1.00
2.70
-0.265
Calculations
A*(Sut)^b
0.845
Input Data
1.00
Creliab =
0.753
Csurf =
Csurf =
in^2
in
Note:
Sut =
80000
psi
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P1
P2
ulated above.
200,000 psi
1.00
2.00
kpsi
P3
P4
P=
N=
D=
A=
Motor torque, T =
Torque, ft- lbs, Tfp =
Torque, in- lbs, T =
Gear pitch circle radius, R =
Gear pitch circle radius, R =
Tangential force, Ft =
Ft =
Input Data
30
1750
10.000
20
Calculations
33000*P / (2**N)
90
1080
D/2
5.000
Tip / R
216
hp
rpm
in
deg
ft-lbs
in-lbs
in
in-lbs
lbs
in-lbs
lbs
FATIGUE LOADS
The above tangential, Ft and radial, Fr forces
cause fully reversed bending in the shaft
as it rotates.
Input Data
Length from left bearing to gear, A = 3.00
Length from right bearing to gear, B = 5.00
Calculations
in
in
lbs
in-lbs
lbs
in-lbs
in-lbs
Load Case
A
B
Cm
1.0
1.5 to 2.0
C
D
1.5
1.5 to 2.0
2.0 to 3.0
Rotating shaft:
Load gradually applied
Load sudenly applied (minor shock)
Load sudenly applied (heavy shock)
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
5800
psi
C
2.0
2.0
2.00
1.238
in
0.000
in
Calculations
Motor torque (from above), T = 1080
in-lb
Shaft maximum moment (from above) Mmax = M = 1185
in-lb
Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft, k = 0.0000
k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner diameter is zero
Allowable shaft shear stress, Sa = (16 / ((*D^3)*(1-k^4))) * (((Cm*M + ((a*F*D(1 +k^2)/8))^2 +
Subtract Sa, 0 = (16 / ((*D^3)*(1-k^4))) * (((Cm*M + ((a*F*D(1 +k^2)/8))^2 +
Use Goal Seek D value to make equation = 0 = 0
psi
Goal Seek Shaft diameter from above, Dg = 1.238
in
Next larger standard shaft diameter, D = 1.250
in
Gear Train
Input Data
Driver Gear Teeth, N1 = 12
Driven Gear Teeth, N2 = 24
Driver Gear Teeth, N3 = 10
Driven Gear Teeth, N4 = 20
Calculation
Gear train velocity ratio, VR = (N1/N2)*(N3/N4)
VR = 0.250
Input Data
Driver Gear 1 Torque, T1 = 100
Calculation
Driven Gear 4 Torque, T4 = T1/VR
T4 = 400
in-lbs
in-lbs
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Ct
1.0
1.5 to 2.0
1.0
1.5 to 2.0
1.5 to 3.0
55
40
Mpa
Mpa
248
427
Mpa
Mpa
40.0
Mpa
P5
Input Data
Length from left bearing to gear, A = 3.00
Length from right bearing to gear, B = 5.00
Calculations
in
in
Stationary shaft:
Rotating shaft:
Load gradually applied
Load sudenly applied (minor shock)
Load sudenly applied (heavy shock)
C
D
1.5
1.0
1.5 to 2.0 1.5 to 2.0
2.0 to 3.0 1.5 to 3.0
psi
psi
psi
psi
248
427
Mpa
Mpa
5800
psi
40.0
Mpa
C
2.0
2.0
2.00
0.010
in
0.000
in
Calculations
Motor torque (from above), T = 0
in-lb
Shaft maximum moment (from above) Mmax = M = 0
in-lb
Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft, k = 0.0000
k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner diameter is zero
Allowable shaft shear stress, Sa = (16 / ((*D^3)*(1-k^4))) * (((Cm*M + ((a*F*D(1 +k^2)/8))^2 + (Ct
Subtract Sa, 0 = (16 / ((*D^3)*(1-k^4))) * (((Cm*M + ((a*F*D(1 +k^2)/8))^2 + (Ct
Use Goal Seek D value to make equation = 0 = 0
psi
Goal Seek Shaft diameter from above, Dg = 0.010
in
Next larger standard shaft diameter, D = 1.250
in