Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol
Review Paper
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
VITO, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Boeretang 20, 2400 Mol, Belgium
c
Flinders University, School of the Environment, GPO Box 2100, 5001 Adelaide, SA, Australia
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 February 2015
Received in revised form 7 June 2015
Accepted 13 June 2015
Available online 19 June 2015
This manuscript was handled by
Konstantine P. Georgakakos, Editor-in-Chief,
with the assistance of Marco Borga,
Associate Editor
Keywords:
Urban hydrology
Hydrological modelling
Urban catchment
s u m m a r y
In recent years, the conceptual detail of hydrological models has dramatically increased as a result of
improved computational techniques and the availability of spatially-distributed digital data.
Nevertheless modelling spatially-distributed hydrological processes can be challenging, particularly in
strongly heterogeneous urbanized areas. Multiple interactions occur between urban structures and the
water system at various temporal and spatial scales. So far, no universal methodology exists for simulating the urban water system at catchment scale. This paper reviews the state of the art on the scientic
knowledge and practice of modelling the urban hydrological system at the catchment scale, with the
purpose of identifying current limitations and dening a blueprint for future modelling advances.
We compare conceptual descriptions of urban physical hydrological processes on basis of a selection of
43 modelling approaches. The complexity of the urban water system at the catchment scale results in an
incomplete understanding of the interaction between urban and natural hydrological systems, and in a
high degree of uncertainty. Data availability is still a strong limitation since current modelling practice
recognizes the need for high spatial and temporal resolution. Spatio-temporal gaps exist between the
physical scales of hydrological processes and the resolution of applied models. Therefore urban hydrology
is often simplied either as a study of surface runoff over impervious surfaces or hydraulics of piped
systems. Many approaches target very specic objectives and the level of detail in representing physical
processes is not consistent. Based on our analysis, we propose a blueprint for a highly complex integrated
urban hydrological model. We regard exibility, in terms of model structure and data assimilation, as the
key characteristic for overcoming these limitations. We advocate the use of modular, process-based
approaches, which are exible and adaptable to research needs. Higher complexity is inevitable, and
higher uncertainty is a major consequence. Remote sensing data, measurable model parameters
and new spatially-distributed calibration techniques might help to reduce uncertainties.
2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrological processes in the urban environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Depression storage, overland flow and runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Storm water drainage systems and combined sewer systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.
Retention basins and stormwater management systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.
Infiltration and subsurface processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1.
Direct groundwater recharge: infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2.
Indirect groundwater recharge: leakage/drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3.
Groundwater extraction, flow and discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corresponding author at: Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
E-mail address: Elga.Salvadore@vub.ac.be (E. Salvadore).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.06.028
0022-1694/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
63
63
65
66
66
67
67
67
67
68
68
3.
4.
1. Introduction
This paper aims to review the state of the art on the scientic
knowledge and practice of modelling hydrological processes in
urban environments at the scale of a catchment. Urban catchment
hydro(geo)logy, or the study of water uxes in urbanized catchments, is among the different sub-disciplines of the hydrological
sciences, clearly gaining in importance during the past few decades
(Niemczynowicz, 1999; Price and Vojinovic, 2011; Schirmer et al.,
2012; Braud et al., 2013; Fletcher et al., 2013). A major driver for
this trend is the growing concern about urban water sustainability
and human health protection. In fact, for the rst time in human
history since 2009, more than half of the world population is living
in urban and semi-urban zones (United Nations, 2010). Moreover,
population projections show that by the year 2030 urban population will exceed 80% of the total population, with growth/migration particularly concentrated in megacities and developing
countries. Growing population and urbanization augment the pressure on the environment and often challenge water resources sustainability (Lee and Heaney, 2003; Carle et al., 2005). Land use
modications, such as an increase in urbanization, can have a signicant impact on hydrological processes (DeFries and Eshleman,
2004). Governments are aware of these threats and demand solutions in terms of environmental monitoring and water-resources
protection (European Parliament, Water Framework Directive
2000/60/EC), (CWA/Clean Water Act, P.L. 92-500, 1972 and
amendments).
Urban development and urban water systems interact mutually: (1) on one hand urbanization is considered to be the major
cause of pollution/depletion of water resources; while (2) on the
other hand increased urban ooding threaten human security
and infrastructure integrity. Many researchers have investigated
the link between (ground)water pollution and urban growth
(Cronin et al., 2003; Carle et al., 2005; Rueedi et al., 2009;
Vizintin et al., 2009; Carey et al., 2013) and identied urbanization
as a major cause of contamination of groundwater and surface
water resources. This contamination is the consequence of accidental releases of toxic substances or more often by leakage of
sewers. The type of pollutants as well as their load can greatly vary
according to location and urbanization density (Beck, 2005;
Eiswirth et al., 2003). Urban areas have shown to be among the
most vulnerable systems to the adverse impact of heavy rainfalls.
Floods are becoming more frequent and more devastating than
ever before as urban areas are enlarging and becoming denser
(Kang et al., 1998; Mark et al., 2004; Schmitt et al., 2004; Chen
et al., 2009). Society suffers yearly from the consequences of (ash)
oods, with mortality nearly homogeneous over different continents (Jonkman and Vrijling, 2008). Economic losses are large,
overall losses in Europe due to weather disasters in the period
19802010 accounted for about 535 billion US$ per year (Kron
et al., 2012). The Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) was therefore
dened to mitigate the effects of oods by demanding oods risk
63
68
68
71
72
72
76
76
77
77
79
79
64
Table 1
Urban catchments are often dened on basis of impervious cover percentage,
however literature-based values can signicantly vary, ranging from 5% to 98%. The
values of impervious coverage are expressed as a percentage of the total catchment
area.
1) Is it RELEVANT?
Hydrology of Urban Environments
Authors
Urban catchment
size (km2)
Impervious cover
(%)
25.294.9
31
124
0.070.26
52
27
3.3
14.3
0.050.13
1.4 10 3
0.080.24
59.1
13
17
420.2
23
2024
24
34
3739
>50
3698
65
B
A Precipitation
B Evapo(transpi)ration
C Overlandflow
E River flow
F Storm drainage and sewer flow
K
I
G
L
E
F
I Soil infiltration
J Interflow or lateral flow
K Groundwater recharge
L Pipe leackage
M Groundwater drainage
N Groundwater extraction
O Groundwater flow
P River/groundwater exchange
Fig. 2. In an urbanized catchment, the water cycle is modied by anthropogenic activity, leading to new pathways, and reduced or augmented natural pathways. Land cover
in urbanized catchment is extremely heterogeneous and multiple interactions occur within physical phenomena (adapted after http://www.miseagrant.umich.
edu/lessons/lessons/by-broad-concept/earth-science/exploring-watersheds/).
100 yrs
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
103
104
105
108
1 yr
107
1 mon
106
105
1d
104
Transpiraon
1h
103
102
1 min
101
1 mm
1 cm
0.1 m
1m
10 m
100 m
1 km
10 km
Fig. 3. Spatial and temporal scales of hydrological processes in urban areas adapted after Blschl and Sivapalan (1995), Hall (1984), Berndtsson and Niemczynowicz (1988),
Maidment (1992), Ward and Robinson (1999), Dingman (2002), Brutsaert (2005), Bronstert et al. (2005), and Hendriks (2010) with additional information from the authors.
space (or time) at which the process is best measured. All these
interactions are a major source of complexity and uncertainty for
urban catchment studies, and cause strong limitations on modelling the system (Bach et al., 2014). These interactions are very difcult to quantify and to take into account conceptually in the water
balance, as for example leakages from sewers and water mains.
The forthcoming sections briey discuss the major processes of
the urban water cycle with the focus of highlighting the urbanization impacts on water resources at different temporal and spatial
scales. We do not provide a comprehensive description of all
involved processes but rather give a general overview of the urban
hydrological cycle components at the catchment scale. This analysis is complementing the arguments of Fletcher et al. (2013), who
focussed on measurement techniques, forecasting urban precipitation and impacts of urban development on streamow, while we
discuss the impacts of urbanization in each water balance
component.
2.1. Precipitation
As stated by Fletcher et al. (2013), the study of urban-induced
changes in precipitation has been an active topic of research since
66
the 1970s when indications of these impacts were found for several large cities. Many studies tried to quantify these impacts by
comparing pre and post urbanization conditions and concluded
that seasonal changes locally increased the precipitation between
5% and 15% (Huff and Changnon, 1972; Taha, 1997; Shepherd
et al., 2002; Shepherd, 2006). However, these estimates have a high
degree of uncertainty due to the scarce data and the
non-quantiable impact of other atmospheric processes. Studies
on this matter were therefore considered as non-denitive by the
U.S. Weather Research Program (Dabberdt et al., 2000). It is however generally accepted that urbanization has an impact on atmospheric dynamics at a local scale, the main factors inuencing
precipitation are:
(1) The land cover change modies the energy balance and
together with anthropogenic heat release generates the
urban heat island effect, which might have an impact on precipitation occurrence and intensity. Moreover the local
increase in temperature can reduce snowfall in favour of
rainfall.
(2) The modied surface roughness patterns and the increased
land cover heterogeneity have an impact on wind circulation
and, as a consequence, might change precipitation patterns.
(3) Atmospheric pollution and ne particle release have a strong
inuence on the chemical composition of the precipitation
(e.g. acid rain), and can also affect the rain drops generation
process.
Since several studies suggest there might be a link between
urbanization and precipitation intensity, we advise to use carefully
historical precipitation data in analysis of strongly-urbanizing
catchments. Whenever possible, simulations with historical data
should be complemented with scenario analysis taking into
account future projections of climate variables. More research is
needed to incorporate the possible inuence of urbanization on
these projections. Urbanization seems to mainly affect precipitation intensity and patterns, while spatial and temporal scales of
rainfall are not strongly affected (Fig. 3). However, the high dynamics and heterogeneity of urban systems demand for very high spatialtemporal resolution of precipitation measurements (Fabry
et al., 1994; Tilford et al., 2002; Berne et al., 2004; Einfalt et al.,
2004).
2.2. Evapotranspiration
Urbanization can signicantly affect evapo(transpi)ration (ET),
and accurate estimation of ET is crucial as it represents a major
component of the global water balance (Cheng et al., 2011). ET
might be considerably less in urban catchments than in rural areas,
mainly due to the lack of vegetation (Taha, 1997; Chen et al., 2009).
Several studies however state that ET is not negligible in urban
zones, reaching up to about 40% annually and in extreme cases
up to 80% in summer of the total losses (Berthier et al., 2006;
Rodriguez et al., 2008; Grimmond and Oke, 1991). Many urban
green areas are (over-)irrigated in dry (and wet) periods
(Salvador et al., 2011). With adequate irrigation, root zone moisture conditions are as such that plants can transpire at potential
level, the total actual ET might therefore be higher than under natural (dry) conditions. As we discuss in Section 2.6.2, (waste)
water-networks leakage can also augment the soil water content
and so ET. The phenomenon of urban heat island (UHI), or the
increase in temperature of urban centres as compared to their surroundings, is perhaps the most known and studied effect of urbanization on local climatic conditions (Oke, 1982; Dixon and Mote,
2003; Arneld, 2003; Rizwan et al., 2008). The effects of UHI are
hydrologically relevant as higher temperatures increase the direct
67
68
new cities have been constructed over old settlements. The rst
meters below a city are therefore a complex aggregate of soil, utilities trenches, buried structures and openings. Urban karstication, is an interesting concept that compares urban soils to karst
(Garcia-Fresca and Sharp, 2005). Permeability in karst as well as
in urban soils is highly variable, therefore the secondary permeability induced by such buried structures might create preferential
ow paths for water, enhancing inltration and direct recharge.
The ne scale of these processes demands a detailed spatial
description of urban land cover and subsurface preferably on the
scale of 1 m (Dujardin et al., 2011).
2.6.2. Indirect groundwater recharge: leakage/drainage
Although direct inltration might be reduced by anthropogenic
soil sealing, the global effect of urbanization on groundwater is in
many cases an increase of recharge (Appleyard, 1995). This
increase is the consequence of leakage. To avoid inltration of pollutants into drinking water networks, the water distribution is
pressurized and thus prone to leakage where damages/misconnections are present. Only few water utilities worldwide can claim
they were able to reduce leakage to less than 10%, while 2030%
in developed countries and 3060% in developing countries are
more common (Lerner, 2002; Garcia-Fresca and Sharp, 2005).
When leakage happens in permeable soils, potential groundwater
recharge raises up to 100300 mm/yr in normal cases and to about
3000 mm/yr in extreme cases (Lerner, 1990). In (semi-)arid
regions, leakage can be even higher than natural recharge.
Sewers are generally and fortunately less prone to leakage, nevertheless, sewer leakage belongs to the main sources of diffuse
groundwater contamination (Taylor et al., 2006; Wolf et al.,
2007; Vizintin et al., 2009). The European standard EN 752-2
(CEN, 1996) states that the structural integrity of urban sewer systems, including water tightness, should be guaranteed. Sewer leakage is not a major source of groundwater recharge; studies report
that 520% of the sewer ux is lost by leakage (Joss et al., 2008),
therefore leakage contributes to groundwater recharge only for
15% (Yang et al., 1999; Rutsch et al., 2006). Sewage pipes are generally positioned deeper than the water distribution network; in
case of shallow aquifers, sewage pipes might therefore act as
drains for the groundwater. Dilution of waste water concentrations
leads to a lower pollutant removal efciency and additional cost
for the wastewater treatment plants. A quantitative assessment
reveals that in 108 of the 194 investigated catchments in
Belgium, more than 50% of the dry-weather sewer ow is due to
groundwater inltration or parasitic water (Dirckx et al., 2009).
Similarly in Germany, Wei et al. (2002) state that on average
70% of treated water is originally non-polluted.
2.6.3. Groundwater extraction, ow and discharge
More than 70% of the global water consumption is provided by
groundwater extraction (Zektser and Everett, 2004). Unsustainable
groundwater extraction is not uncommon, natural or induced
recharge is generally not sufcient to allow groundwater systems
to recover from the overexploitation, allowing water tables to drop
up to several hundreds of meters (Foster and Chilton, 2003).
Consequences of this practice are degradation of groundwater
dependent ecosystems, reduced base ows, and land subsidence
with increased risk for the population and for the structural integrity of buildings. In the North China Plain, the total water demand
exceeds the natural groundwater recharge by a factor of 1.5, resulting in (1) 1.6 billion m3/yr water shortage for agriculture; (2) water
table decline in both shallow and deep aquifers of 0.4 m/yr; (3)
saltwater intrusion; (4) land subsidence; and (5) groundwater
quality deterioration (Changming et al., 2001). In other cases,
groundwater extraction is intended for lowering the water table
for large scale subsurface constructions (Kim et al., 2001).
69
Table 2
43 modelling approaches for small city to large catchment scale applications, temporal and spatial resolution and references. We also mention if the modelling approaches use
opens source (OS), free (F) or commercial software (C) for the cases in which this information was available to the authors.
Model
References
Spatial scale
Temporal scale
1.4 10 3
0.047, 0.134, 0.16
0.0581, 0.6, 0.7,
1.3, 2.3, 10.5, 250
UHE
5m
Semi-distr, 120 m
1h
6 min
2 min, 1 min, 5 min,
10 min, 15 min?, 1 h
Semi-distr, lumped
6 min
(5) KAREN
Lumped
6 min
Semi-distr
UHE
1 min 1 h
1 min, 2 min, 5 min
UHE
UHE, cadastral parcels
5m
Semi-distr
10 m
20 m
10 m, 200 m
P1 h, 5 min
1h
3 min
1 min
15 min
5 min
1 s 1 min
3.32
5.41
6.11
6.3
8
11.5
10 min 1 d
1h
1h
1d
1h
Steady state, 15 min
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
12
14.3
15997
21.9
25
25.15, 94.88
27
27
31, 105.9, 142
10 m
Semi-distr
Semi-distr
UHE + Lumped
Semi-distr
Homogeneous subarea, 2m 4 m, 1
25 m
HRU-UHE, 30.48 m
30 m
Lumped
30 m
25 m
UHE (object), 1030 m
UHE
50 m
30 m
52
52
116
124
162
170
194.8, 855
Semi-distr
25 m
Semi-distr
30 m
10 km
Lumped
HRU
30 s
10 min?
5 min
1h
1h
1d
1 d, 1 mon
204
258, 350
260
300, >500
Lumped
200 m, 250 m
30 m
Semi-distr
1d
1 d, 1 h
15 min
1h
625
670
18.5 104
Lumped
UHE
Semi-distr, 500 m
1 d, 1 mon, 1 yr
1d
1d
(30) CANOE
(31) MERCEDES
(32) CAREDAS
(33) Event model
(34) SURFEX (OS)
(35) BASINS (HSPF + GIS) (F)
(36) AVSWAT-X model, and
SWAT + land use change
(OS)
(37) SCS, NLP, etc.
(38) MIKE SHE, MIKE 11 (C)
(39) Vow (C)
(40) HEC-(Geo)HMS, HEC(Geo)RAS (F)
(41) Peri-Urban SIMHYD
(42) CWB (Aquacycle) (OS)
(43) HBV + SOBEK (OS)
5 min
1 min?
1h 1 d
1h
15 min
1h
1d
1h
1 h, >1 h
70
Dynamic
Spaal Resoluon
4+1
Lumped
Semi-distributed
HRU
UHE
10 km
5
3
Small-size
applicaons
Non-grid
based
2+5
2+3
2+3
Steady
state
2+1
Grid based
500 m
250 m
200 m
Catchment-size
applicaons
120 m
50 m
30 m
25 m
20 m
10 m
3
5m
Small-size
applicaons
3m
1s
30 s
5 min
6 min 10 min
Temporal Resoluon
15 min 1 hr
>1 hr
1 day
1 mon
1 yr
steady
state
Fig. 4. The 84 identied model implementations of 43 analyzed modelling approaches are separated into: (a) blue dots or models applied at the urban catchment scale
(P10 km2) and (b) red crosses or models applied to small urban areas (<10 km2). The models simulating the catchment scale cover the full range of spatial and temporal
resolution, while models applied to smaller study sites are concentrated in two regions: (1) Non-spatially explicit zone with temporal resolution ranging from 1 min to 1 day;
and (2) very ne spatial resolution with temporal resolution ranging from 1 s to 1 day. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
71
Non-spaal-explicit
model implementaons
25
60%
40%
20
Catchment-size
applicaons
Small-size
applicaons
15
10
6 min
seconds
minutes
5m
30 m
< 10 m
< 50 m
Number of model
implementaons
Cumulave % of
model implementaons
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 hr
hours 1d 1 mth1yrS.S.
Temporal Resoluon
< 500 m
0
1-10 km UHE HRUsemi Lumped
distr.
Spaal Resoluon
Fig. 5. The temporal and spatial resolution of the 84 analyzed urban model implementations are displayed in panel A and B respectively. The model implementations are
applied either to small-sized areas (<10 km2) or to catchment-sized areas (>10 km2). Urban hydrological modelling of small-sized areas (red lines and bars) are generally
applied at a ner temporal and spatial resolution than catchment-sized applications (blue lines and bars). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
daily or larger time step. (2) The city scale application cases (red
dots) are localized into two distinct spatio-temporal zones: in the
very high spatial resolution zone, below 10 m, and in the
non-grid based zone. Modelling approaches in this last zone have
a slightly coarser spatial resolution, between 23 m (Berthier
et al., 2004) and 80 m (Lee and Heaney, 2003) when the study area
is small and the number of identied elements is large. In both
regions, high resolution and non-grid based, the time steps vary
between 1 s and 1 min to 1 day. This behaviour is clearly explained
by the small-scale study areas, which do not allow a too coarse
spatial resolution but that still leaves some degree of freedom in
the choice of the time step.
Urban hydrological models applied at the city scale have generally a smaller temporal and spatial resolution than urban hydrological applications at the catchment scale (Fig. 5). More than 50% of
the small size applications (<10 km2) have a temporal resolution
equal or lower than 6 min and a spatial resolution equal or lower
than 5 m (grid-based group), while for catchment applications
(>10 km2) these values are respectively 1 h and 30 m. Spatial and
temporal resolutions are relatively high when compared to traditional rainfall-runoff applications of non-urbanized catchments.
The current modelling practice, therefore recognizes the need for
a ne spatialtemporal resolution to account for the high urban
heterogeneity and for the fast dynamics of hydrological processes
in urban areas. The most used time steps are however 1 h (25%)
and 1 day (20%), which hinders models from accurately characterizing the fast components of the urban uxes. Higher temporal resolution comes at high computational cost, for this reason most of
the approaches which use a ne time step are event-based.
3.2. GIS and remote sensing in urban hydrological modelling
Since more than two decades hydrological simulation tools
have taken advantages of GIS functionalities. The majority of the
currently available hydrological models are either loosely or tightly
coupled with a GIS. In urban hydrological modelling, this practice
is even more common as 80% of the analyzed model approaches
have a GIS link. The spread of GIS tools certainly was one of the
main drivers in the development of spatially-distributed hydrological models, but nowadays nearly all types of models take benet
from spatial data management to derive for example average
parameter values. GIS is well suited for urban hydrology because
of the strong spatial variability and fast dynamics of urban lands.
Urban databases, with detailed and up to date information, are a
precious source of information for hydrological models. GIS platforms are used for: (a) pre- and post-processing of model
76.5%
Data management,
parameter esmaon
45.5%
Watershed delineaon
36%
RS integraon
32%
Graphical display
Flow roung,
UHE extracon
28%
20.5%
GIS-based tools
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Number of models
Fig. 6. Urban applications make extensive use of GIS functionalities, mainly for data
management, parameter estimation and graphical display. One out of four of the 43
selected urban approaches is a GIS-based model.
72
Number of
modelling
approaches
20
16
Overland ow
Channel ow
Storm drainage
Sewer
12
8
4
0
20
16
12
8
4
0
(non-)linear
reservoir/
conceptual
kinemac/
diusive/
dynamic wave,
shallow water,
1D 2D DSV
IUH, GIUH
no or unknown
roung
(non-)linear
reservoir/
conceptual
kinemac/
diusive/
dynamic wave,
shallow water,
1D 2D DSV
IUH, GIUH
no or unknown
roung
Fig. 7. The ow routing concepts, used by the 43 analyzed modelling approaches, are here classied in four group: (non-)linear reservoir, hydrodynamic routing, IUH, GIUH,
and no or unknown routing. Different ow routing concepts are applied to different ow processes.
73
Water
Resources
Sustainability
12 %
16 %
5 models
Integrated
Physicallybased
7 models
16 %
Conceptual,
Integrated
Water
Balance
7 models
21 %
5%
9 models
28 %
Groundwater
Urban Climate
12 models
Change
Impact
Evapo
Precipitaon (transpi)
Temperature
raon
Climate
Storm Drainage
Design
Inundaon,
Floods
Protecon
Ecology &
Biodiversity
Preservaon
Groundwater
Floods
Control
Water
Demand
Overland ow
Storm
Drainage
Design
River ow
Storm drainage
Hydrological
Processes
Flood
Retenon
Leakage
Inltraon
Polluon
Recreaon
Scienc
Theories
Health &
Safety
Fig. 8. Urban hydrological modelling purposes can be classied into general (pink) and specic purpose (blue). We identied four general purposes: water resources
sustainability, ecology and biodiversity preservation, health and safety, and scientic theory validation. These general purposes refer to the complete set of urban hydrological
processes while specic modelling purposes take into account only a subsection of the physical processes of urban catchments. Some of the images were downloaded from
www.freerangestock.com. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
74
75
Table 3
We identied 7 functional categories for the 43 analyzed modelling approaches. The main model characteristics (processes, purposes and application scale) and limitations are
summarized here.
Model category
Characteristics
Limitations
76
77
78
Shortcomings
Possible Soluons/Approaches
Urban Catchments:
Complex physical systems
Incomplete knowledge
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by a FWO (Research Foundation
Flanders) and VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research)
PhD grant. We wish to thank the three anonymous reviewers, their
inspiring comments substantially improved this manuscript. We
would also like to thank Mrs. Tuy To for her review of the
manuscript.
References
Annunziato, S., Stocchino, A., M., Colombini, 2009. Case study: design of ood
control systems on the vara river by numerical and physical modeling. J.
Hydraul. Eng. ASCE 135 (12), 10631072.
Appleyard, S., 1995. The impact of urban development on recharge and
groundwater quality in a coastal aquifer near Perth, Western Australia.
Hydrogeol. J. 3 (2), 6575.
Arneld, A.J., 2003. Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence,
exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int. J. Climatol. 23
(1), 126.
Arnold, J.G., Fohrer, N., 2005. SWAT2000: current capabilities and research
opportunities in applied watershed modeling. Hydrol. Process. 19 (3), 563572.
Arnold, C.L., Gibbons, C.J., 1996. Impervious surface coverage the emergence of a
key environmental indicator. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 62 (2), 243258.
Arnold, J.G., Srinivasan, R., Muttiah, R.S., Williams, J.R., 1998. Large area hydrologic
modeling and assessment Part 1: Model development. J. Am. Water Resour.
Assoc. 34 (1), 7389.
Aronica, G., Cannarozzo, M., 2000. Studying the hydrological response of urban
catchments using a semi-distributed linear non-linear model. J. Hydrol. 238 (1
2), 3543.
Aronica, G.T., Lanza, L.G., 2005. Drainage efciency in urban areas: a case study.
Hydrol. Process. 19 (5), 11051119.
Bach, P.M., Rauch, W., Mikkelsen, P.S., McCarty, D.T., Deletic, A., 2014. A critical
review of integrated urban water modelling urban drainage and beyond.
Environ. Modell. Softw. 54, 88107.
Barbee, R., Vermij, P., van de Laak, W.J., 2002. Policy development for reduction of
pollution caused by trafc experiences from the Netherlands. Water Sci.
Technol. 49 (3), 183188.
Beck, M., 2005. Vulnerability of water quality in intensively developing urban
watersheds. Environ. Modell. Softw. 20 (4), 381400.
Bellal, M., Sillen, X., Zech, Y., 1996. Coupling GIS with a Distributed Hydrological
Model for Studying the Effect of Various Urban Planning Options on Rainfallrunoff Relationship in Urbanized watersheds, vol. 235. IAHS-AISH Publication
(pp. 99106).
Berezowski, T., Chormanski, J., Batelaan, O., Canters, F., Van de Voorde, T., 2012.
Impact of remotely sensed land-cover proportions on urban runoff production.
Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 16, 5465.
Berndtsson, R., Niemczynowicz, J., 1988. Spatial and temporal scales in rainfall
analysis some aspects and future perspectives. J. Hydrol. 100 (13), 293313.
Berne, A., Delrieu, G., Creutin, J.D., Obled, C., 2004. Temporal and spatial resolution
of rainfall measurements required for urban hydrology. J. Hydrol. 299 (34),
166179.
Berthier, E., Andrieu, H., Creutin, J.D., 2004. The role of soil in the generation of
urban runoff: development and evaluation of a 2D model. J. Hydrol. 299 (34),
252266.
Berthier, E., Dupont, S., Mestayer, P.G., Andrieu, H., 2006. Comparison of two
evapotranspiration schemes on a sub-urban site. J. Hydrol. 328 (34), 635646.
Beven, K.J., 2008. RainfallRunoff Modelling. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester,
England (February 2008 received).
79
Blschl, G., Sivapalan, M., 1995. Scale issues in hydrological modelling: a review.
Hydrol. Process. 9 (34), 251290.
Boyd, M.J., Bull, M.C., Knee, R.M., 1993. Pervious and impervious runoff in urban
catchments. Hydrol. Sci. J. 38 (6), 463478.
Brabec, E., Schulte, S., Richards, P.L., 2002. Impervious surface and water quality: a
review of current literature and its implications for watershed planning. J. Plan.
Lit. 16 (4), 499514.
Braud, I., Fletcher, T.D., Andrieu, H., 2013. Hydrology of per-urban catchments:
process and modelling. J. Hydrol. 485, 14.
Bronstert, A., Carrera, J., Kabat, P., Ltkemeier, S., 2005. Coupled models for the
Hydrological Cycle. Integrating Atmosphere, Biosphere, and Pedosphere.
Springer.
Brun, S.E., Band, L.E., 2000. Simulating runoff behavior in an urbanizing watershed.
Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 24 (1), 522.
Brutsaert, W. (Ed.), 2005. Hydrology an Introduction, rst ed. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Burian, S.J., Edwards, F.G., 2002. Historical Perspectives of Urban Drainage. Portland,
Oregon, sn.
Burns, D., Vitvar, T., McDonnell, J., Hassett, J., Duncan, J., Kendall, C., 2005. Effects of
suburban development on runoff generation in the Croton River basin, New
York, USA. J. Hydrol. 311 (14), 266281.
Carey, R.O., Hochmuth, G.J., Martinez, D.J., Boyer, T.H., Dukes, M.D., Toor, G.S., Cisar,
J.L., 2013. Evaluating nutrient impacts in urban watersheds: challenges and
research opportunities. Environ. Pollut. 173, 138149.
Carle, M.V., Halpin, P.N., Stow, C.A., 2005. Patterns of watershed urbanization and
impacts on water quality. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 41 (3), 693708.
CEC, 2007. Directive Concerning EU Floods. 2007/60/EEC. CEC, Luxemburg.
CEN, 1996. Drain and Sewers Systems Outside Buildings Part 2: Performance
Requirements, European Standards, European Committee for Standardization
CEN, Brussels, Belgium.
CEN, 1997. Drain and Sewer Systems Outside Buildings Part 4: Hydraulic Design
and Environmental Considerations, European Standard, European Committee
for Standardization CEN, Brussels, Belgium.
Changming, L., Jingjie, Y., Kendy, E., 2001. Groundwater exploitation and its impact
on the environment in the north China plain. Water Int. 26 (2), 265272.
Chen, J., Arleen, A.H., Lensyl, D.U., 2009. A GIS-based model for ood inundation. J.
Hydrol. 373 (12), 184192.
Cheng, L., Zongxue, X., Wang, D., Cai, X., 2011. Assessing interannual variability of
evapotranspiration
at
the
catchment
scale
using
satellite-based
evapotranspiration data sets. Water Resour. Res. 47 (9), W09509.
Chormanski, J., Van de Voorde, T., De Roeck, T., Batelaan, O., Canters, F., 2008.
Improving distributed runoff prediction in urbanized catchments with remote
sensing based estimates of impervious surface cover. Sensors 8 (2), 910932.
Cronin, A.A., Taylor, R.G., Powell, K.L., Barrett, M.H., Trowsdale, S.A., Lerner, D.N.,
2003. Temporal variations in the depth-specic hydrochemistry and sewagerelated microbiology of an urban sandstone aquifer, Nottingham, United
Kingdom. Hydrogeol. J. 11 (2), 205216.
Cuo, L., Lettenmaier, D.P., Mattheussen, B.V., Storck, P., Wiley, M., 2008. Hydrologic
prediction for urban watersheds with the distributed hydrology soil
vegetation model. Hydrol. Process. 22 (21), 42054213.
Dabberdt, W.F., Hales, J., Zubrick, S., Crook, A., Krajewski, W., Doran, K.C., Mueller, C.,
King, C., Keener, R.N., Bornstein, R., Rodenhuis, D., Kocin, P., Rossetti, M.A.,
Sharrocks, F., Stanley, E.M., 2000. Forecast issues in the urban zone: report of
the 10th prospectus development team of the U.S. weather research program.
Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 81 (9), 20472064.
Danso-Amoako, E., Scholz, M., Kalimeris, N., Yang, Q., Shao, J., 2012. Predicting dam
failure risk for sustainable ood retention basins: a generic case study for the
wider Great Manchester area. Comput. Environ. Urban Syst. 36 (5), 423433.
David, O., Ascough II, J.C., Lloyd, W., Green, T.R., Rojas, K.W., Leavesley, G.H., Ahuja,
L.R., 2013. A software engineering perspective on environmental modeling
framework design: the object modeling system. Environ. Modell. Softw. 39,
201213.
De Vleeschauwer, K., Weustenraad, J., Nolf, C., Wolfs, V., De Meulder, B., Shannon, K.,
Willems, P., 2014. Greenblue water in the city: quantication of impact of
source control versus end-of-pipe solutions on sewer and river oods. Water
Sci. Technol. 70 (11), 18251837.
DeFries, R., Eshleman, N.K., 2004. Land-use change and hydrologic processes: a
major focus of the future. Hydrol. Process. 18 (11), 21832186.
Delleur, J.W., 2003. The evolution of urban hydrology: past, present, future. J.
Hydraul. Eng. ASCE 129 (8), 563573.
Dingman, S.L., 2002. Physical Hydrology, second ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.
Dirckx, G., Bixio, D., Thoeye, C., De Gueldre, G., Van De Steene, B., 2009. Dilution of
sewage in Flanders mapped with mathematical and tracer methods. Urban
Water J. 6 (2), 8192.
Dixon, B., Earls, J., 2012. Effects of urbanization on streamow using SWAT with real
and simulated meteorological data. Appl. Geogr. 35 (12), 174190.
Dixon, P.G., Mote, T.L., 2003. Patterns and causes of Atlantas urban heat islandinitiated precipitation. J. Appl. Meteorol. 42 (9), 12731284.
Dotto, C.B.S., Kleidorfer, L., Deletic, A., Rauch, W., McCarthy, D.T., Fletcher, T.D.,
2011. Performance and sensitivity of stormwater models using a Bayesian
approach and long-term high resolution data. Environ. Modell. Softw. 26 (10),
12251239.
Dujardin, J., Batelaan, O., Canters, F., Boel, S., Anibas, C., Bronders, J., 2011. Improving
surface-subsurface water budgeting using high resolution satellite imagery
applied on a browneld. Sci. Total Environ. 409 (4), 800809.
80
Easton, Z.M., Grard-Merchant, P., Walter, M.T., Petrovic, A.M., Steenhuis, T.S., 2007.
Hydrologic assessment of an urban variable source watershed in the northeast
United States. Water Resour. Res. 43 (3), W03413.
Egodawatta, P., Ziyath, A., Goonetilleke, A., 2013. Characterizing metal build-up on
urban road surfaces. Environ. Pollut. 176, 8791.
Einfalt, T., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Golz, C., Jensen, N.-E., Quirmbach, M., Vaes, G.,
Vieux, B., 2004. Towards a roadmap for use of radar rainfall data in urban
drainage. J. Hydrol. 299 (34), 186202.
Eiswirth, M., Wolf, L., Htzl, H., 2003. Balancing the contaminant input into urban
water resources. Environ. Geol. 46 (2), 246256.
European Parliament, Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 23 October 2000 Establishing a Framework for Community Action in
the Field of Water Policy.
Fabry, F., Bellon, A., Ducan, M., Austin, G., 1994. High resolution rainfall
measurements by radar for very small basins: the sampling problem
reexamined. J. Hydrol. 161 (14), 415428.
Fassman-Beck, E., Voyde, E., Simcock, R., Hong, Y.S., 2013. 4 Living roofs in 3
locations: does conguration affect runoff mitigation? J. Hydrol. 490, 1120.
Faulkner, D.S., Barber, S., 2009. Performance of the revitalised ood hydrograph
method. J. Flood Risk Manage. 2 (4), 254261.
Fewtrell, T.J., Neal, J.C., Bates, P.D., Harrison, P.J., 2011. Geometric and structural
river channel complexity and the prediction of urban inundation. Hydrol.
Process. 25 (20), 31733186.
Fletcher, T.D., Andrieu, H., Hamel, P., 2013. Understanding, management and
modelling of urban hydrology and its consequences for receiving waters: a state
of the art. Adv. Water Resour. 51, 261279.
Foster, S.S.D., 1990. Impacts of Urbanization on Groundwater. Hydrological
Processes and Water Management in Urban Areas, vol. 198. IAHS Publication
(pp. 187207).
Foster, S.S.D., Chilton, P.J., 2003. Groundwater: the processes and global signicance
of aquifer degradation. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London Ser. B Biol. 358 (1440),
19571972.
Franczyk, J., Chang, H., 2009. The effect of climate change and urbanization on the
runoff of the Rock Creek basin in the Portland metropolitan area, Oregon, USA.
Hydrol. Process. 23 (6), 805815.
Garcia-Fresca, B., Sharp, J.M., 2005. Hydrogeological considerations of urban
development: urban-induced recharge. Rev. Eng. Geol. 16, 123136.
Gires, A., Tchiguirinskaia, I., Schertzer, D., Schellart, A., Berne, A., Lovejoy, S., 2014.
Inuence of small rainfall variability on standard comparison tools between
radar and rain gauge data. Atmos. Res. 138, 125138.
Girons, J., Niemann, J.D., Roesner, L.A., Rodriguez, F., Andrieu, H., 2009. A morphoclimatic instantaneous unit hydrograph model for urban catchments based on
the kinematic wave approximation. J. Hydrol. 377 (34), 317334.
Girons, J., Niemann, J.D., Roesner, L.A., Rodriguez, F., Andrieu, H., 2010. Evaluation
of methods for representing urban terrain in storm-water modeling. J. Hydrol.
Eng. 15 (1), 114.
Gbel, P., Stubbe, H., Weinert, M., Zimmermann, J., Fach, S., Dierkes, C., Kories, H.,
Messer, J., Mertsch, V., Geiger, W.F., Coldewey, W.G., 2004. Near-natural
stormwater management and its effects on the water budget and
groundwater surface in urban areas taking account of the hydrogeological
conditions. J. Hydrol. 299 (34), 267283.
Greene, R.G., Cruise, J.F., 1995. Urban watershed modeling using geographic
information-system. J. Water Res. Plan. ASCE 121 (4), 318325.
Grimmond, C.S.B., Oke, T.R., 1991. An evapotranspiration-interception model for
urban areas. Water Resour. Res. 27 (7), 17391755.
Hall, M.J., 1984. Urban Hydrology. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.
Hamdi, R., Termonia, P., Baguis, P., 2010. Effects of urbanization and climate change
on surface runoff of the Brussels Capital Region: a case study using and urban
soil-vegetation-atmosphere-transfer model. Int. J. Climatol. 31 (13), 1959
1974.
Hamel, P., Fletcher, T.D., 2013. Modelling the impact of stormwater source control
inltration techniques on catchment baseow. Hydrol. Process. 28 (24), 5817
5831.
Hancock, P.J., 2002. Human impacts on the stream-groundwater exchange zone.
Environ. Manage. 29 (6), 763781.
Hendriks, M.R., 2010. Introduction to Physical Hydrology. Oxford University Press.
Hsu, M.H., Chen, S.H., Chang, T.J., 2000. Inundation simulation for urban drainage
basin with storm sewer system. J. Hydrol. 234 (12), 2137.
Huang, S., Cheng, S., Wen, J., Lee, J., 2008. Identifying peak-imperviousnessrecurrence relationships on a growing-impervious watershed, Taiwan. J. Hydrol.
362 (34), 320336.
Huber, W.C., Dickinson, R.E., 1988. Storm Water Management Model. Users
Manual. Ver. IV, sl: US EPA Environmental Protection Agency.
Huff, F.A., Changnon, S.A.J., 1972. Climatological assessment of urban effects on
precipitation at St. Louis. J. Appl. Meteorol. 11 (5), 823842.
Hurford, A.P., Maksimovic, C., Leitao, J.P., 2010. Urban pluvial ooding in Jakarta:
applying state-of-the-art technology in a data scarce environment. Water Sci.
Technol. 62 (10), 22462255.
Im, S., Kim, L., Kim, C., Jang, C., 2009. Assessing the impacts of land use changes on
watershed hydrology using MIKE SHE. Environ. Geol. 57 (1), 231239.
Jacobson, C.R., 2011. Identication and quantication of the hydrological impacts of
imperviousness in urban catchments: a review. J. Environ. Manage. 92 (6),
14381448.
Jia, Y., Ni, G., Kawahara, Y., Suetsugi, T., 2001. Development of WEP model and its
application to an urban watershed. Hydrol. Process. 15 (11), 21752194.
Jonkman, S.N., Vrijling, J.K., 2008. Loss of life due to oods. J. Flood Risk Manage. 1
(1), 4356.
Joss, A., Siegrist, H., Ternes, T.A., 2008. Are we about to upgrade wastewater
treatment for removing organic micropollutants? Water Sci. Technol. 57 (2),
251255.
Kang, I.S., Park, J.I., Singh, V.P., 1998. Effect of urbanization on runoff characteristics
of the On-Cheon stream watershed in Pusan, Korea. Hydrol. Process. 12 (2),
351363.
Kim, Y.-Y., Lee, K.-K., Sung, I.H., 2001. Urbanization and the groundwater budget,
metropolitan Seoul area, Korea. Hydrogeol. J. 9 (4), 401412.
Kjeldsen, T.R., Stewart, E.J., Packman, J.C., Folwell, S.S., Bayliss, A.C., 2005.
Revitalisation of the FSR/FEH rainfall-runoff method., CEH Wallingford, UK:
Defra R&D Technical Report FD1913/TR.
Kleidorfer, M., Deletic, A., Fletcher, T.D., Rauch, W., 2009. Impact of input data
uncertainties on urban stormwater model parameters. Water Sci. Technol. 60
(6), 15451554.
Kleme, V., 1983. Conceptualization and scale in hydrology. J. Hydrol. 65 (13), 1
23.
Krebs, G., Kokkonen, T., Setl, H., Koivusalo, H., 2014. Spatial resolution
considerations for urban hydrological modelling. J. Hydrol. 512, 482497.
Kron, W., Steuer, M., Lw, P., Wirtz, A., 2012. How to deal properly with a natural
catastrophe database analysis of ood losses. Nat. Hazards Earth Sys. 12 (3),
535550.
Labadie, J.W., Wan, Y., 2010. Fuzzy optimal control of reservoir-assisted stormwater
treatment areas for aquatic ecosystem restoration. Environ. Modell. Softw. 25,
16921701.
Lee, J.G., Heaney, J.P., 2003. Estimation of urban imperviousness and its impacts on
storm water systems. J. Water Res. Plan. ASCE 129 (5), 419426.
Leniak, G.F., Olchin, G., Goodall, J., Voinov, A., Hill, M., Glynn, P., Whelan, G., Geller,
G., Quinn, N., Blind, M., Peckham, S., Reaney, S., Gaber, N., Kennedy, R., Hughes,
A., 2013. Integrated environmental modeling: a vision and roadmap for the
future. Environ. Modell. Softw. 39, 323.
Leopold, L.B., 1968. Hydrology for Urban Land Planning A guidebook on the
Hydrologic Effects of urban Land Use. U.S. Government Printing Ofce,
Washington.
Lerner, D.N., 1990. Groundwater recharge in urban areas. Atmos. Environ. Part B
Urban Atmos. 24 (1), 2933.
Lerner, D.N., 2002. Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeol.
J. 10 (1), 143152.
Lhomme, J., Bouvier, C., Perrin, J.-L., 2004. Applying a GIS-based geomorphological
routing model in urban catchments. J. Hydrol. 299 (34), 203216.
Mackay, R., Last, E., 2010. SWITCH city water balance: a scoping model for
integrated urban water management. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 9 (4), 291
296.
Maidment, D.R., 1992. Handbook of Hydrology. Mc-Graw-Hill Inc., New York, USA.
Mark, O., Weesakul, S., Apirumanekul, C., Aroonnet, S.B., Djordjevic, S., 2004.
Potential and limitations of 1D modelling of urban ooding. J. Hydrol. 299 (34),
284299.
Marsalek, J., Jimnez-Cisneros, B., Karamouz, M., Malmquist, P.-A., Goldenfum, J.,
Chocat, B., 2007. Urban Water Cycle Processes and Interactions: Urban Water
Series UNESCO-IHP. Springer, Berlin.
McColl, C., Aggett, G., 2007. Land-use forecasting and hydrologic model integration
for improved land-use decision support. J. Environ. Manage. 84 (4), 494512.
Meja, A.I., Moglen, G.E., 2010. Impact of the spatial distribution of imperviousness
on the hydrologic response of an urbanizing basin. Hydrol. Process. 24 (23),
33593373.
Meyer, S.C., 2005. Analysis of base ow trends in urban streams, northeastern
Illinois, USA. Hydrogeol. J. 13 (56), 871885.
Mitchell, V.G., Diaper, C., 2005. UVQ: a tool for assessing the water and
contamination balance impacts of urban development scenarios. Water Sci.
Technol. 52 (12), 9198.
Mitchell, V.G., McMahon, T.A., Mein, R.G., 2003. Components of the total water
balance of an urban catchment. Environ. Manage. 32 (6), 735746.
Mitchell, V.G., Duncan, H., Inman, M., Rahilly, M., Stewart, J., Vieritz, A., Holt, P.,
Grant, A., Fletcher, T.D., Coleman, J., Maheepala, S., Sharma, A., Deletic, A., Breen,
P., 2007. State of the Art Review of Integrated Urban Water Models. Lyon,
France, sn, pp. 507514.
Mitchell, V.G., Cleugh, H.A., Grimmond, C.S.B., Xu, J., 2008. Linked urban water
balance and energy balance models to analyse urban design options. Hydrol.
Process. 22 (16), 28912900.
Moglen, G.E., Kim, S., 2007. Limiting imperviousness are threshold-based policies
a good idea? J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 73 (2), 161171.
Morris, B., Rueedi, J., Cronin, A.A., Diaper, C., DeSilva, D., 2007. Using linked process
models to improve urban groundwater management: an example from
Doncaster England. Water Environ. J. 21 (4), 229240.
Nagler, P., 2011. The role of remote sensing observations and models in hydrology:
the science of evapotranspiration. Hydrol. Process. 25 (26), 39773978.
Niemczynowicz, J., 1999. Urban hydrology and water management present and
future challenges. Urban Water 1 (1), 114.
Nouri, H., Beecham, S., Hassanli, A.M., Kazemi, F., 2013a. Water requirements of
urban landscape plants: a comparison of three factor-based approaches. Ecol.
Eng. 57, 276284.
Nouri, H., Beecham, S., Kazemi, F., Hassanli, A.M., 2013b. A review of ET
measurement techniques for estimating the water requirements of urban
landscape vegetation. Urban Water J. 10 (4), 247259.
81
Shuttleworth, W.J., 2007. Putting the vap into evaporation. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sc.
11 (1), 210244.
Singh, R., Maheshwari, B., Malano, H.M., 2009. Developing a Conceptual Model for
Water Accounting in Peri-urban Catchments. Cairns, Australia, sn, pp. 3654
3660.
Stovin, V., 2010. The potential of green roofs to manage Urban Stormwater. Water
Environ. J. 24, 192199.
Suriya, S., Mudgal, B.V., 2011. Impact of urbanization on ooding: the Thirusoolam
sub watershed a case study. J. Hydrol. 412413, 210219.
Taha, H., 1997. Urban climates and heat islands: albedo, evapotranspiration, and
anthropogenic heat. Energy Build. 25 (2), 99103.
Taylor, R.G., Cronin, A.A., Lerner, D.N., Tellam, J.H., Bottrell, S.H., Rueedi, J., Barrett,
M.H., 2006. Hydrochemical evidence of the depth of penetration of
anthropogenic recharge in sandstone aquifers underlying two mature cities in
the UK. Appl. Geochem. 21 (9), 15701592.
Te Linde, A.H., Aerts, J.C.J.H., Kwadijk, J.C.J., 2010. Effectiveness of ood management
measures on peak discharges in the Rhine basin under climate change. J. Flood
Risk Manage. 3 (4), 248269.
Thielen, J., Creutin, J.-D., 1997. An urban hydrological model with high spatial
resolution rainfall from a meteorological model. J. Hydrol. 200 (14), 5883.
Tholin, A.L., Keifer, C.J., 1960. The hydrology of urban runoff. In: Trans. ASCE 125. sl:
sn, pp. 13081379.
Thorndahl, S., Willems, P., 2008. Probabilistic modelling of overow, surcharge and
ooding in urban drainage using the rst-order reliability method and
parameterization of local rain series. Water Res. 42 (12), 455466.
Tilford, K.A., Fox, N.I., Collier, C.G., 2002. Application of weather radar data for urban
hydrology. Meteorol. Appl. 9 (1), 95104.
Tsihrintzis, V.A., Hamid, R., 1998. Runoff quality prediction from small urban
catchments using SWMM. Hydrol. Process. 12 (2), 311329.
United Nations, 2010. World Population Prospects: The 2009 Revision, New York, sn.
Valeo, C., Moin, S.M.A., 2000. Grid-resolution effects on a model for integrating
urban and rural areas. Hydrol. Process. 14 (14), 25052525.
Van de Ven, F.H.M., 1990. Water Balances of Urban Areas. Hydrological Processes
and Water Management in Urban Areas, vol. 198. IAHS Publication (pp. 2132).
Verbeiren, B., Van De Voorde, T., Canters, F., Binard, M., Cornet, Y., Batelaan, O., 2013.
Assessing urbanisation effects on rainfallrunoff using a remote sensing
supported modelling strategy. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 21, 92102.
Vieux, B.E., Bedient, P.B., 2004. Assessing urban hydrologic prediction accuracy
through event reconstruction. J. Hydrol. 299 (34), 217236.
Vizintin, G., Souvent, P., Veselic, M., Curk, C., 2009. Determination of urban
groundwater pollution in alluvial aquifer using linked process models
considering urban water cycle. J. Hydrol. 377 (34), 261273.
Voinov, A., Shugart, H., 2013. Integronsters, integral and integrated modelling.
Environ. Modell. Softw. 39, 149158.
Vrebos, D., Vansteenkiste, T., Staes, J., Willems, P., Meire, P., 2014. Water
displacement by sewer infrastructure in the Grote Nete catchment, Belgium,
and its hydrological regime effects. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 18 (3), 11191136.
Ward, R., Robinson, M., 1999. Principles of Hydrology, fourth ed. McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company, Berkshire, England.
Wei, G., Brombach, H., Haller, B., 2002. Inltration and inow in combined sewer
systems: long-term analysis. Water Sci. Technol. 45 (7), 1119.
Weng, Q., 2012. Remote sensing of impervious surfaces in the urban area:
requirements, methods, and trends. Remote Sens. Environ. 117, 3449.
Wiles, T.J., Sharp, J.M., 2008. The secondary permeability of impervious cover.
Environ. Eng. Geosci. 14 (4), 251265.
Willems, P., 2010. Parsimonious model for combined sewer overow pollution. J.
Environ. Eng. ASCE 136 (3), 316325.
Wolf, L., Klinger, J., Hoetzl, H., 2007. Quantifying mass uxes from urban drainage
systems to the urban soil-aquifer system. J. Soil. Sediment. 7 (2), 8595.
Wolfs, V., Villazon Gomez, M.F., Willems, P., 2013. Development of a semidistributed model identication and calibration tool for conceptual modeling of
sewer systems. Water Sci. Technol. 68 (1), 167175.
Wu, C., Murray, A.T., 2003. Estimating impervious surface distribution by spectral
mixture analysis. Remote Sens. Environ. 84, 493505.
Xiao, Q., McPherson, E.G., Simpson, J.R., Ustin, S.L., 2007. Hydrologic processes at the
urban residential scale. Hydrol. Process. 21 (16), 21742188.
Yang, Y., Lerner, D.N., Barrett, M.H., Tellam, J.H., 1999. Quantication of
groundwater recharge in the city of Nottingham, UK. Environ. Geol. 38 (3),
183198.
Zektser, I.S., Everett, L.G., 2004. Groundwater Resources of the World and their Use.
United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization, Paris.
Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., Gold, A.J., August, P.V., 2010. Modeling watershed rainfall-runoff
relations using impervious surface-area data with high spatial resolution.
Hydrogeol. J. 18 (6), 14131423.