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1.

- Reservoir Engineering Goals


Reservoir engineering seeks to economically optimize the development and production of hydrocarbon
reservoirs. This requires answers to three questions:

How much hydrocarbon does the reservoir contain?


How much of it can be recovered?
How fast can it be recovered?

The answers to these questions give, respectively, the hydrocarbon in place, the reserves, and the rate of
production. The determination of these three quantities is the heart of reservoir engineering.

Calculation of Oil and Gas in Place


Hydrocarbon in place is a fixed quantity that has developed through geological time. It may be estimated using
volumetric or material balance methods. The volumetric calculation of hydrocarbon in place requires knowing
the areal extent of the reservoir, its average net thickness and porosity, the hydrocarbon saturation, and the
hydrocarbon formation volume factor (i.e., the volume that one unit volume of hydrocarbon at surface pressure
and temperature occupies at reservoir conditions). It is a static method that does not depend on the dynamic
behavior of the reservoir, that is, the pressure response to production. The equations for calculating the initial
hydrocarbon in place (for two-phase oil/water and gas/water reservoirs, respectively) are

\The average quantities of h,


data

, and S are normally determined from isopach maps constructed from geological, petrophysical, and log

Estimation of Reserves
Reserves, unlike Initial Hydrocarbons in Place, are not invariant. Rather, they are affected by the production
method planned for the reservoir. The most significant factor in determining the production method and hence
the reserves is economics. The current oil price structure, the time value of investment capital, and the tax
environment will determine how much oil can be economically recovered. Other factors that influence reserves
are well location and spacing, production rates, and the drive mechanism of the reservoir.
Oil production can be said to take place in two phases: the primary recovery, and improved recovery. During the
primary recovery phase, hydrocarbons are produced using only the natural energy contained in the reservoir.
This primary recovery phase may be supplemented or followed by an improved recovery phase, in which energy
is added to the reservoir by injecting water, gas or a combination of the two; or the addition of energy may
involve more complex enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods, such as miscible gas injection, chemical injection
or thermal processes.
In the reservoir's primary recovery phase, several sources of internal energy may contribute to fluid production.
The five basic natural drive mechanisms drive mechanisms are

expansion drive
solution gas drive
gas cap drive
natural water drive
gravity drainage

In most cases, a combination of mechanisms is acting; we refer to this as a combination drive.

Prediction of Performance Potential


Production rate, like reserves, is a function of the reservoir development strategy. Primarily, it depends on the
number and location of wells, the flow potential of each well, the capacity of the surface facilities, and market
demand. The number of wells and their locations influence the production rate and the uniformity of the drainage
pattern in the reservoir, and thus ultimate recovery. The productive potential of a well is a function of the
permeability, thickness, pressure, and homogeneity of the reservoir rock. The greater the permeability, thickness,
and degree of homogeneity, the higher the well potential. The flow rate is also a strong function of the drilling
and completion practices. Mud invasion or restricted flow at the wellbore that is caused by an inadequate
number of perforations or plugging will reduce the wells overall potential.

Improved Recovery (Secondary and Enhanced Oil Recovery)


The improved recovery phase is primarily applicable to oil reservoirs. During this phase of production we are
concerned with some type of artificial fluid injection rather than natural drive mechanisms. Thus, we talk about
water injection or water flooding, miscible flooding, steam injection, surfactant injection, and the like. A common practice is
to initiate the supplemental production phase with simple water or gas injection, which is commonly referred to
as secondary recovery although it may be begun very early in the life of the reservoir. The water injection may then
be followed with some type of miscible, chemical or thermal processes, which is known as enhanced oil recovery
(EOR).
Recovery during the primary and secondary phases of a reservoirs life seldom exceeds 50% of the original oil in
place, so the potential recovery using EOR techniques is vast. Figure 1 presents a reservoir engineering functions
diagram that summarizes the recovery techniques we have discussed.

All of these functions are integrated in order to arrive at a plan for the development of the reservoir.

Selection of the Best Development Plan


As we mentioned, the objective of reservoir engineering is the economic optimization of hydrocarbon recovery,
which means we need methods for calculating production rate versus time for various recovery schemes and cost
scenarios. The important considerations will be the number of wells and their locations, the surface facility
capacities, the offshore platform locations (if needed), and the feasibility of employing EOR methods. Models
are available to the reservoir engineer to allow the calculation of recovery for a variety of situations. These
models fall into two categories: the tank-type (zero-dimensional) approach and the numerical model (or reservoir
simulation) approach).

2.- Reservoir Engineering Data Sources


Several types of data are used in reservoir engineering calculations. The most important are

data that pertain to the reservoir rock and its extent


data that pertain to the properties of reservoir fluids
production data

First we shall describe the four sources of data related to the reservoir rock and reservoir extent, which are

geologic and seismic interpretations


well log analyses
well test analyses
core analyses

Geologic and Seismic Interpretations


Reservoir geology helps the engineer to understand the external geometry of the reservoir as well as its internal
architecture. Examples of the types of information it provides are

the reservoir extent and its closure (the height of the crest above the lowest contour that completely
closes the reservoir)
flow barriers, such as faults or pinchouts
fluid contacts, (i.e., oil-water, oil-gas, and gas-water interfaces)
aquifer size
lithology variations
continuity of the reservoir in the areal as well as in the vertical direction

Calculations from Well Logs


Logging provides in-situ information about the rock and its content from the immediate vicinity of the wellbore.
There are over 30 types of logs, information from which may include:

location of the productive stratum and its boundaries


continuity of rock strata between adjacent wells
net pay thickness
oil, gas, and water saturations
porosity of the reservoir rock
other miscellaneous information, such as the condition of the hole, the temperature gradient in the
wellbore, and the condition of the cement in a cased hole

Calculations from Well Tests


Well tests measure the pressure response of the well to short-term flow periods and the subsequent pressure
buildup performance after shut-in. Various mathematical models can be used to determine the reservoir
characteristics responsible for a particular pressure-flow rate behavior. In particular, permeability, the presence
of nearby fault boundaries, or fluid contacts may be determined from an analysis of the well test data. Keep in
mind that reservoir rock characteristics as determined from well tests are averaged values over the area of the
reservoir that is contacted during the test.

Core Analyses
Cores provide petrophysical data essential to reservoir engineering. Basic core data, such as permeability,
porosity, and fluid saturations help the engineer decide whether or not to complete the well and where to
complete it. Special core analyses also help in evaluating reservoir performance, estimating hydrocarbons in place
and reserves, evaluating the feasibility of EOR projects, and providing input data for reservoir simulation
studies.
A second type of data used in reservoir engineering concerns the properties of the reservoir fluids and how they react
to changes in pressure and temperature. Expressing the original hydrocarbons in place in surface volumes
requires such data. Quantitative calculation of recoverable reserves requires estimates or laboratory
determinations of formation volume factor, gas-oil ratio, and oil and gas compressibility, all as a function of
pressure. Determining production rates of oil or gas requires knowledge of their respective viscosities at
reservoir conditions. Any assessment of the practicality of EOR methods requires an understanding of the effects
of the particular method employed on the behavior of the oil in the reservoir (i.e., oil viscosity reduction in a
steam flood).
Reservoir fluid data is generally determined from a laboratory analysis performed on a carefully obtained
representative sample of the original reservoir fluid. Where sampling is impossible, empirical correlations are
available to estimate oil, gas, and water properties.

Production Data
This is another important type of data used in reservoir engineering calculations. By production data, we generally
mean a careful accounting of the volumes of produced oil, gas, and water, as functions of time. Pressure as a
function of time is also extremely important. The decline curve analysis and the material balance equation of oil
or gas reservoirs require accurate production data in order to be of any value as predictive techniques.
The accuracy of production accounting can vary from field to field, particularly in large offshore developments
where isolated wells and "satellite platforms" preclude the individual measurement of well production volumes
on a regular basis. In such situations, individual well production is allocated from a total field production volume
based on monthly well tests. In areas with high water-production rates the accuracy of measured water cuts also
becomes a factor. Some estimate of the reliability of production data should be made by the engineer using such
data in his or her calculations.

3.- Reservoir Description and Modeling


Determination of hydrocarbon in place, reserves, and production potential requires an accurate physical
description of the reservoir. The basic elements of such a description are depicted in Figure 1.

Areal Extent
The area of the reservoir is needed for calculating the hydrocarbon in place, for selecting the proper locations of
wells, and as input data for reservoir simulation studies.

Physical Properties of the Productive Formation


Physical properties include formation thickness, porosity, water saturation, and permeability. These four
parameters are needed in practically all aspects of reservoir engineering calculations. Preparation of contour maps
for these properties constitutes the first and most important step in preparing a data base for reservoir
engineering calculations.
Structural Dip
Reservoirs with a high angle of dip are good candidates for gravity drainage production. For secondary recovery
projects in such reservoirs, one locates water-injection wells downdip and gas-injection wells updip for maxi
mum recovery. Thus the angle of dip is an important factor in formulating a recovery plan.

Continuity of Strata and Stratification


Continuity or lack of continuity of the productive zone determines the pattern of depletion. Identification of
separate zones or communicating zones, and the degree of communication, is necessary for establishing the
optimum number of wells during primary production and EOR operations.

Fault Patterns
The location of faults and their effects as barriers to flow define the boundaries of the reservoir and help
determine the locations of production and injection wells. Fault patterns strongly affect the design of the field
development plan. The number and orientation of faults strongly influence the number of wells (and, in the case
of offshore, the number of platforms) required for development.

Fluid Contacts
Determinations of oil-gas, oil-water, or gas-water contacts are needed for a complete description of the reservoir.
Without such information, the hydrocarbon in place cannot be determined to a reasonable degree of accuracy and
a proper recovery plan cannot be developed.

Aquifer Size
The size of the aquifer relative to the hydrocarbon reservoir is important in predicting recovery under primary
depletion. Furthermore, this measurement has a strong bearing on the planning of a secondary or tertiary
operation.

Reservoir Models
Reservoir engineering calculations require the formation of a mathematical model for the reservoir. This model
should be based on the physical model that emerges from data obtained from the geological, geophysical,
petrophysical, and log information. It is evident that in the majority of reservoirs the complexity is so great that it
is not practical to expect a faithful mathematical description. Furthermore, it is impossible to obtain a physical
description of the reservoir that is 100 percent accurate. One knows the physical properties of the reservoir to a
high degree of accuracy only at well locations. In between the wells, or in the part of the reservoir for which no
subsurface data are available, the physical description can only be deduced. The more drilling, the better the
definition of the reservoir.
However, 3-D seismics and cross-well seismic tomography can provide information about the portions of the
reservoir that lie between wells. 3-D seismics employs large amounts of closely spaced data and improved
migration techniques to provide volumetric reservoir interpretatios, while cross-well tomography applys highfrequency seismic waves, in which both source and recever are located in existing wellbores. These tools give
the geophysicist an active role to play in modeling the reservoir.
The mathematical representation of the reservoir can range from a very simple model, the tank-type (or zerodimensional) model, to a highly complex set of equations that require numerical techniques and computers for their
solution (the reservoir simulation approach). In the tank-type approach, the engineer assumes that the reservoir can
be described with average values for properties such as thickness, porosity, and fluid saturations. While this
approach may be satisfactory for simple problems, it may not be sufficient for other purposes. For instance, the
tank-type model or a variation of it is normally used in volumetric estimation of the initial oil or gas in place. In
some reservoirs it may also be satisfactory for material balance calculations. However, in other reservoirs such a
model might be totally unsatisfactory and the engineer would have to resort to reservoir simulation. Generally

speaking, as the heterogeneity of the reservoir in creases, so too does the required complexity of the
mathematical representation.

Reservoir Simulation
As the complexity of a reservoir increases, the need for a more complex mathematical representation arises. The
engineer must use a reservoir simulator to predict the performance of the reservoir under various development
schemes.
Modern reservoir simulation is based on the tank type model, which forms the basis of reservoir engineering.
However, ratherthan considering the reservoir as one tank unit, the simulationdivides the reservoir into many tank
units that interact with each other. The number of tank units, or cells, depends on many factors,including the
heterogeneity of the reservoir, the number of wells, andthe field development scheme. Heterogeneous reservoirs
require a largernumber of cells.
The basic reservoir engineering equations that have been used to describe the reservoir when represented by one
tank unit are used in reservoir simulation. In the single-cell representation, no oil or gas crosses the boundary of
the tank (i.e., reservoir). However, in a simulation with many cells, each cell interacts with its neighbors. Fluids
may enter a cell from adjacent cells or may leave a cell and go to the cells neighbors.This fluid movement is
governed by a well established flow equation, known as Darcys law. Keeping an inventory of the fluids in each
cell is a rigorous bookkeeping operation, well suited to computers. The advent of the modern computer has
increased the reservoir engineers simulation capabilities.
The rock and fluid data required for reservoir studies using the one-tank model representation are required for
each unit cell in a simulation study. The effort required to prepare such data and input it to the simulator is a
significant part of the cost, which can range from tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars, depending on the
size, complexity, and purpose of the model.

Reservoir Boundaries and Heterogeneities


Boundaries

A reservoir may have closed or open boundaries, or both. If the reservoir is completely bounded by
sealing faults or pinchouts, it is closed. Some reservoirs are completely surrounded by an aquifer, thus
their boundaries are open to water movement into the hydrocarbon zone. Still other reservoirs may be
bounded by faults or pinchouts along part of their boundary and by an aquifer along the remaining part.
Most reservoir engineering calculations require an accurate knowledge of the boundary conditions of the
reservoir. This knowledge may establish the possible existence and extent of an aquifer activity in the
reservoir.

Heterogeneities

All reservoirs are heterogeneous, varying only in their degree of heterogeneity. This means that the
physical properties of the rock change with a change in location. One of the very important
heterogeneities that needs to be considered in reservoir engineering calculations is stratification. Many
reservoirs contain layers (strata) of productive rock that can be communicating or non communicating.
These layers can vary considerably in permeability and in thickness. A good description of the layers and
their respective properties is critical in planning many EOR operations.

Fault System

Another common heterogeneity in reservoirs is the fault system. Faults can be completely or partially
sealing. Well locations for both production and injection are affected by the fault pattern and its effect on
fluid communication. Faults are normally defined from geological, geophysical, and production data.

Permeability

Permeability is another directional property. When permeability measurements vary depending on the
direction in which theyre measured, we say that the reservoir is anisotropic with respect to permeability.
Permeability anisotropy is important in determining well spacing and configuration, as well as in
considering the option of horizontal wells.

4.- Reservoir Pressure


Reservoir pressure is one of the most important parameters of reservoir engineering calculations. Whether the
calculations involve the tank type model or a more sophisticated reservoir simulator, accurate pressure values are
required. However, there is an important difference between the requirements of the two models. The unit tank
model relies on material balance equation calculations, and requires the average pressure for the whole reservoir
as a function of time or production. In reservoir simulation studies, however, it is strongly desirable to have
available buildup pressure values for individual wells as a function of time. These values represent the average
pressure for the drainage volumes of the wells, and are needed for the history-matching phase of the simulation
study, which is performed to validate the accuracy of the model built to represent the reservoir (Matthews et al.
1954). History matching is an essential step in "tuning" a reservoir model before conducting a predictive study.
Reservoir engineering calculations require a value for the pressure in the reservoir, away from the wellbore. To
obtain this value, the well must be shut in and the pressure increase with shut-in time must be recorded. We refer
to this as a pressure buildup test (Matthews and Russell 1967). From these data the average pressure value is
calculated.
Another way of obtaining average values is to record the pressure in a well in which Production has been
suspended. if such a well exists, and it is not very close to a producer or an injector, a pressure-measuring device
can be used to continuously record the pressure, without interrupting production or injection operations.
For the single-tank model, an average value for the whole reservoir is required. This is normally obtained by a
volumetric averaging of the pressure values from different wells. The equation for this purpose is

Thus, if there are three wells with pressures


Equation 3 becomes:

, and

, and drainage volumes

and

Matthews et al. (1954) and Matthews and Russell (1967) have shown that the well-drainage volume
proportional to its flow rate, Substituting for
In Equation 3 gives

then

is

Equation 4 is the more Practical equation because the flow rate is usually available, while it may be more
difficult to estimate the drainage volume.

A very useful plot is that of the average pressure values obtained on several wells versus the total oil production
of an oil reservoir, or total gas production of a gas reservoir. The pressures are plotted on the Y-axis. If there is
continuity in the reservoir the Pressures from the various wells should plot close to each other. If the pressures
for a well plot are consistently higher or lower than the other values, it may indicate that the well is not in good
communication with the reservoir or that it is in a separate reservoir. This may point out the need for more wells
to effectively drain the isolated portion of the reservoir. Furthermore, the data from the isolated well should not
be lumped in with the data from other wells in material balance engineering calculations.
Before comparing the pressure values measured in wells at various depths in a reservoir (very thick and/or
steeply dipping reservoirs), they should be referred to a datum depth (Figure 1).

Normally the depth of the volumetric midpoint of the reservoir is taken as the datum depth. This is determined by
constructing a plot of depth versus cumulative pore volume ( Figure 2).

The depth corresponding to 50% pore volume is the volumetric midpoint depth. If a particular pressure value is
obtained at a different depth than the datum, it is adjusted to the datum by

where:
the pressure at any elevation, psi
specific gravity of fluid
the vertical distance between the point at which the pressure was measured and the datum depth, ft

Equations 5 and 6 apply when the point at which the Pressure was determined is, respectively, above and below
the datum depth.
When an aquifer is associated with the reservoir, the Pressure behavior as a function of time at the hydrocarbonwater contact (or as close as possible to it) is needed for water influx calculations. If this is not available, one
usually uses the average reservoir Pressure and adjusts it to the hydrocarbon-water contact depth.
The average reservoir pressure is needed in many reservoir engineering calculations. In the case of miscible
EOR techniques, for example, the average reservoir pressure determines whether miscibility will occur when
or other gases are injected. This in turn affects overall recovery and the economic feasibility of the project.
Reservoir pressure is a topic of significance in reservoir engineering because it is one of the critical pieces of
data required by the reservoir engineer for an effective analysis of a reservoir. obtaining reliable pressure data
should be a primary goal of any reservoir management program.

Reservoir Temperature
The calculation of primary recovery relies on the reasonable assumption that the reservoir temperature stays
constant. Thus, hydrocarbon recovery during this phase is considered to be an isothermal process. This is so
because as fluids are Produced any change in temperature due to Production is compensated for by heat from the
cap or base rocks, which are considered to be heat sources of infinite capacity.
The average reservoir temperature is needed for laboratory analyses that are made at reservoir conditions.
Determining fluid properties, such as viscosity, density, formation volume factor, and gas in solution, requires a
value for reservoir temperature. Reservoir temperature is usually measured at the bottom of the well or wells in a
reservoir using a wireline temperature gauge. If a variation in temperature is detected across a reservoir after
correcting for depth, an average value can be used for the constant reservoir temperature.
For EOR techniques such as chemical and miscible processes, temperature affects the phase behavior of injected
and produced fluids, and thus the recovery. The feasibility of these processes must be determined by laboratory
tests carried out at reservoir temperature. In EOR processes that employ heat injection, such as steam or in-situ
combustion, the reservoir temperature is not constant and hydrocarbon recovery is not an isothermal process.
Therefore, in mathematical formulations of such processes, it is necessary to write an energy balance over the
entire reservoir. From an operations standpoint, reservoir temperatures need to be measured continuously at
monitoring wells. These measurements indicate the heat fronts pattern of movement. Normally, a uniform
movement is desired, but the heat-front pattern can be altered by changes in injection and/or production
schedules.

5.- Porosity, Permeability, and Fluid Saturation


is defined as the ratio of the pore space in the rock to the bulk volume of the rock. It is expressed as a
fraction or as a percent of the bulk volume. In equation form,
Porosity

porosity (fraction)
pore volume
bulk volume
and

can be in any consistent units.

Two types of porosity can exist in the rock: total and effective. Total porosity comprises all of the pore spaces,
including connected spaces, isolated spaces (e.g., vugs or fractures) and, in shaly formations, water which is
bound to clay minerals. Effective porosity refers only to the interconnected pore spaces, although among some
companies it is more strictly defined as interconnected porostiy without clay-bound water). While it is effective
porosity that is of primary interest to reservoir engineers, a knowledge of total porosity is also important with
respect to reservoir description and characterization. In some reservoirs (e.g., clean, unfractured sandstones), the
difference between the total and effective porosity will be negligible; in others (e.g., highly vuggy carbonates or
very shaly sands), the difference may be significant.
Various methods exist for measuring porosity. Some are based on measurements of a rock samples bulk volume
and solid volume, and obtain the pore volume by subtracting the solid from the bulk volume. Thus: [pore volume
= bulk volume - solid volume]. Other methods are based on measuring the pore volume directly in addition to
the bulk volume. Such methods utilize gas expansion, fluid saturation, or mercury injection. Porosity measured
by these techniques is the effective porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of porous rock to transmit fluid. The quantitative value for this
characteristic is the permeability. The permeability may be absolute or effective.
Absolute permeability occurs when only one fluid is present in the rock. It is a property of the rock and should
be independent of the fluid used in the measurement. This assumes that the fluid does not interact with the rock.
Absolute permeability is calculated by Darcys law using laboratory-measured data. The unit of the permeability
is the darcy. The permeability of one darcy may be defined as that permeability which will allow the flow of one
cm3/s of a fluid of viscosity one centipoise through a rock sample of one cm 2 in cross-sectional area under a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per cm. A permeability of one darcy is a large value, and we normally use
the unit of millidarcy (0.001 darcy) to describe the permeability of most reservoirs. In some reservoirs the
permeability may be as low as a fraction of a millidarcy, while in others it may be several darcies. The well-flow
rate is directly proportional to permeability. Thus, wells with very low permeabilities are normally marginally
productive, and may require stimulation and remedial action to improve their production.

Effective permeability occurs when more than one fluid is present: it is a function of the fluid saturation.
Therefore, one speaks of effective permeability to oil, water, and gas. Effective permeability cannot be higher
than specific permeability. The ratio of effective to specific permeability is termed relative permeability.

Saturation is a measure of the relative volume of each fluid in the pores. Thus the oil saturation is defined as the
ratio of the volume of the oil in a porous rock to the pore volume of the same rock. It is expressed in fraction or
in percent, and ranges from 0 to nearly 100%. Water is always present in all reservoirs, and its saturation is
always greater than zero. In contrast, the oil saturation is zero in gas reservoirs, and the gas saturation is zero in
oil reservoirs when the pressure is above the bubble-point. The water saturation is normally obtained in situ from
log data. The oil or gas saturation is then calculated by subtracting the water saturation from unity (in two-phase
reservoirs).
Sometimes the fluid content and saturations are measured directly in the laboratory on fresh core samples. These
cores are obtained using an oil-base drilling fluid, and considerable care will have been exercised during the
coring operation.
Oil or gas saturations are needed to volumetrically calculate the initial oil or gas in place.

6.- Fluid Flow Equations


Darcys Law
Darcys law is an empirical relation that describes the fluid flow in porous media as a function of pressure
gradient and the viscosity of the fluid. It is basically an extension of the principles of fluid dynamics to flow of
fluids in porous media. It thus represents the equation of motion in reservoir engineering.
In 1856, Henry Darcy, a French civil engineer, published his experimental results on water flowing through
sand-filter beds. The results showed that the rate of flow through the sand bed was proportional to the pressure
head above the bed and to the cross- sectional area of the filter, and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the
water and the thickness of the bed. Later, other investigators extended Darcys law to fluids other than water, and
the constant in Darcys equation was written as a ratio of permeability to viscosity.
These relations are expressed mathematically in the following equation:

where:
flow rate in cm3/s
permeability in direction of flow, darcies
viscosity in centipoise
pressure gradient in atm/cm
cross-sectional area in cm2
Note that the negative sign in front of the equation is needed to obtain a positive q, since dp/dx is negative. The
most common application of Darcys law is to linear and radial flow geometries. Linear Flow In linear flow, A is
constant (Figure 1).

Re arranging Equation 8 gives

Integrating between X = 0 and X = L gives

In engineering units, the above equation becomes

where:
flow rate in reservoir bbl/day
area in ft2
permeability in direction of flow, (md)
pressure at the inlet end, psi
pressure at the outlet end, psi
viscosity in centipoise (cp)
length, ft

Radial Flow
In radial flow, which represents the flow pattern around a well,

(Figure 2). Substituting in Equation 8,

rearranging and integrating gives

This yields

and in engineering units

where:
thickness of bed, ft
pressure at outer boundary,
pressure at the inner boundary,
radius of the outer boundary, ft
radius of the inner boundary, ft and the rest of the symbols are as defined previously.
In the case of a well,
drainage area.

and

represent, respectively, the wellbore radius and the radius of its

The assumptions underlying Darcys law require that the flowing fluid be incompressible, and that the
flow be laminar. Strictly speaking, while reservoir fluids are compressible, Darcys law is still a very
good approximation of the flow of oil and water. In the case of gas, it is used if the gas production is
associated with the oil, and a modified form of it is used for gas wells. The modified form is

where:
flow rate in MSCF/D at standard conditions of temperature and pressure
permeability in direction of flow, millidarcies
gas deviation factor (evaluated at average pressure)
viscosity in centipoise (cp) (evaluated at average pressure)
reservoir temperature,
thickness of bed in ft

Relative Permeabilities
All of these equations assume that only one fluid saturates the porous media; thus k is the absolute permeability.
However, as mentioned previously, water is always present. Furthermore, in oil reservoirs, oil, gas, and water
exist together, below the bubble-point. In such cases, one must use the effective permeability to the phase of
interest in place of the specific permeability. Normally, one replaces the effective permeability by
where:
the relative permeability

Effect of Saturation on Fluid Flow


Relative permeability is a function of saturation. The relative permeability behavior for an oil-water system is
illustrated in Figure 3.

Note that the figure shows that relative permeability values equal to zero exist for saturation values greater than
zero. This means that a critical saturation value must occur before relative permeability exceeds zero, that is to
say, before the fluid starts to flow.

Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR) Equation


Gas production associated with the oil may come from two sources. These are:

the flow of the free gas in the oil zone, which occurs when the pressure in the oil zone is below the
bubble-point and the gas saturation is above its critical value;
the gas that is liberated from the oil during its trip to surface because of the drop from reservoir pressure
to surface pressure. This portion of gas is expressed in standard cubic feet/stock tank bbl (SCF/STB) or
cubic meters per cubic meter

, and is indicated by

The ratio of the flow of free gas to the flow of oil at standard condition is calculated by means of Darcys law
and is given by

The ratio of the rate of gas to oil production, GOR, is

where:

gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB


relative permeability to gas, fraction
oil formation volume factor, RB/STB
relative permeability of oil, fraction
gas formation volume factor, RB/scf
the gas in solution, SCF/STB.

Fractional Flow Equation


When there is a natural influx of water from an aquifer, or when water is injected into an oil reservoir, a
simultaneous flow of oil and water occurs. The oil and water fractions in the flowing stream may be calculated
by means of Darcys law. The oil and water fractions, and , are defined by

substituting in (13) and simplifying gives

And

7.- Material Balance Equation


Expansion, Production, and Influx Terms
The material balance equation is an expression of the conservation of the mass of oil, gas, and water in the reservoir.
The application of the conservation principle to the gas phase, for example, requires that the mass of gas in the
reservoir at any time be equal to the mass of gas initially in place minus the mass of gas that has been produced.
The mass of gas is calculated by
mass of gas

= (volume of gas at standard conditions) x (density of gas at standard conditions)

The statement of the conservation of the mass of gas may be written as

Or

where , , and
are, respectively, the gas in the reservoir at any time, the initial gas, and the produced gas
(all in standard volumes).
is the density of gas at standard conditions.

Because of the form of Equation 1, some authors refer to the MBE as a volumetric balance. This is misleading,
since Equation 16 was derived from a mass balance equation. The complete derivation of the MBE requires
expressing the three terms , , and
in Pertinent parameters. The resulting equation is

Note: only the expansion of rock and its associated water in oil zone is considered in Equation 2.
where:
cumulative oil production, STB
two-phase formation-volume factor, RB/STB
cumulative produced GOR, SCF/STB
initial gas in solution, SCF/STB
gas formation-volume factor, RB/SCF
water formation-volume factor, RB/STB
total water produced in STB
initial oil in place, STB
initial two-phase formation-volume factor
ratio of gas cap pore volume to oil leg pore volume
initial gas formation-volume factor
initial water saturation, fraction of pore volume
water saturation, fraction of pore volume
rock compressibility, vol/vol/psi
water compressibility, vol/vol/psi

initial reservoir pressure, Psi


average reservoir pressure at the time of interest t, psi
cumulative water influx, RB

The two terms on the left-hand side indicate the total fluids production in reservoir volumes. The first three terms on the righthand side are, respectively, the total expansion of the hydrocarbon in oil zone, the total expansion of the gas in gas cap, and
the total expansion of the rock and its associated water. The last term is the water influx. Thus, a statement of the MBE which

is simple and easy to remember is: total fluids produced in reservoir volumes equals total expansion of the hydrocarbon in
the oil zone, the gas in the gas cap, and the rock and its associated water, plus the water influx in oil zone.

Compressibility of Rock and Water Terms


Normally one thinks of the water and rock as being incompressible. In fact, they are compressible. The rock compressibility is
a function of its porosity and consolidation (Figure 1).

can be as low as
vol/vol/psi and higher than
like the rock compressibility. It normally ranges between

(Coats 1980). The water compressibility does not vary widely


vol/vol/psi.

To illustrate the meaning of compressibility and the unit vol/ vol/Psi consider two cubic feet of water that are under pressure.
Assume the Pressure is decreased by 10 Psi and the water compressibility is
per psi. Since the pressure decreases
by 10 psi, the two cubic feet of water expands by

. The volume of water is now 2.00006 cubic feet.

Advantages and Limitations of the MBE


The primary advantage of the material balance equation is that it provides a valuable insight into the behavior of
the reservoir and the contributions of the various drive mechanisms to the overall recovery. In the case of
reservoirs with reasonable reservoir-wide fluid communication, the MBE provides a method of calculating the
initial oil or gas in place, as well as the expected aquifer effects, by using actual production and pressure data.
The MBE is the only method that employs the dynamic response of the reservoir to production as a means of
estimating the volume of original fluid. What the MBE calculates is the fluid volume in the reservoir that is
affected by production.
The dynamic response of the reservoir fluid to production is manifested in the pressure change. Thus, the initial
fluid in place calculated by the MBE is indicative of the fluid volume in communication with the wells. In
contrast, the volumetric method of estimating the fluid in Place is a static method. It does not differentiate
between connected and isolated areas. For this reason, the fluid in place calculated by the MBE cannot be larger
than that calculated volumetrically, assuming an accurate volumetric estimate.
The main disadvantage of the MBE is that it is based on a tank model (i.e., a zero-dimensional model).
Therefore, it deals with average values of rock and fluid properties for the whole reservoir. As a result, it cannot
be used to calculate fluid or pressure distributions, nor can it be used to identify new well locations or the effect
of well locations and production rates on recovery. The MBE cannot be used to predict water or gas channeling,

and cannot account for the effect of heterogeneities on the behavior of the reservoir. When any of these factors is
significant, reservoir simulation is required to predict precisely the behavior of the reservoir.

A. Derivation of the Material Balance Equation


We will derive the MBE based on the gas in the oil zone. The gas in scf in the oil zone at time, t, is given by
Equation A1.

where:
the total gas in the oil zone at time t in scf,
the original gas in the oil zone, scf, and
the total gas produced at time t, scf.
The gas in solution in scf =
has two components: the gas in solution in the oil and the free gas in the oil zone.
The free gas volume in the oil at time t, (scf) is equal to:
[the oil zone volume occupied by the initial oil - the volume of oil at time t - the decrease in the oil zone volume
due to the expansion of the gas cap gas and the oil zone rock plus its associated water, and due to the net water
influx]
Note that all the terms between the brackets are in reservoir barrels.
The oil zone volume occupied by the initial oil

Thus:

Substituting A2, A3, and A4 in A1 gives

Rearranging and collecting terms gives

Adding and subtracting

However,

to the left hand side term gives

; also at the bubble-point pressure

, since

. Substituting these relations

in the previous equation gives

9.- Exercise
Exercise No. 1

What is the basic difference between the hydrocarbon in place on one hand, and reserves and rate on the other?
Hydrocarbon in place is an invariant quantity, while reserves and rate are variable.
Exercise No. 2

State the two methods for determining the hydrocarbon in place. What is the fundamental difference between the
two methods?
Hydrocarbon in place is determined by either volumetric or by MBE calculations. The volumetric method is
static, while the MBE is dynamic, since it utilizes production data and the response of the reservoir.
Exercise No. 3

What are the main drive mechanisms?


The main drive mechanisms are: expansion, solution gas, gas cap gas, natural water, and gravity drainage.
Exercise No. 4

State two factors on which rate of production depends.


The rate of production depends on the number of wells and the physical properties of the porous medium.
Exercise No. 5

What two reservoir engineering models are normally used to predict reservoir performance?
The unit cell (tank model) and the reservoir simulator (multiple cells model) are used to predict reservoir
performance.
Exercise No. 6

What are the main sources of reservoir engineering data?


The main sources of reservoir engineering data are geology, logs, and petrophysics.
Exercise No. 7

How does a reservoir simulator resemble the tank-type model? How does it differ from it?

Both the reservoir simulator and the tank-type model use the material balance equation. However, in reservoir
simulators, hydrocarbon crosses the boundaries of the tank units, while in the one-tank-unit model the
boundaries are closed. Therefore, in the reservoir simulator the MBE contains additional terms to account for the
interactions among the cells.

Exercise No. 8

Why is it important to obtain accurate pressure values on wells? What is the difference between the pressure
value required by the tank-type model and the values required by the simulator?
The pressure value is an element in all reservoir engineering calculations. The pressure value required by the
tank-type model is the average pressure for the reservoir, while that for simulators represents the average value
in the drainage area of the well.
Exercise No. 9

When does hydrocarbon recovery become a nonisothermal process?


Hydrocarbon recovery is non isothermal when heat energy in the form of steam or in situ combustion is injected.
Exercise No. 10

What equation is considered the equation of motion in reservoir engineering?


Darcy's law is considered the equation of motion in reservoir engineering
Exercise No. 11

What are the limitations of Darcy's law?


Darcy's law requires that fluids be incompressible and the flow be laminar.
Exercise No. 12

What are the elements of the GOR equation?


The GOR elements are gas in solution and the free gas.
Exercise No. 13

Give a statement of the MBE.


In the MBE, total production in RB = total expansion of hydrocarbon, the rock, and the water in RB, plus the
water influx.
Exercise No. 14

Identify the various expansion terms in the MBE and their sources.
The expansion of oil, the expansion of the gas cap, and the expansion of the rock plus its associated water.
Exercise No. 15

What are the main advantages and disadvantages of the MBE?


The advantages of the MBE are that it provides a method of calculating IHIP as well as valuable insight into the
behavior of the reservoir. Its main disadvantage is that it is based on a zero-dimensional model, and thus we
cannot calculate with it the distribution of hydrocarbons and pressure. The MBE only deals with averages.

Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering

Data Sources
>Reservoir data relates to the type and extent of the reservoir rock, the reservoir fluids and their
properties, and the reservoirs production performance history including pressure performance.
>>Geological information of importance to the reservoir engineer includes the reservoir aerial
extent and its closure, that is, the height of the crest above the lowest contour that completely
closes the reservoir, also any flow barriers such as pinch-outs, faults, and fluid contacts. Knowing
the size of the aquifer is also useful along with a sense of lithology variations and the continuity of
the reservoir in the vertical and horizontal directions. Well logs provide the subsurface data
needed to construct structure and contour maps to show reservoir extent and thickness, giving us
an idea of the bulk volume of the reservoir. They also provide the measurements necessary to
calculate porosity and fluid saturations.
>While well tests can provide estimates of permeability and reservoir continuity, more precise
measurements of rock properties can often be obtained from analyses of cores retrieved from
individual wells.
>>A second type of reservoir data concerns the properties of the reservoir fluids and how they
react to changes in pressure and temperature. For volumetric calculation of hydrocarbon in place,
a value for the oil formation volume factor is required in order to relate hydrocarbon fluid volumes
in the reservoir to volumes at the surface.
Material balance calculations require knowledge of oil and gas properties over a range of pressures
obtained from a laboratory analysis performed on a carefully obtained representative sample of
original reservoir fluid. Where sampling is impossible, empirical correlations are available to
estimate oil, gas, and water properties.
>Careful measurements of the volumes of oil, gas, and water produced from a reservoir over time
along with carefully measured subsurface pressures are essential for an accurate material balance
calculation of hydrocarbon in place. This data can also be analyzed to give an indication of the
type of reservoir drive mechanism operating in the reservoir and to determine the need for
pressure maintenance.

Pressure and Temperature


>Reservoir engineering calculations require a value for the pressure out in the reservoir away from
the pressure disturbances near the wellbore. To obtain this value, the well is shut-in and the
pressure increase with time is recorded. From this data the average pressure value may be
calculated. In cases where several wells are non-uniformly producing a large reservoir, a single
average pressure value for the entire reservoir can be determined by volumetric averaging of the
measured pressures based on drainage areas or flow rates.
>>Before comparing the pressure values measured in different wells at various depths in a very
thick or steeply dipping reservoir they should be referred to a datum depth, normally the depth of
the volumetric midpoint of the reservoir. This is determined by constructing a plot of depth versus
cumulative pore volume, determined from structure and isopach maps. The depth corresponding
to50 percent pore volume is the volumetric midpoint depth.
>If a particular pressure value is obtained at a depth different from the datum, it is adjusted to the
datum using the reservoir fluid density. Any remaining difference in pressure between the wells will
be the result of reservoir-wide pressure variations. Another basic piece of data we need for our
reservoir engineering calculations is the reservoir temperature.
>>Reservoir temperature is usually measured at the bottom of the well or wells in a reservoir by a
wireline temperature gauge, sometimes attached to a production logging tool or a pressure

measuring device. We assume that as fluids are produced the reservoir temperature is kept
constant by heat from the cap or base rocks, which are considered as heat sources of infinite
capacity. A value for average reservoir temperature is needed for laboratory analyses of reservoir
fluids that are made at reservoir conditions.

The Material Balance Equation


>The material balance equation for a reservoir is an expression of the conservation of mass of oil,
gas, and water in that reservoir. As mass is removed from the original mass in place, the reservoir
fluids expand. The aquifer water encroaches into the reservoir and the reservoir rock itself may
expand slightly with pressure decline. The total mass, however, is always conserved. Thus we can
say that the total fluids produced at a point in time expressed in reservoir volumes is equal to the
total expansion of the oil and dissolved gas in the oil zone, the gas in the gas zone, and the rock
and interstitial water, plus any water influx.
>>It is at the surface, however, where we see the volumes of oil, gas, and water produced from
the reservoir. In order to express each of the terms of this equation using surface volumes, we
must rely on our understanding of the reservoir fluid behavior and our description of the reservoir.
For example, we may describe the expansion of oil in terms of the initial oil in place, N, times the
difference between the current and initial total formation volume factors obtained from our fluid
data. The expansion of the gas is expressed in terms of the initial oil in place, the ratio of initial gas
to oil volume obtained from our mapping, M, and the current and initial gas formation volume
factors. The rock and water expansion is also expressed in terms of the initial oil in place, the
water saturation, the pressure drop, which allows the expansion. The water influx is expressed as a
volume at reservoir conditions, determined from our knowledge of the aquifer size and activity.
Detailed mathematical procedures are available for calculating the varying rate of water influx.
Finally, the fluid production is expressed in terms of the actual surface oil and water production,
the initial and current gas-oil ratio, and the formation volume factors necessary to relate the
surface volumes to reservoir volumes. The resulting equation looks formidable, but is really only a
simple accounting of reservoir fluid production and expansion expressed in terms of the reservoir
data available to us.
Reservoir Fluid Flow and Natural Drive Mechanisms

Introduction
>In oil reservoirs solutiongas drive takes place when
the reservoir pressure dropsbelow the bubble point of
the reservoir fluid and gasis liberated from the oil.
The expanding volume ofliberated gas helps to push
fluids from the reservoir.
>>When an oil accumulationhas a free gas cap, gas cap
drive can occur as thereservoir pressure drops and
the gas cap expands, drivingoil to the producing wells.
>A natural water-drivemechanism relies on the
influx of expanding water tosustain reservoir pressure
and drive the oil and gasinto the producing wells.
>>A fifth drive mechanism,gravity drainage, involves
the rearrangement offluid distributions in the
reservoir due todensity differences.
Gas tends to migrate upwardforcing a countercurrent of

il flow downward causinga higher oil saturation

downdip and less resistanceto oil flow toward the


producing wells.
Also, the force of gravityacting on the fluid column
in the reservoir isimportant in steeply dipping
formations withdowndip completions.

Gas Reservoirs
>Dry gas reservoirs arefairly simple in the sense
that their initial gas inplace may be calculated
using a gas-material balanceas long as water influx and
raw compressibilityare accounted for when
necessary.
>>The material balanceequation for a gas reservoir
with no water influx can beexpressed as G sub p times B
sub g equals G times thequantity B sub g minus
B sub gi.
That is, the gas producedexpressed in reservoir
volumes is equivalent to theexpansion of the gas in place.
B sub g, the gas formationvolume factor, is the volume
which one standard cubicfoot of gas occupies in the
reservoir and may beexpressed in terms of the
gas equation of state.

Thus, B sub g equals C timesT sub r times Z divided by


P, where C is a constantdepending on the chosen
standard conditionsand the unit system.
For example, for standardconditions of 14.7 psia and
60-degrees Fahrenheit inthe English unit system,
C equals 0.005.
For the same conditions inthe SI system, C equals 0.35.
Substituting this definitioninto the material balance
indicates that the gasproduced, G sub p, is equal
to G, the original gas inplace, times one minus the
ratio of pressure andZ-factor at current
conditions divided by theratio of pressure and the
Z-factor atinitial conditions.
>This equation shows that aplot of P over Z versus G
sub p on rectangularcoordinate paper should

result in a straight line.


The extrapolation of thestraight line to any P over
Z value gives the totalrecovery at that pressure
value, and the extrapolationto P over Z equal to zero
gives theinitial gas in place.
If water influx ispresent the material balance
equation must includea water influx term.
Since W sub e is a functionof pressure and time, our
plot of P over Z versusG sub p will not give a
straight line and anextrapolation of the
pressure production data mayyield an erroneously high
estimate for G.
>>In the case of abnormallypressured gas reservoirs,
the rock compressibilityacts to maintain the
pressure at a relativelyhigh value by reducing the
pore volume asgas is produced.
The plot of P over Z versuscumulative gas production
The early slope existsduring the period about
normally high pressure andthe later one characterizes
the reservoir when thepressure reaches the
normal value.
If only the first slopeis defined the engineer is
advised against using the Pover Z technique since it
will result in anerroneously high value.
However, the materialbalance equation may be used
if the compressibilityterms are added.
If the second straight lineis adequately defined it may
be extrapolated to obtainan estimate of the initial
gas in place.
Condensate Reservoirs: Pressure Maintenance

>To avoid retrogradecondensation in the


reservoir we must maintainthe reservoir pressure above
the dewpoint duringthe exploitation of the
reservoir, generally byinjecting the dry gas
component of the producedwet gas back into the
reservoir using compressors, aprocedure called gas cycling.
>>In such cases the injecteddry gas maintains reservoir

pressure and at the sametime becomes miscible with


any retrograde condensatedriving the wet gas toward
the producing wells.
Since the volume of produceddry gas alone may not be
adequate for the recyclingoperation, additional gas
may need to be purchasedand injected in order to
maintain reservoirpressure above the dewpoint.
Recovery of liquids from gascycling is normally between
20 to 70 percent.
The critical factor in thecycling efficiency is the
vertical sweep efficiencybecause stratification and
permeability variationstend to prevent the uniform
displacement of the wet gas.
>Some gas condensatereservoirs are under active
water drive.
The water influx may besufficient to maintain the
reservoir pressure above itsdewpoint value in some cases.
However, in the case ofwater displacing gas, the
microscopic displacementefficiency is considerably
smaller.
Water tends to trapgas resulting in a lower
displacement efficiencyand a higher abandonment
pressure.

Solution Gas Drive


>A solution gasdrive reservoir is an oil
reservoir whose principledrive mechanism is the
expansion of the oil,the expansion of the gas
dissolved in the oil, andthe expansion of the rock
with its associated water.
While the pressure is abovethe bubble point value no
free gas phase exists andthe reservoir oil is said to
be undersaturated.
In an undersaturatedreservoir, the expansion of
the oil, rock and waterprovides the energy for
production.
If we return to our materialbalance equation, for these

reservoirs there is noinitial gas cap so M is


equal to zero in thematerial balance equation
and the gas capterm drops out.
Furthermore, the solutiongas-oil ratio is equal to
the initial solution gas-oilratio and is also the
producing gas-oil ratiosince all the gas produced
at the surface was dissolvedin the oil at reservoir
conditions.
And in addition, the totalformation volume factor
is equal to the oilformation volume factor.
If we also assume that thewater influx is negligible,
oil production is due solelyto the expansion of oil and
the expansion of rockand its associated water.
>>Because the difference inoil formation volume factors
above the bubble point issolely a function of oil
compressibility, the effectof compressibility term,
which is the summationof oil, rock, and water
compressibilities maybe introduced to further
simplify thematerial balance equation.
The reservoir is thus viewedas a homogeneous tank,
Furthermore, the solutiongas-oil ratio is equal to
the initial solution gas-oilratio and is also the
producing gas-oil ratiosince all the gas produced
at the surface was dissolvedin the oil at reservoir
conditions.
And in addition, the totalformation volume factor
is equal to the oilformation volume factor.
If we also assume that thewater influx is negligible,
oil production is due solelyto the expansion of oil and
the expansion of rockand its associated water.
>>Because the difference inoil formation volume factors
above the bubble point issolely a function of oil
compressibility, the effectof compressibility term,
which is the summationof oil, rock, and water
compressibilities maybe introduced to further
simplify thematerial balance equation.
The reservoir is thus viewedas a homogeneous tank, where

the production is due to theexpansion of the systems.


Percent recovery, as thepressure declines, is given
as produced oil dividedby original oil in place.
For example, in anundersaturated reservoir
when the pressure drops from4,500 psia to the bubble
point value of 4,000 psiafor typical values of oil,
water, and rockcompressibility, oil
compressibilities.
At 4,000 psia for example, atypical gas compressibility
is about one over 4,000, or250 times 10 to the minus 6
for psi.
The more quickly expandingfree gas phase rapidly
overshadows the contributionof the rock, water, and oil
expansion.

Solution Gas Drive Reservoir Performance


>To illustrate therelationship between
recovery and pressuredecline we return once again
to the materialbalance equation.
For simplicity weassume that at discovery
the reservoir had no gas cap.
Assume also that therock and associated water
expansion may beneglected since the gas
compressibility isconsiderably larger.
If we also assume negligiblewater influx the total fluid
withdrawal is due tothe expansion of oil and
evolved gas.
The fractional recovery atabandonment pressure can be
calculated in terms of thegas-oil ratio and formation
volume factors.
>>For a given oil reservoir,recovery is basically
inversely proportional tothe cumulative producing
gas-oil ratio, or the totalgas produced at abandonment
pressure.
This means that in thecase of solution gas drive
reservoirs we must strive tominimize gas production in
order to obtain amore efficient recovery.

The more gas thatremains in the reservoir,


the larger the amount ofenergy available for the
production of oil.
This plot of recoveryversus producing GOR clearly
indicates the adverse affectof high volumes of gas
production on recovery.
>Once free gas developsand the saturation exceeds a
critical value the gaswill start to be produced in
disproportionate quantities.
Above the bubble point theGOR is constant, since all
the gas production comessolely from the dissolved gas.
As the pressure declinesbelow the bubble point a
free gas phase develops andthe gas in solution declines
slightly.
The produced gas continuesto be supplied solely from
the dissolved gas untilthe gas saturation in the
reservoir exceeds the criticalvalue required for flow.
Then the free gasconstitutes part of the
produced GOR.
Its contribution increasesas the gas saturation
increases and far exceedsthe decline in the amount of
gas in solution.
This is why theGOR rises sharply.
The decline in GOR sets inwhen the reservoir pressure
declines significantlyand much of the original
dissolved gashas been produced.
At that point thecontribution of the gas in
solution to the GOR becomesnegligible and the GOR may
be approximated by theequation shown here.
>>Because B sub g isinversely proportional to
pressure its value increasesrapidly as the pressure
declines to a low value,while the change in the
values of the otherparameters is relatively small.
This explains the rapiddecline of the GOR in terms
of the equation.
Initially the waterproduction may be zero or
close to it, especiallyif no aquifer exists.

As the pressure declinesthe rock and water expand.


The relative watersaturation increases
slightly and water productionmay also increase slightly.

Solution Gas Drive and the Material Balance Eq.


>If production data areavailable the material
balance equation for oursolution gas drive case may
be used to calculatethe initial oil in place.
Also, combined with Darcy'slaw it may be used to
predict recoveryversus pressure.
We will examine first theuse of the material balance
equation to calculate N,the initial oil in place.
>>In order to simplify thepaperwork let us indicate
the left-hand side,which represents the total
production in reservoirvolumes by the term F.
We can also simplifythe equation further by
substituting E sub o for thequantity B sub t minus B sub
ti, which represents theexpansion of the oil and its
associated gas.
As you might imagine,this is the equation of a
straight line.
A plot of F versus E sub oshould give a straight line
passing through the originwith a slope equal to N.
This solution method isknown as the material
balance equation as anequation of a straight line.
>>Usually production datais tabulated on a monthly or
quarterly basis.
Average reservoir pressurefor the same time periods is
also tabulated.
Using the PDT data availablefrom a laboratory analysis
or from correlations, F andE sub o are calculated at
the correct pressures forthe necessary time periods
and plotted on rectangularcoordinate paper.
If there is no activeaquifer the points should
show as straight-line trend.
The straight line that resultsin the minimum standard
deviation and that passesthrough the origin is drawn.
The slope is N, theinitial oil in place.
>The mathematicalrequirement that the line
should pass through theorigin is very important.

Whenever one deals withfield data there will be


scatter of the data points.
Without the aboverequirement it is
conceivable that a straightline, which minimizes the
standard deviation withoutpassing through the origin,
may be fitted tothe plotted points.
For predicting actualproduction performance the
material balance equationtogether with the GOR
equation derived fromDarcy's law may be used.
Any of three methodsdeveloped by Tarner, Tracy,
and Muscat, is valid.

Gas Cap Drive


>The same theoreticalmethods for computing
recovery from solution gasdrive reservoirs may be used
in gas cap drive reservoirs,but we must assume that no
gravity segregation of thegas liberated from the oil
occurs, and we mustassume that the gas cap gas
diffuses through the oilzone to supply additional
expansion energy whilethe location of the gas-oil
contact remains atits original position.
>>But in reality the gas-oilcontact moves downward
although one attemptsto maintain the gas cap
movement at a uniformlevel for optimum recovery.
If the gas cap showsdefinite expansion as
indicated by a high level ofreservoir pressure and the
producing wells remain atlow gas-oil ratio, gravity
is maintaining a uniformmovement of the gas cap.
The low produced gas-oilratio continues until the
gas cap reaches the wellsand then a sizeable increase
in the producedgas-oil ratio occurs.
Recovery in such cases isgreatly dependent on the
completion intervalsand well locations.
>The presence of an activegas cap causes additional
recovery over that obtainedfrom solution gas drive and
causes higher pressurethroughout the reservoir's
life.

The produced gas-oilratio is lower in the early


production life andmuch higher in the late
production life.
Fluctuations in the GOR willresult from successive high
GOR production ratesfrom wells higher on the
structure.
>>The presence of a gas caphas no significant effect on
water production.
Water production dueto interstitial water
saturation, if it occurs,will be insignificant or
will be similar in natureto that for a solution gas
drive reservoir.
If the gas cap expandsuniformly due to gravity
segregation, thegas-oil ratio will increase
dramatically when the gascap reaches the perforated
intervals in aproducing well.
It is advisable in this caseto close or recomplete the
wells at a lower interval.
Continued production withoutrecompletion will not result
in any appreciableadditional oil from the
wells, but it will resultin considerable loss of gas
that should otherwise bekept in the reservoir to
maintain the pressure.
In some reservoirs the gasmay cusp into a producing
well through apermeable zone.
This also resultsin less recovery.
Selective recompletion,reduction of flow rates,
or the shutting in of thewells should be considered
to prevent unnecessarydepletion of the reservoir's
energy.
Gas cap drive generallyresults in a higher recovery
when compared tosolution gas drive.
As a rule of thumb, theadditional recovery can
range from as low as 1percent to as high as 10
percent of theinitial oil in place.
Recovery is affected by thesize of the gas cap and the
degree of heterogeneityof the reservoir.

The larger the gas cap andthe more homogeneous the


reservoir, the higherthe additional recovery.
Furthermore, the locationof the producing wells can
appreciably affect recovery.
Ideally, for gas cap drivereservoirs the well should
be located downdip.
If the gas cap advancesuniformly and gravity
segregation maintains theuniform advance, overall
recovery can be very high over 50 percent of initial
oil in place in many cases.

Gas Cap Drive and the Material Balance Equation


>The material balanceequation for a gas cap drive
reservoir is obtainedfrom the complete material
balance equation by assumingthat natural water influx is
zero and that theeffect of rock and water
compressibilities comparedto the gas compressibility
is negligible.
In this case the total fluidwithdrawal, oil and gas, is
due to the expansion of oiland its dissolved gas and
the expansionof the gas cap.
Again, in the interest ofsimplicity, we let F equal
cumulative production inreservoir volumes, N equal
initial oil in place insurface volumes, E sub o
equal B sub t minus Bsub ti, which is the oil
expansion, and E sub g equalB sub g minus B sub gi,
which is the gas expansion.
This equation may be usedwith production data to
determine N and theeffective size of the gas
cap, M.
We plot F versus E sub o,plus M times the quantity B
sub ti over B sub gi times Esub g for an assumed value
of M.
If the selected value of Mis too small, the plot will
curve upward and iftoo large downward.
A correct value of M willgive a straight line that
passes through the origin.

Again, the importance of theorigin as a required point


cannot be overemphasized.
It is the only fixedpoint that guides the plot.
The slope of thecorrect straight line is M,
the initial oil in place.

Water Drive
>When we speak of a waterdrive reservoir we mean
natural water influx as opposedto artificial water injection.
Water moves into thereservoir from the aquifer
in response to a pressuredrop, which causes the water
and the rock in theaquifer to expand.
If the aquifer is small one,may safely assume that the
pressure drop isinstantaneously transmitted
throughout the reservoir.
Cumulative water influx willthen be equal to the product
of the volume of waterin the aquifer, the total
compressibility, water androck, and the pressure drop.
>>For example, if the totalcompressibility is 10 times
10 to the minus 6 for psiaand the aquifer volume is
10 to the ninth reservoirbarrels, assuming a pressure
drop of 1,000 psi, the waterinflux will equal 10 to the
seventh reservoir barrels.
This water influx amounts toonly about one hundredth of
the original oil volumeassuming the reservoir is
equal in sizeto the aquifer.
We see that unless theaquifer is very large
compared to the oil volume,the effect of water influx
on recovery isnot significant.
>However, when the aquiferis large the assumption that
the pressure drop isinstantaneously transmitted
throughout thereservoir is not valid.
There is a time lag betweenthe pressure change at the
oil-water boundary and when itis felt throughout the aquifer.
This means that water influxis a function of time and
pressure and our equationis thus not adequate for
calculating W sub e.

Calculation of water influxunder this unsteady state


condition is covered inseveral of the references
mentioned in your manual.
>>Since the density of wateris larger than that for the
oil and gas the force ofgravity tends to segregate
water at the bottomof the reservoir.
This segregation especiallyin the case of layered
dipping reservoirscan be advantageous.
It tends to keep the waterfront uniform as it moves
updip and minimizeswater channeling in
high-permeability layers.
The locations of producingwells and the depths of
their completed intervalsstrongly affect the
performance ofwater-drive reservoirs.
Reservoir simulators arethe best tools for studying
the combined effectsof the above variables.

Water Drive Reservoir Performance


>Whether or not water influxmaterially influences the
behavior of the reservoirdepends on its strength.
For reservoirs predominantlyproducing underwater drive,
it means the water influxapproximately balances the
total withdrawal and thatthe reservoir pressure is
maintained.
The GOR stays approximatelyconstant at the solution gas
level because there willnot be any free gas flowing.
Water cut, which is definedas percent water in the
total fluid produced, willincrease in stepwise fashion.
Until water breaks throughinto a well the water cut
will probably be negligible.
However, as soon as waterbreaks through, a jump in
water cut occurs due tothe sudden rise in water
production.
It continues at aboutthe same level until water
breaks throughin another well.
How quickly an individualwell waters out after
breakthrough depends on theratio of the oil and water

viscosities, therelatively permeability


breakthrough depends on theratio of the oil and water
viscosities, therelatively permeability
characteristics, andthe degree of reservoir
heterogeneity.
When the mobility ratio ofwater to oil is favorable,
that is when it is less thanor equal to one point zero,
the well will normally waterout shortly after water
breakthrough.
>>When water breaksthrough into a well it usually
occurs in themost permeable zone.
If the reservoir is fairlyhomogeneous in permeability,
water breaks through at thebottom part of the completed
interval because of gravityand the density differences
between oil and water.
If production is continuedwithout any remedial
measures, handling theproduced water volumes may
soon become a problem.
In these cases, waterproduction is controlled by
squeeze cementing of thewatered-out interval and
recompletion indifferent zones.
In relatively homogeneousreservoirs it's advisable to
locate the completioninterval at the top of the
formation to take advantageof gravity segregation
and allow longerproduction of water-free oil.
This method of completion isalso used to prevent water
coning when abottom water drive exists.

Water Drive and the Material Balance Equation


>For saturated reservoirsor when water influx is
appreciable, one normallyneglects compressibility of
the rock and itsassociated water.
Again, we simplify thematerial balance equation
by letting F equal totalfluid withdrawals in reservoir
volumes, E sub o equal oilexpansion, and E sub g equal
gas cap gas expansion.

Here we have three possibleunknowns: N, M, and W sub e.


In this case we mustestimate one of the unknowns
prior to application ofthe material balance.
However, when the pressureis above the bubble point
then M equals zero andour equation reduces.
Remember, water influx is afunction of time, pressure
drop, and the physicalproperties of the aquifer,
such as permeability, size,compressibility, porosity,
and water viscosity.
This equation indicates thatif W sub e is calculated
correctly as a function oftime, and a plot of F over E
sub o versus W sub e over Esub o is made on
rectangular
coordinate paper, astraight line should occur.
The value of F over E sub owhen W sub e over E sub o
equals zero gives N,the initial oil in place.
>>If the selected propertiesof the aquifer are correct
and the calculated value ofW sub e is correct, the plot
will be a straight line.
The slope of the straightline is C, the water influx
constant.
The extrapolation of thestraight line gives the
value of N.
If the plotted points curveupward the assumed water
influx is too low.
On the other hand if theycurve downward, we assume
water influx is too high.
New values for the aquiferparameters are assumed and
the calculations arerepeated until a straight
line occurs.
>Gravity drainage, the lastof our drive mechanisms,
is one of the most efficientwhen conditions are
favorable.

Gravity Drainage
>Gravity drainage ismost effective in thick

reservoirs with highvertical fluid communication


and continuity.
It is also effective inthin reservoirs with an
appreciable angle of dip,at least 10 to 15 degrees.
Reservoirs with shalestringers, or laminations,
are not good candidates forgravity drainage, whereas
high vertical permeabilityimproves drainage.
Other factors favorable togravity segregation include
low oil viscosity and alarge difference between oil
and gas densities.
Gravity drainage is a veryefficient drive mechanism.
If the initial oilsaturation is 80 percent
and the residual oilsaturation is 25 percent,
recovery is 68 percent ofthe initial oil in place.
In many reef reservoirswhere vertical communication
is good and the oilviscosity is low, it is not
uncommon to obtain recoveryby gravity segregation in
the range of 60 percent.
The main disadvantage ofgravity drainage is that it
is a slow process.
Therefore one hardly evertakes full advantage of
gravity drainage because theeconomic oil production rate
is normally much higherthan the segregation rate.

Combination Drive Oil Reservoirs


>When a reservoir isproducing under the
influence of more than onedrive mechanism as is often
the case, we say thatit is producing under a
combination drive.
The relative contributionto recovery of the various
drive mechanismsmay change with time.
At any time one can obtaintheir relative effect from
the completematerial balance equation.
The terms on the righthand side are respectively
the oil expansion, thegas cap gas expansion,
the expansion of the rockand its associated water,
and the water influx.

It's customary to show thecontribution of each drive


mechanism to the recoveryof total hydrocarbon rather
than total fluids.
This we designate F sub has the total hydrocarbon
recovered in reservoirbarrels equal to N sub p
times the quantity B sub tplus the quantity R sub p
minus R sub si times B subg, or F minus W sub p times
B sub w.
Inserting this definitioninto our equation we obtain
our material balance interms of total hydrocarbon.
Dividing both sides of theequation by F sub h gives an
equation where the termson the right hand side are
respectively thecontribution to the total
hydrocarbon recovery of theexpansion of the hydrocarbon
in the oil zone, of the gascap gas, and of the rock and
its associated water in theoil zone, and the net water
influx.
These relative contributionsare termed drive indices.
If one drive index dominatesthe performance the
reservoir behavior willbe close to that of the
particular drive mechanism.
>>Precise prediction ofreservoir performance under
combination drive requires theuse of reservoir simulators.
This is by far the bestmethod to study the effects
of various drive mechanismsand the interplay among
them, the effects of welllocations and completion
intervals, and the effectsof the rate of production.
The material balanceequation may be used as
before to determineN, M, or W sub e.
The equation shows thatunder a combination drive
these three termsare all unknowns.
The solution of the materialbalance equation using
production data does notpermit the simultaneous
determination ofthree unknowns.
Because of this, one of thethree must be obtained or
estimated prior to theapplication of the MBE.

It is customary to estimateM volumetrically from


isopach maps and to thensolve for W sub e and N.

Examen
1 Which of the following statements is NOT true?
(D) Waterflooding is considered an enhanced oil recovery method.

2 Which of these data sources provide information on reservoir pressure response?


(D) Well test analyses and production data

3 What item of information is NOT needed in selecting proper locations of wells?


(C) Aquifer size

4 What information is required to describe a reservoir in terms of a unit tank model?


(B) The average pressure for the whole reservoir

5Which of the following statements is TRUE?


(C) In a clean, non-fractured sandstone reservoir, the difference between effective and total
porosity will most likely be negligible.

6 Darcy''s law assumes all of the following, but:


(D) Compressible flow

7Material balance equation is used to calculate:


(B) The fluid volume which is affected by production

Reservoir Fluid Flow and Natural Drive Mechanisms


1.- Introduction
>In oil reservoirs solution gas drive takes place when
the reservoir pressure drops below the bubble point of
the reservoir fluid and gas is liberated from the oil.
The expanding volume of liberated gas helps to push
fluids from the reservoir.
>>When an oil accumulation has a free gas cap, gas cap
drive can occur as the reservoir pressure drops and
the gas cap expands, driving oil to the producing wells.
>A natural water-drive mechanism relies on the
influx of expanding water to sustain reservoir pressure
and drive the oil and gas into the producing wells.
>>A fifth drive mechanism, gravity drainage, involves
the rearrangement of fluid distributions in the
reservoir due to density differences.
Gas tends to migrate upward forcing a countercurrent of
oil flow downward causing a higher oil saturation
downdip and less resistance to oil flow toward the
producing wells.
Also, the force of gravity acting on the fluid column
in the reservoir is important in steeply dipping
formations with downdip completions.

Gas Reservoirs
Gas reservoirs are hydrocarbon reservoirs that contain dry gas (i.e., the methane mole fraction is greater than 95%).
Behavior of these reservoirs is governed by the gas equation of state and the material balance equation. Three quantities
pressure, volume, and temperaturedefine the state of a gas. As we mentioned, in most hydrocarbon reservoirs the
temperature is considered to be constant.

Gas Equations of State


Ideal Gas Equation:
The Ideal Gas Equation of state is derived from Boyles law, Charles or Gay Lussacs law, and Avogadros law:

where:
pressure, psia
volume,
number of pound-moles
gas constant = 10.732
temperature,
weight, lb

molecular weight, lb/lb-mole


Equation 18 is used to calculate the number of moles of gas when the pressure and volume are known. This allows the
determination of the moles of gas left in the reservoir as the Pres sure declines, and thus recovery in moles. However, each
mole of any ideal gas occupies a volume of 379.4 ft3 (10.74 m3) at 60 F (289 K), and 14.7 psi (101 kPa). Therefore,
recovery in standard volumes is:
379.4 number of moles recovered = standard ft3
or
0.74 number of moles recovered = standard ft3
Real Gas Equation:
While Equation 18 is used in many calcula tions not pertaining to hydrocarbon systems, it was found that the behavior of
hydrocarbon systems deviates from the ideal or Perfect gas law. The deviation from ideal behavior increases with pressure
and decreases with temperature. This deviation is attributable to the fact that the perfect gas law assumes that the kinetic
motion of gas molecules (i.e., their tendency to fly apart) is much stronger than the electrical attractive forces. This
assumption is not valid at high pressure and relatively low temperature. Under most reservoir engineering pressure
conditions, the molecules are brought close to each other, and the attractive forces become important. To correct for the
deviation from ideal gas behavior, a gas deviation fac tor, or compressibility factor, is introduced into Equation 18. It becomes
(19)

where z is the dimensionless deviation, or gas compressibility, factor.

z-Factor Correlations:
The z factor may be obtained from correlations given in Katz 1959 and Standing and Katz 1942. The correlations give z as a
function of pseudoreduced temperature and pressure
These quantities are defined by
and
where
and
are the pseudocritical pressure and temperature for the hydrocarbon system. (The critical temperatureis the
temperature at which the meniscus that separates the liquid and vapor phases of a fluid disappears. The vapor pressure at
this critical temperature is called the critical pressure. Above the critical temperature, there is no reason to draw any
distinction between liquid and vapor, since there is a complete continuity of states.)
The preferred way to obtain
and is by calculating them from a gas compositional analysis, i.e.,
(20)
(21)

where:
mole fraction of component i
critical pressure of component i
critical temperature of component i
The sum is taken over all the components.
Table 1.

and

are listed in Katz et al. (1959) and Standing (1952) and are given in

Critical Pressure and Temperature Values


(Craft and Hawkins 1959; reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall)

Component

Methane

668

343

Ethane

708

550

Propane

616

666

Isobutane

529

735

Normal Butane

551

765

Isopentane

490

829

Normal Pentane

489

845

Normal Hexane

437

913

Normal Heptane

397

972

Normal Octane

361

1024

Normal Nonane

j32

1070

Normal Decane

304

1112

Carbon Dioxide

1071

548

Hydrogen Sulfide

1306

672

Nitrogen

493

227

Equations 20 and 21 require knowledge of the gas composition. If this is not available one may use correlations given in Katz
1959. These give
and values as functions of gas gravity.

Application of the Real Gas Equation of State


Volumetric Calculations
Equation 19 may be used simply to calculate the number of moles, and thus the standard cubic feet of gas in a gas reservoir.
The value of z can be less than, equal to, or greater than 1.0. It very seldom exceeds a value of 1.10. However, it can be as
low as 0.3.
p/z versus Cumulative Production
We mentioned that the equation of state together with the material balance equation defines the behavior of a gas reservoir.
The MBE for a gas reservoir with no water influx and neglecting compressibilities of rock and its associated water is
(22)

where:
cumulative gas produced, SCF
original gas in place, SCF,
original gas in place, SCF,
taken at the original pressure
is calculated by
(23)

where
is the reservoir temperature in R, and standard conditions are taken at 14.7 psi (101 kPa) and 60 F (289 K).
Substituting for
in Equation 22 and simplifying gives
(24)

This equation shows that a plot of


versus p/z on rectangular coordinate paper should result in a straight line. The
extrapolation of the straight line to any p/z value gives total recovery at that pressure value, and its extrapolation to p/z = 0
gives the initial gas in place (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1
The p/z plot is used in the petroleum industry to predict gas recovery versus pressure, and initial gas in place. It is evident
that some pressure and production data are required to establish a straight line. The more data that becomes available, the
better the definition of the straight line, and the more accurate the prediction. One must always remember that we are usually
dealing with field data where inaccuracies are present, and where scatter occurs. Therefore, any p/z plot should be routinely
updated as pressure and production data allow.
Effect of Water Influx If water influx is present, Equation 22 becomes
(25)

where

is the water influx. Equation 24 becomes


(26)

Since
is a function of pressure and time (i.e., it is not constant), and
is a function of pressure, a plot of
versus p/z
will not give a straight line. However, at early time We is normally small, and, because of this, the plotted points may appear
to fall on a straight line. Such a straight line will have a relatively flat slope, and its extrapolation to p/z = 0 will give an
erroneously high value for G. Later tine production data will not continue on a straight line trend. Rather, they will curve with a
slope as shown in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2

Recovery Factors
Gas recovery by pressure depletion usually is the most efficient means of producing gas reservoirs and results in a maximum
recovery. Recovery can easily be calculated by Equation 24, and requires an estimate of the level of abandonment pressure.
This recovery can also be approximated by
When water influx is present, recovery is adversely affected because of the tendency for the encroaching water to trap
portions of the gas in the reservoir, perhaps 15 to 50% or more. This trapped gas is unrecoverable. In addition,
heterogeneities and stratification may cause the encroaching water to bypass a por tion of the reservoir and prematurely
"water out"the producing wells. Generally speaking, when water influx is present, reservoir and production engineers may try
to "outrun" the water by producing the gas at a high rate. This tends to maxi mize the effect of the expansion part of the
recovery mechanism, before the water can move into the gas-saturated portion of the reservoir. The success of such a
technique depends to a large extent on the permeability characteristics and geometry of the reservoir rock, the reservoir
aquifer sys tem, and the location of the producing wells. Other strategies for handling water influx, as outlined by the Gas
Research Institute in its publication Managing Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs (1993) include

continuing to produce watered-out wells in order to lower reservoir pressure and thus remobilize trapped
gas,
selectively recompleting wells with multiple horizons,
drilling additional wells to avoid bypassing reserves,
increasing off-season takes to maximize the net present value of reserves.

Abnormal-Pressure Gas Reservoirs


Abnormally pressured gas reservoirs are those reservoirs whose average fluid pressure gradient is substantially higher than
0.433 psi/ft (9.796 kPa/m), which is the average for normally pressured reservoirs. Abnormal pressures can result from a
number of conditions, some of which include undercompaction of sediments, chemical diagenesis, tectonic activity (e.g.,
faulting), fluid density differences and fluid migration. For such reservoirs, the effective rock compressibility could be several
orders of magnitude higher than that of normal reservoirs.

p/z Behavior

In applying the MBE to gas reservoirs with no water influx, it is normally assumed that the rock and its associated water
expansion is insignificant compared to that of the gas expansion and is normally ignored. This assumption underlies the
linear p/z versus cumulative production plot. In the case of abnormally pressured gas reservoirs, the compressibility of the
rock cannot be ignored. It acts to maintain the pressure at a relatively high value. Thus a plot of p/z versus cumulative gas
production for these reservoirs will show two distinct slopes (Perez and Robinson 1976). The early slope exists during the
period of abnormally high pressure (because of gas expansion, as well as pressure maintenance resulting from formation
compaction, crystal expansion and water expansion), and the later one characterizes the reservoir when the pressure
reaches the normal value (Figure 3).

FIGURE 3
Extrapolation of the early slope to obtain initial gas in place will result in an optimistic value. In this sense it is similar to the
p/z plot when water influx is present, as discussed earlier. If the second straight line is adequately defined it may be
extrapolated to obtain an estimate of the initial gas in place. If only the first slope is defined the engineer is advised against
using the p/z technique for determining gas in place: instead, the MBE with compressibility terms should be used.

Material Balance Equation with Compressibility Terms


The MBE for a gas reservoir with no water influx is
The first term on the right-hand side is the gas expansion and the second term is the expansion of the rock and associated
water. The left-hand side term is the gas production. All are expressed in reservoir volumes. The initial gas in place G is then
(27)

Equation 27 should be used to calculate the initial gas in place, in place of the normal p/z versus
pressured reservoirs.

plot for abnormally

1.- Petroleum Generation and Maturation


1.1.- Hydrocarbon Chemistry
Petroleum Chemistry
The topic of organic chemistry is very complex, even though our concerns are only with the simplest organic
compound group, the hydrocarbons. This is the group that makes up most of petroleum. Strictly speaking,
hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only two elements, hydrogen and carbon. Consequently, petroleum is
quite simple in its elemental composition. It contains relatively few impurities, mainly atoms of nitrogen, sulfur,
and oxygen. Table 1 (below), shows the average composition of petroleum in all three of its natural states of
matter, as natural gas, liquid crude oil and solid or semi-solid asphalt.
Table 1: Average chemical compositions of natural gas, crude oil, and asphalt (from Levorsen 1979)

Element

Crude Oil

Asphalt

Natural Gas

(% Weight)

(% Weight)

(% Weight)

Carbon

82.2 - 87.1

80 - 85

65 - 80

Hydrogen

11.7 - 14.7

8.5 - 11

1 - 25

Sulfur

0.1 - 5.5

2-8

trace - 0.2

Nitrogen

0.1 - 1.5

0-2

1 - 15

Oxygen

0.1 - 4.5

------

------

Sulfur and nitrogen are both undesirable elements within petroleum. Sulfur is most abundant in the heavier crude
oils and in asphalt. It can also occur in natural gas mixtures such as the poisonous corrosive gas H 2S. Such
natural gas is called sour gas (as opposed to sweet gas, where H2S is low or absent) . Nitrogen content is
generally higher in both asphalts and natural gas, when compared to crudes. In asphalt, it occurs mostly in high
molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds called NSO compounds because they contain impurities of nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen. In natural gas mixtures nitrogen occurs mostly as the inactive gas N 2 which lowers the
heating capacity (BTU) of the natural gas. Other compounds may also occur in natural gas mixtures, including
CO2 and the inert gases.
Although the elemental composition of hydrocarbons is relatively simple, there are a vast number of ways in
which the atoms can be arranged. Compounds with similar physical and chemical properties be grouped into
hydrocarbon series, of which four are particularly important in petroleum chemistry the paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and resins and asphaltenes ( Figure 1 ).

Paraffins occur as chain-like structures with the general formula C nH2n+2 The carbon number, "n", ranges from
one in the hydrocarbon gas methane (CH 4), the simplest member of the paraffin series, to over 40. A natural gas
composed of nearly pure methane is called dry gas. Other lightweight paraffins, with carbon numbers up to 5,
are also gaseous at normal temperatures and pressures. A natural gas that contains these other heavier paraffin
gases along with methane is called wet gas. Paraffins with carbon numbers higher than 5 are normally liquid.
High molecular weight paraffins become viscous, waxy solids.
Naphthenes form as closed ring structures with the basic formula C nH2n. Compounds of the naphthene series
have chemical and physical properties similar to equivalent paraffins with the same carbon number. Together
with the paraffins, naphthenes form the major components of most crude oils.
The aromatics are the third group and have a structure based on a hexagonal ring of carbons, with alternate
simple and double bonds. This basic unit is called the benzene ring, after the simplest and most abundant
aromatic compound, benzene. Other aromatic compounds are made by substituting paraffinic chains or
naphthenic rings at some of the hydrogen sites, or by fusing several benzene rings together.
The fourth group, the resins and asphaltenes, are also composed of fused benzene-ring networks, but they
contain other atoms and are not true hydrocarbons. These "impurities" are the high molecular weight NSO
compounds. Resins and asphaltenes are the heaviest components of crude oil and the major components in many
natural tars and asphalts.

1.2 Crude Oil Classifications


Crude oils may be classified by their relative enrichment in the four primary hydrocarbon groups. One method,
proposed by Tissot and Welte (1978) plots paraffins, naphthenes and the combination of aromatic and NSO
compounds as three axes of a triangular graph and divides the graph into fields that represent six crude oil
classes (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Most normal crude oils fall within only three of these fields. They can be either: (1) rich in paraffins (paraffinic
oil); (2) they can have nearly equal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes which together make up more than 50%
of the crude (paraffinic-naphthenic oil); or (3) they can have subequal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes,
which total less than 50%, and the composition is dominated by the aromatics, resins and asphaltenes (aromatic
intermediate oil).
Oil may degrade into heavy oil and tar as a result of bacterial action and of flushing by fresh meteoric waters of
surface origin. This oil falls into one of two classes (aromatic-asphaltic or aromatic-naphthenic), both of which
are enriched in aromatics. Some may contain naphthenes (aromatic-naphthenic oil) but the paraffin content is
always very low. Deep burial, however, usually has the opposite effect in altering crude oil. It tends to make an
oil less dense and more paraffinic, through processes involving both thermal maturation and the precipitation and
removal of asphaltic molecules.
The chemistry of petroleum determines the types and amounts of refined hydrocarbons produced. Figure 2 shows
a generalized correlation between the hydrocarbon components of petroleum, its density, and the commercial
products resulting from the refining process.

Figure 2

There are several measures of the weight or density of crude oil commonly used, two of which, relative density
and API degrees, are shown in Figure 2 . Natural gas and lightweight oil yield mostly fuels. Gasoline consists
mostly of medium weight hydrocarbons with carbon numbers ranging from 7 to 12. These can occur either
naturally or be cracked from higher weight molecules. Cracking is the process in which carbon-to-carbon bonds
are broken down by heat, into simpler, lighter weight hydrocarbons. Other high weight compounds, with carbon
numbers greater than 15, are refined as lubricants, waxes and asphalts.

1.3- Kerogen Types


Maturation is the complex process through which biological molecules, created by living organisms, are
converted into petroleum. In the early stages of this alteration, or diagenesis, an intermediate form of organic
matter, called kerogen, is formed. Kerogen is created by the breakdown of complex biological molecules,
reactions between some of the newly created simpler molecules, and the loss of most non-hydrogen and carbon
atoms like NH3, CO2 and H20.
Microscopically, kerogen can be seen as yellow-orange to brown-black particles or amorphous material. Since
this material originated from different kinds of living organisms, with different kinds and proportions of biological
molecules, kerogens will not all have the same chemical compositions and will yield different types and amounts
of petroleum. Geologists have found it convenient to group kerogens into four fundamentally different classes
( Figure 1).

Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of algae, and when it matures it yields mainly crude oil. It is
also capable of generating the most petroleum of all the kerogen types. Type II kerogen consists mostly of
amorphous material, derived from the bacterial and mechanical breakdown of a mixture of marine, one-celled
plants and animals. This kerogen is also oil-prone but yields more natural gas than Type I. Type III kerogen,
derived from the higher land plants, is sometimes known as coaly kerogen. The humic material in Type III
kerogen has a low capacity to form oil and yields mostly natural gas. Type IV kerogen consists mostly of inert
particles that have been highly oxidized before burial, like charcoal. It is the rarest kerogen type and has
practically no ability to generate either oil or gas.
The chemistry of crude oil can also be linked to kerogen type and original organic matter. Usually landderived, non-marine organic matter deposited near continental drainage areas (Type III coaly kerogen)
will form mostly gas, but any oil formed will be low sulfur, paraffinic to paraffinic-naphthenic crude oils.
Marine organic matter, particularly protein-rich types derived from marine animals (Type II mixed
marine kerogen) tends to yield high sulfur aromatic-intermediate crude.

1.4.- Temperature and Time


Petroleum is generated when kerogen is subjected to the increased temperatures that accompany sediment
burial ( Figure 1 ).

The alteration of kerogen to petroleum is similar to other thermal cracking reactions. Large kerogen molecules
decompose upon heating, to yield smaller molecules of petroleum These reactions usually require temperatures
greater than 60 C. At lower temperatures, during early diagenesis, natural gas, (called biogenic methane or
marsh gas) is generated through the action of microorganisms that live near the earth's surface. Vast quantities
of biogenic methane are probably generated, but most of this will not encounter a trap and will be lost to the
atmosphere.
The temperature range between about 60C and 175C is commonly called the oil window ( Figure 1 ). This is
the principle zone of oil formation. It begins at burial depths of 1 to 2 km and ends at depths of 3 to 4 km in most
areas, depending on factors such as the geothermal gradient. The first oil generated is heavy and tends to be
richest in aromatic and NSO compounds. As burial and temperature increases, the oil becomes lighter and more
paraffinic. At temperatures much above 175C, the generation of liquid petroleum ceases and gas formation
becomes dominant. When formation temperatures exceed 225C, most kerogen has used up its petroleumgenerating capacity. Source rocks become overmature. However, some methane can still be created, even at
these very high temperatures, by the breakdown of the larger, heavier molecules of previously generated crude
oil.
Since the conversion of kerogen to petroleum is basically a series of chemical reactions, time must also play a
major role in this process. Young, Tertiary-age rocks must be deeply buried or have high geothermal gradients in
order to generate significant amounts of petroleum. Although generation, migration and entrapment have been
documented in rocks as young as 1.0 to 1.5 million years old, major petroleum accumulations have not been
found in rocks less than 10 million years old (Halbouty et al., 1970). On the other hand, some older Paleozoic
and Mesozoic source rocks may not have been buried very deeply, perhaps only to the uppermost part of the "oil
window", but have still generated petroleum because of the time factor. However, in most petroleum
occurrences, temperature appears to be a more significant factor than time.

1.5.- Geothermal Gradients and Thermal Conductivity


Temperature, modified by time, has been instrumental in the formation of most major petroleum accumulations.
During drilling, formation temperature can be measured by lowering self-recording thermometers into the
borehole. When this is done for various depth levels, the geothermal gradient can be determined.

The worldwide average geothermal gradient, which measures the increase in the earth's temperature with depth,
is about 26 C/km (14F/1000 ft). Gradients measured in sedimentary basins around the world typically range
from lows of about 18 C/km to highs of 55 C/km.
A low geothermal gradient causes the first formation of oil to begin at fairly deep subsurface levels, but it also
causes the oil window to be quite broad (Figure 1).

In contrast, a high geothermal gradient enhances the early formation of oil at relatively shallow burial depths, but
it causes the depth range of the oil window to be quite narrow. Overall, however, the oil-forming process is more
efficient in young source rocks, where there is a high geothermal gradient and oil can form early at shallow
depths (Klemme, 1975).
The magnitude of a petroleum basin's geothermal gradient is most often directly related to the earth's heat flow;
it will be high where heat flow is high ( Heat Flow = Geothermal Gradient
Thermal Conductivity ).
Consequently, high geothermal gradients are often found in basins that are associated with active deformation,
sea floor spreading and mountain-building (tectonic) processes. Gradients will usually be low in basins
associated with old, stable interiors of the continents, the craton. Gradients will also tend to be low in areas
insulated by cool underlying rocks or thick, rapidly deposited sediments.
Locally, the geothermal gradient will be influenced by the subsurface rocks through which the earth's heat must
pass. The thermal conductivity of rocks, is inversely related to the geothermal gradient ( Heat Flow = Geothermal
Gradient Thermal Conductivity ). It varies both with the rock type or lithology, and the kinds and amounts of
pore-filling fluids. Thus, the geothermal gradient will normally vary vertically through a stratigraphic sequence (
Figure 2 ), and temperature will have a nonlinear relationship to burial depth.

The present-day geothermal gradient may be of less importance to maturation than paleogeothermal conditions,
particularly in areas that have undergone large-scale uplift and erosion. The chemical reactions completed at
higher temperatures are normally not reversible. It is therefore most important to be able to establish the highest
temperature attained at some time in the geological past. Various measurement methods, or
paleothermometers, have been devised to determine the maximum formation temperature of a source rock.

1.6.- Subsurface Pressure


Pressure, which like temperature increases with depth, plays a relatively minor role in the petroleum-generation
process (Phillippi, 1965), but has other important effects.
The total overburden pressure exerted at any point in the subsurface is the sum of two forces: the weight due to
the over-lying rock (lithostatic pressure) and pressure due to fluids contained within the pore spaces (fluid or
pore pressure); therefore, Overburden Pressure = Lithostatic Pressure + Fluid Pressure.. Lithostatic pressure is
transmitted via grain-to-grain contacts and averages about .6 psi/ft (.136 kg/cm 2. m) (13.6 kPa/m). Fluid pressure
is usually transmitted via pore-to-pore communication extending to the surface and is then called hydrostatic
pressure. For a typical subsurface brine, hydrostatic pressure gradient is about .465 psi/ft (.1052 kg/cm 2m)
(10.52 kPa/m).
Pressures increase with burial depth and in a normally pressured well, the fluid pressure is always slightly less,
and the lithostatic pressure slightly more, than half of the total overburden pressure, at any depth ( Figure 1 ).

However, abnormally pressured rocks are sometimes encountered in drilling, often unexpectedly. This may
cause serious problems. If the rocks are overpressured (i.e. where a permeability barrier seals pore fluids off
from communication with the surface), the pressure exerted by the drilling mud may not be great enough to hold
back the fluids in the rock. This could cause a well to "blow out". Underpressured rocks are less common.
However, they too can cause problems, when high-pressure drilling muds enter the lower-pressured formation
causing loss of circulation and plugging up of pore spaces. This can lower the mud column in the well to such a
degree that even a normally pressured formation may blow out.
Although abnormally high pressures may be encountered in various sedimentary provinces, they are particularly
prevalent in rocks deposited in delta environments where sedimentation may be too rapid for deep shales to
thoroughly compact and dehydrate. In this case, some of the weight of the overlying sediment, which would
otherwise be taken up by grain-to-grain contacts in normally compacted rocks is taken up by the fluid in the pore
spaces.

1.7.- The Source Rock


Source rocks are any rocks in which sufficient organic matter to form petroleum has been accumulated,
preserved, and thermally matured. Organic particles are usually fine-grained, and will settle out most easily in
quiet-water environments. Therefore, source rocks are most commonly fine-grained rocks, particularly shales.
Other potential sources are fine-grained carbonates (lime mud), mud-carbonate mixtures (marl), or coal ( Figure
1).

One of the most important factors in determining whether an organic-rich rock will become a source rock is its
thermal maturity. However, some potential source rocks have never reached this thermal level. An example is oil
shales like the Green River Shale of the U.S. Rocky Mountain region, where instant maturation can be artificially
induced by heating the rocks to temperatures of about 500 C, a process called pyrolysis.
Tar sands, like the Athabasca tar sands of western Canada, have sometimes been regarded as immature source
rocks. However, the majority opinion is that they were once conventional oil reservoirs, in which the oil became
degraded from flushing by fresh meteoric waters and by bacterial action, these processes having converted
lighter oil into a viscous asphaltic tar.
Preservation of organic matter is usually harder to achieve than its production. On land, with the exception of
some lakes and coal swamps, most organic accumulations are rapidly destroyed through oxidation and
biological activity. More commonly organic matter is preserved in marine environments.
Rapid deposition is one way to avoid the destruction of organic matter and is characteristic of source rocks in
thick, prograding sediment wedges, such as deltas. Rapid deposition, however, leads to dilution of the organic
matter by sediment. Some shale source rocks found in rapidly prograding deltas have organic contents of only
1%. Shale usually requires a higher organic content than this to be an adequate source rock. However, deltas
often have excellent source/reservoir rock geometries, and structures are developed early in response to the
sediment load. In such cases, migration and accumulation of petroleum is probably more efficient than usual,
and even organic-poor shales make adequate source rocks.
In most cases, however, marine shales with organic contents high enough to be petroleum source rocks are
slowly deposited, under oxygen-free conditions that prevent organic destruction. This occurs most commonly in
restricted marine environments, where a basin is silled or otherwise prevented from easy communication with
the open ocean.

Exercise No. 1

When commercially important natural gas is found, its generation can usually be related to either one of two
factors. What are they?
The natural gas is either generated from land-derived organic matter, rich in debris of higher land plants (Type
III or coaly kerogen); or it is deeply buried and thermally generated (at temperatures generally exceeding
175C).
Exercise No. 2

As a general rule, how does the chemistry and density of deeply buried and/or old oil differ from that of young,
shallow oil?
Old or deeply buried oil is lighter and richer in paraffin hydrocarbons. Young or shallowly buried oil is heavy
and is the richest in aromatic and NSO-compounds.
Exercise No. 3

List three of the four common rock types that can be source rocks for petroleum.
1. shale,
2. marl,
3. carbonate,
4. coal.

Petroleum Generation and Maturation videos

Hydrocarbon Chemistry
Although hydrocarbon compounds
consist only of the two elements hydrogen and carbon,
there are a vast number of ways
in which the atoms can be arranged.
Hydrocarbon compounds can be grouped into series,
of which four are particularly important in petroleum:
the paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and resins and asphaltenes.
Paraffins are usually one of the most abundant groups present
in natural gas and crude oil.
They form simple, chain-like structures
with the general formula C(n)H(2n+2).
In paraffins, n, which we call the carbon number,
can range to over 40.

The simplest paraffin,


with a carbon number of one and the formula CH4,
is the hydrocarbon gas methane.
Natural gas hydrocarbons are composed almost entirely
of paraffin series molecules, particularly methane.
A nearly pure methane gas is called dry gas.
But all paraffins up to carbon number five are gaseous
at normal temperatures and pressures.
A natural gas
with a considerable amount of these higher-carbon-number gases
is called wet gas.
Paraffins with carbon numbers higher than five
are normally liquid crude,
but as the carbon number increases beyond 15,
paraffins become increasingly waxy and viscous
and may have to be heated during production in order
to flow.
Naphthenes form as closed-ring structures
with the basic formula C(n)H(2n).
Compounds of the naphthene series
have chemical and physical properties
similar to paraffins that have the same carbon number.
And naphthenes, together with the paraffins,
form the major components of most crudes.
The aromatics are the third group
and have a structure based on a hexagonal ring of carbons
with alternate single and double bonds.
This basic unit is called the benzene ring
after the simplest and most abundant aromatic compound,
benzene.
The fourth group, the resins and asphaltenes,
are complex compounds
whose structures are basically a network of fused benzene rings.
However, they're not pure hydrocarbons
and contain small amounts of impurity atoms,
mainly nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.
As a result, they're sometimes called NSO compounds.

Resins and asphaltenes are the heaviest components of crude oil


and the major components of many natural tars and asphalts.

Crude Oil Classifications


Although hydrocarbon compounds
We classify crude oils
by their relative enrichment in these hydrocarbon groups.
Here's one method proposed by Tisseau Envelti
which plots paraffins, naphthenes,
and the combination of aromatics and the NSO compounds
as three axes of a triangular graph.
A crude oil composition plots as a point on this diagram,
and its position depends on the proportion
of the three end members.
Most crude oils lie within this central band in the triangle.
But they can fall within certain delineated fields.
Geologically old crude oil
from the Paleozoic Age rocks of north Africa
is enriched in the paraffin end member
Most crude oils lie within this central band in the triangle.
But they can fall within certain delineated fields.
Geologically old crude oil
from the Paleozoic Age rocks of north Africa
is enriched in the paraffin end member
and lies within the field of the paraffinic oils.
This crude oil from the North Sea
contains nearly equal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes,
but together they make up more than 50%
of the total composition.
Crude oils falling within this field
are therefore called paraffinic-naphthenic oils.
This crude from the Arabian Gulf
has nearly equal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes,
but together these two components
make up less than 50% of the crude.
The dominant components are the aromatics and the NSO compounds,
so oils within this field

are called aromatic intermediate oils.


Heavy degraded oils are the most enriched
in aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes.
Some may contain naphthenes,
but the paraffin content is always very low.
While degradation by bacteria
and by fresh meteoric waters of surface origin
causes an oil to become heavy and asphaltic,
thermal alteration and deep burial
makes an oil lighter and more paraffinic.

Kerogen Types
Under the microscope,
kerogen appears as organic fragments
that belong to different biological groups.
Consequently, their chemical compositions also vary,
and they will yield differing types and amounts
of petroleum hydrocarbons.
Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of algae,
either in marine environments or lakes.
When it matures, it yields mostly crude oil.
Type II Kerogen consists mostly of amorphous particles
derived from the bacterial and mechanical breakdown
of a mixture of marine one-celled plants and animals.
This kerogen is also oil prone,
but yields more natural gas than type I.
Type III kerogen is derived from the higher land plants,
the same types that form coals in swamps.
Coaly kerogen yields mostly natural gas
and has a rather low capacity to form oil.
Type IV kerogen consists mostly of inert particles
that have been highly oxidized, like charcoal.
It's extremely rare
and has practically no ability to generate either oil or gas.

Temperature and Time


Kerogen type is just one factor in determining
if petroleum in the reservoir will be oil or natural gas.
The burial depths and temperatures of the source rock
is another.
At very shallow burial depths and temperatures
below about 60 degrees Centigrade,
some methane, called biogenic methane, can be generated
by the initial bacterial breakdown of organic matter.
However, significant petroleum generation does not begin
until the source rocks become mature and are heated
to about 60 degrees Centigrade.
At average subsurface temperatures
in areas that have a normal geothermal gradient,
this usually occurs at burial depths
of between one and two kilometers.
At this stage, mostly crude oil is generated.
The generation of increasingly lighter-weight oils peaks
at about 100 degrees Centigrade and then declines slowly.
At about 175 degrees,
at depths normally between three and four kilometers,
oil generation ceases, the oil window closes,
and gas formation becomes dominant.
When the formation temperature exceeds 225 degrees Centigrade,
kerogen usually has used up its petroleum-generating capacity,
and the source rocks become overmature.
However, methane can still be produced
through the breakdown of the larger, heavier molecules
of previously generated crude oil.
Time can also play a major role in maturation.
Young Tertiary Age rocks must be either deeply buried
or have high geothermal gradients
in order to generate significant amounts of petroleum.
On the other hand,
some older Paleozoic and Mesozoic source rocks

may not have been buried very deeply,


say only to the upper portion of the oil window,
yet there has been sufficient time for these rocks
to generate petroleum.
Comparing the role of temperature versus time,
we feel that temperature is usually more significant.

Geothermal Gradients and Thermal Conductivity


In areas that have relatively low geothermal gradients
of 20 degrees Centigrade per kilometer,
source rocks will not become mature
until buried to depths exceeding two kilometers.
However, in this case, the oil window will be very broad,
and some oil can still be generated
at depths of even seven kilometers.
In contrast, a high geothermal gradient
enhances the early formation of oil
at relatively shallow burial depths.
But it also causes the depth range of the oil window
to be much narrower.
The earth's heat is also affected by the type of rock-that is, lithology-through which it flows,
since rocks have different thermal conductivities.
Thermal conductivity has an inverse relationship
to the geothermal gradient.
Some lithologies, such as slat,
have very high thermal conductivities.
This causes the geothermal gradient to decrease
through an evaporite layer.
In contrast, coal- and water- filled rocks with high porosity
have low thermal conductivities,
which cause the gradient to increase rapidly with depth.
A geothermal gradient can be measured during drilling
by making temperature log runs at various depths.
However, this measurement covers only a moment in geologic time-the present.

Since sedimentation and tectonic processes


each create their own heat effects,
it's logical to conclude that a sediment's temperature
has fluctuated both up and down through geologic time.
Paleothermometers,
based on kerogen diagenesis.
Vitrinite reflectance, or Rm,
which measures the shine of coal-like particles
within the kerogen,
is another.
There are also various methods
that relate clay mineral diagenesis to temperature.
These diverse paleothermometers can be correlated to each other
and to the temperatures of the oil and gas windows.

Subsurface Pressure
The total overburden pressure
exerted at any point in a subsurface
is the sum of two forces:
the lithostatic pressure, or weight of the overlying rock,
and the fluid or pore pressure.
Normally, fluid pressure is the same as hydrostatic pressure
caused only by the weight of the overlying column of fluid.
This results from pore-to-pore communication
extending up to the Earth's surface.
The normal hydrostatic pressure gradients for a column of brine
is about .465 psi per foot
or .107 kilograms per centimeter squared per meter.
Both lithostatic and fluid pressure increase with depth,
so the total overburden pressure also rises as burial increases.
However, in a normally pressured well,
the fluid pressure is always slightly less
and the lithostatic pressure slightly more than half
of the total overburden pressure found at any depth.
This pattern doesn't hold for abnormally pressured rocks,
which can be either underpressured,
if fluid pressures drop below normal,
or can be overpressured,
as fluid pressure exceeds lithostatic pressure,
which is more common.
Overpressuring can develop
whenever a permeability barrier or seal prevents water
from being in communication with the surface.
There are actually many ways to get overpressuring,
but one of the most common ways, prevalent in deltas,
is where sedimentation is too fast for deep shales
to thoroughly compact and dewater.
In this case, some of the weight of the overlying sediment,
which is taken up by grain-to-grain contacts
in normally compacted rocks,
is taken up by the fluid in the pore spaces.

As a result, the mineral grains within an overpressured rock


may become slightly separated.

Examen
1 Which of the following are undesirable elements commonly found petroleum?
(A) Carbon and hydrogen
(B) Sulfur and nitrogen
(C) Carbon and oxygen
(D) Sulfur only
(E) Nitrogen only

2 Sour gases contain high concentrations of:


(A) NO
(B) H2O
(C) H2S
(D) CO2

3 Deep burial tends to make an oil ____ dense and ____ paraffinic.
(A) more; less
(B) less; more
(C) less; less
(D) more; more

4 Gasoline consists mostly of medium weight hydrocarbons with carbon numbers ranging from:
(A) 1 to 5
(B) 3 to 7
(C) 7 to 12

(D) 12 to 23

5 An intermediate form of organic matter is called:


(A) aspalthane
(B) kerogen
(C) diagenesis
(D) napthane

6 Land-derived, non-marine organic matter deposited near continental drainage areas forms
mostly _____ accumulations.
(A) gas
(B) light oil
(C) heavy oil

7 The alteration process of kerogen into petroleum requires temperatures greater than:
(A) 20 C
(B) 60 C
(C) 100 C
(D) 144 C

8 As depth and burial temperature increase, the oil that is generated tends to become
_______________________.
(A) heavier and richer in aromatic compounds
(B) lighter and more paraffinic
(C) heavier and more paraffinic

9 What is the average geothermal gradient of the crust of earth.


(A) 6 C/km

(B) 16 C/km
(C) 26 C/km
(D) 36 C/km

10 What types of settings are most likely to be associated with high geothermal gradients?
(A) Basins associated with old, stable interiors of the continents
(B) Basins associated with active deformation, sea floor spreading and mountain-building
(tectonic) processes.
(C) Areas insulated by thick, rapidly deposited sediments.

11 Underpressured rocks are _______ common than overpressured rocks.


(A) less
(B) about as
(C) more

12 Source rocks are most commonly fine-grained rocks, particularly:


(A) granites
(B) limestones
(C) sandstones
(D) shales

SUBMIT YOUR ANSWERS

5.- Issues in Reservoir Management


Topic Summary: Evaluation of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs
Discusses the origin and classification of natural fractures, and outlines methods for detecting and characterizing them.
Discusses how the properties of fractured formations affect reservoir engineering considerations. Outlines general
approaches to modeling fractured reservoirs, illustrating these approaches with several case studies.
Reservoir Management of Mature Fields
Introduces the concept of synergism in reservoir management, stressing an interdisciplinary approach as key to
maximizing a field's potential. Outlines data requirements and methodology for evaluating a mature reservoir. Discusses
applied reservoir management from the standpoint of increasing reserves and monitoring performance, with special
emphasis on waterflooding and enhanced oil recovery projects.
Estimated
Time
1 hour to 2 hours. (average of 20 to 40 minutes per Subtopic)

Subtopic Listing:

Evaluation of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs


Worldwide Distribution; Major Rock Types
Fracture Origins and Rock Mechanics
Fracture Properties
Reservoir Management Issues
Data Sources: Cores and Outcrops
Data Sources: Downhole Surveys
Data Sources: Drilling, Well Tests, Production
General Reservoir Classifications
Porosity and Permeability from Core Analysis
Reservoir Characterization and Modeling
Calculations of Recovery, Oil-in-Place
Interporosity Flow Processes; Water/Gas Coning
Improved Recovery Methods
Performance Prediction
Case Studies
Exercise No. 1
Exercise No. 2
Exercise No. 3
Exercise No. 4
Exercise No. 5
Exercise No. 6
Exercise No. 7
Exercise No. 8
Exercise No. 9
Exercise No. 10
Exercise No. 11
Exercise No. 12
Exercise No. 13
Exercise No. 14
Exercise No. 15
Exercise No. 16

Reservoir Management of Mature Fields


Integrated Reservoir Management
Geologic Mapping and Reservoir Simulation
3-D Seismics and Cross-Hole Tomography
Data Collection
Evaluation Methodology
Geological Input

to

Complete:

Report Presentation
Reservoir Evaluation: Case Study
Waterflood Screening
Reinterpretation Based on Production History
Waterflood Surveillance and Monitoring
Waterflood Surveillance: Case Studies
Waterflood Surveillance: Emerging Trends
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Screening Guidelines
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Surfactant Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Polymer Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Alkaline Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Carbon Dioxide Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Thermal Processes
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Project Design
Nomenclature
References
Additional Reading
Exercise No. 1
Exercise No. 2
Exercise No. 3
Exercise No. 4
Exercise No. 5
Exercise No. 6
Exercise No. 7
Exercise No. 8
Exercise No. 9
Exercise No. 10
Exercise No. 11

Issues in Reservoir Management: References and Additional Information

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