Linear Vibration

Ref. :
1) Advance Calculus (Buck)
2) Analytical Method in Vibration (L.Meirovitch)
2) Computational Method in Structure Dynamics (L.Meirovitch)
3) Model Testing Theory and Practice (D.J.Ewin)
4) Classical Mechanics (H.Goldstein)
5) Methods of Applied Mathematics (F.B.Hildbrand)
6) Methods of Mathematical physics (R.Courant & D.Hildbrand)
7) Waves ( F.S.Crawford )
8) Vibration Damping (A.D.Nashif , D.I.G .Jones & J.P.Hendson)
9) Inverse Problems in Vibration (G.M.L.Gladwell)
10) Shock and Vibration Handbook (C.M.Harris & C.F.Grade)

Vibration
Mechanism

1-DOF vibration

2-DOF vibration

Coupled
-DOF ( Continuous mode )

N-DOF vibration
Wave

Finite domain
Infinite domain

Structural
Fluid
Electronic

 Mechanism about Vibration

Restoring force
Inertia force
Model 1: Mathematic pendulum
Assumptions: Weight/extension of the string are negligible
No air resistant
Rotary inertia of mass is neglected

l
mgsin

mgcos

mg

r
r
F ma

d 2l
d 2 g
mg sin m 2
sin 0 L L L L L (1)
dt
dt 2 l
Assume is small

3 5

L L sin sub. into (1)

3! 5!
d 2 g

0
dt 2 l
g
get Acos (t ) C cos t D sin t , (
natural frequency)
l
g mg
restoring force
2

l ml mass displacement
sin

d 2u
Lu m 2
dt
u V cos(t ) L L displacement
Lu m 2Vcos(t + )=m 2u 2

Lu
mu

1-D free vibration system will only vibrate with one nature frequency.
Note:
The influence of natural frequency
Length ThicknessCrackTensionTip massRotation
Boundary condition
(1) Length

(2) Thickness

(3) Crack

II Linear :
(1) superposition

L u f1 f 2

I.C.

I u g1 g 2

B.C.

B u h1 h2

Let

u u1 u2

Then
L(u1 u2 ) f 1 f 2

L u1 f 1

I ( u1 u2 ) g1 g 2

B( u1 u2 ) h1 h2

1. uniform converge
2. mean square converge
3. absolute converge
4. energe converge
(3) small deformation
1. longitudinal vibration

I u1 g1 I u2 g 2
B u1 h1

(2) converge

original length of the spring is a

the spring is a linear spring F kx

L u2 f 2

B u2 h2

 no friction
F k ( a ) k (a 2a )
2 k ( a ) M

d 2
dt 2

Let

Then M

d 2
2 k 2 k
2 k 2

M
M
dt 2

2. transverse vibration
T

l
k

at equilibrium
general

T k (a a )
T k (l a )

mx 2Tsin 2 k (l a )
2 kx (1

x
, l a2 x2
l

a
) nonlinear equation
l

< Approximation 1 >

Q a a a l and
& 2kx
mx&

a
0
l
2k
2k
&
x&
x 0 T2
m
m

< Approximation 2 >

l 2 a 2 x 2 a 2 (1 2 ) ,

x
a

1 1
1
1
3
2 2
(1 ) (1 2 4 L L )
l a
a
2
8
1
1
1
(1 2 ) if 1
a
2
a
a
a
1
& 2kx(1 ) 2kx[1 (1 2 )]
mx&
l
a
2
a
2kx(1 )
a
2k
2T
&
x&
(a a ) x x
ma
ma
2T 2k (a a )

1
T2
L
1
ma
ma
T
a 12
[1 ]
a

 Force Vibration of a Simple System

& cx& kx F (t )
mx&
Think about
& cx& kx F cos t
mx&
1, Homogeneous solution

c
k
x& x 0
m
m
c
k

, 2
m
m
Let x Ae t
Characteristic equation
&
x&

2 2 0

1,2 i1
2
2
4
x Ae1t Be 2t ( if 1 2 )

Where 1 2

case 1
2

1 0 (underdamping)
4
2

x Ae
e

t
2

( i1 ) t
2

Be

( i1 ) t
2

t
2

( Aei1t Be i1t )

( A1cos1t B1sin 1t ) C1e

t
2

cos(1t )

< case 2 >

2
0,
(criticaldamping)
4

1 2
2
2
1

One of the solutionis e

t
2

e t
The second solution is

xe

t
2

te

( A1t B1 )

Note:
(1) By the reduction order method
u2 v u1
(2)
x Ae1t Be 2t

Ae1t B e 2t e1t Be1t

A0e1t B0

e2t e 1t
2 1

where A0 A B, B0 2 1 B
as 2 1 , 2 1 0
et
x A0e B0

1t

The general solution is x A0e

t
2

However the solution in < case 1 > is

xe

t
2

A cos1t B sin 1t

As 1 0

, x e 2 t A 0

< case 1 > 1 0

B0te

t
2

A0 B0t e

t
2

te

t
2

xe

t
2

A cos 1t B

sin 1t

< case 2 > 1 0

xe

t
2

A 1

B t

sin 1t
1

1 sin 1t cos 1t

cos 1t

1 0
as t 0 , it is

0 1
it satisfies normalization condition at the origion.
< case 3 > over damping
2
(overdamping)
4
1 and 2 are two real distinct negative numbers.

x Ae 1t Be2t

2. Particular solution
& cx&
& kx F cos t
mx&
(1) Indetermination of coefficients

(2) Variation of parameters

The (1) method is based on the understanding of the force function and the
operator then guess the particular solution form. Finally, the coefficients are
determined by substituting it into the G.E.
Example 1
& kx f cos t
mx&
guess x p A cos t
then
m 2 A cos t kA cos t f cos t

m 2 k A f
A

f
k m 2

Example 2
& cx& kx f cos t
mx&
guess x A cos t B sin t
then
m 2 A cos t m 2 B sin t
c A sin t c B cos t
kA cos t kB sin t f cos t
k m 2 A c B f

2
k m B c A 0

find A and B
Method of variation of parameter
Consider

&
y&( x) p( x) y&( x) q ( x) y ( x) f ( x)
Let y1 and y2 are two linearly independent fundamental solutions
of the system.
Let y p u1 ( x) y1 ( x) u2 ( x) y2 ( x)
y&p (u&1 y1 u&2 y2 ) (u1 y&1 u2 y&2 )
Let u&1 y1 u&2 y2 0 L L L L L L L L L L L L

&
&&
&
&
&
&
y&p (u&&
1 y1 u2 y2 ) (u1 y1 u 2 y2 )
y&p into G.E.
Substituting y&p and &
&&
u&&
1 y1 u2 y2 f ( x ) L L L L L L L L L L L L L ( B )
From (A) and (B)
u&1

where

y2 f
y1 f
, u&2
w[ y1 , y2 ]
w[ y1 , y2 ]

w [ y1 , y 2 ]

u1
u2

y1
y 1

y2
0
y 2

y2 f
dx C1
w[ y1, y2 ]
y1 f
dx C2
w[ y1, y2 ]

y yh y p
The coefficients C1 and C2 can be discarded.

y p u1 y1 u2 y2

y2 t y1 y1 t y2 f t dt
W y1, y2

G s, x f s ds
( Kernal function )

&
x& x& 02 x
Let

F0
cos t
m

x p t A sin t B cos t
A

F0

Aab
m 2 2 2 2 2
0

F0
02 2
B
Ael
m 2 2 2 2 2
0

Aab

2
Ael 0 2
It implies that as the driving frequency is far away from the natural frequency
Aab = Ael
As

1 , the damping can be neglected.

02 2

Time average power in one cycle

1 t T &
FX p t dt
T t
1 t T
F0 cos t Aab cos t Aab sin t dt
T t
1
F0 Aab
2

Pinput

Pfriction

1
mx&p t x&p t dt
T

m t T 2
x&p dt
T t

m t T 2
( Aab cos 2 t 2 Aab 2 sin 2 t 2 2 Ael Aab sin t )dt

T t

1
m 2 A2 ab A2el
2

1
F0 Aab Pinput
2

1 t T
1
cos 2 tdt

T t
2
1 t T
1
Note: t sin 2 tdt
T
2
1 t T
sin t cos tdt 0
T t
Particular solution is a steady state solution and homogeneous solution is a
transient solution.
G.S.=H.S.+P.S.
X (t ) e

t
2 [C cos(
1

2
2
)t C2sin( 2 )t ] Aabsin t Ael cos t
4
4

H.W.1: Discuss Ael and Aab for following cases

a. as , as 0
b. as , as 0
c. Draw curves to illustrate the analysis

 Dynamic effect
Amplitude of force vibration
X (t ) e

as t

t
2

2
2
2
[C1cos(
t ) C2sin( t )] Aabsin t Ael cos t
4
4
2

m
cos( t )
( ) 2 2

Xp

A el

cos =

2 2

Aab2 Ael2

, sin

Aab
Aab2 Ael2

m
Aab2 Ael2
2 2
( )
2

2 2

Magnification factor
M

H
absolute value of the amplitude of force vibration

F
static deflection of the system under constant load
k
which is equal to the amplitude of driving force

2
( 2 2 ) 2 2 2

f ( ) (2 2 ) 2 2
f '( ) 2[2(2 2 ) 2 ] 0
extreme value happen at
1) 0
2
( )
2
2) 1 2 ,(to the left of 1)
2
2

 Determination of viscous damping coefficient

& cx& kx F0 cos t
mx&
(A) By transient solution
X e

Ae

t
2

t
2

( A1 cos1t B1 sin1t )
cos(1t )

Let t1 and t 2 denote the times , corresponding to two consecutive

amplitudes, measured one cycle apart for an underdamped system.

Ae

t
2

Ae

t
2

cos(1t )

t1
2

x1 Ae [cos (1t1 )]

t
2
x2
Ae 2 [cos (1t2 )]
2
2
k
2
2
where t2 t1
, 1
,
1
4
m

x1
e
x2

2
2 1

c
e exp
m

c can be obtained

e
2
2
k
c

2
m 4m 2

2 c
4 k 2 c2

Logarithmatic decrement ln

where

x1
x2

2 c
2

1
4k 2 c 2
1 2

c
, cr 2m 0 is the critical damping coefficient
cr

Two amplitudes measured by any number of computer cycle.

x1
x x
x
1 2LL m
xm1 x2 x3
xm1
e

m
1

2 c

4 k 2 c 2

(B) By steady state solution ( Half power point method )

Time average over one cycle
kinemetic energy
1 1 t T
K.E.= m x&S x&S dt
2 T t
1
1
1
= m 2 ( Aab2 Ael2 ) ( : driving frequency )
2
2
2
potential energy
1 1 t T
P.E.= k xs xs dt
2 T t
1
1
1
= m2 ( Aab2 Ael2 )
2
2
2
total energy

Es K.E. P.E.
1
1
1
m( 2 2 ) ( Aab2 Ael2 )
2
2
2
Time average power loss due to friction.
Pfr

1 1 t T
( x&s x&s )dt
2 T t

1
1
m 2 ( Aab2 Ael2 ) Pinput F Aab
2
2
If , then Es Pfr

(decay time)

1
Pinput F Aab
2
1
F

F
2
2
m ( 02 ) 2 2
2 2
P 2
L L L L L (A)
( 02 ) 2 2
F2
where P
maximum power input (as )
2m
Half power input:
Values of (driving frequency) for which the power is half of the
maximum power value.
Phalf

1
P
2

from (A)
2 2
1
( 2 2 ) 2 2 0
2
2
2 2
( )
2
2 1
1,2

4 2
2

Resonance full width (the frequency internal time average power lose due
to friction between two half power points.)
( ) R. F .W

Example:
An underdamped shock absorber is to be design for a motorcycle of mass 200kg
in Fig a, when the shock absorber is subjected to an initial vertical velocity due to
a road bump, the resulting displacement-time wave is to be indicated in Fig b.
Find
(1) The necessary stiffness and (2) the damping constants of the absorber if the
damped period of vibration is to be 2 seconds and the amplitude x is to be
reduced to be one-fourth in one half cycle.
x
200kg

x1

Fig b

Fig a

sol: x2

x2

1 x1 x1

4 4 16

x1
x
2 c
2
16 , ln 2 2.7726

x2
x2
4k 2 c 2
1 2
c
c

0.4037

cr 2m 2
T 2

2
2

4
2

2
2 1

1 2

3.4338 rad

sec

k
k

k 2358.2652 , c 2m 0 554.4981 N s
m
m 200

 Hysteretic damping ( Solid or Structural damping )

due to the friction between the internal planes that slip or slide as material
deforms.
Facts : (1) stress ( force ) strain ( displacement )relaton is
stress (force)
loading
hysteresis lood

unloading
strain (displcement)
(experimental result)

(2) It was found experimentally that the energy loss per cycle due to
internal friction is independent of the frequency.
To find an equivalent viscous damping coefficient valid only for
harmonic excitation.

x(t)

F(t)

For harmonic motion

x Asin t

F(t)=kx+cx

F (t ) kAsin t cAcos t
kx c A2 A sin t

kx c A2 x 2
Energy dissipated in one cycle
2

W
Fdx

kA sin t cA cost A cost dt

cA2
Due to fact (2) W is independent of frequency, the hysteresis damping- constant
is
h c
VW hA2
Complex stiffness
F kx cx& kAeit ic Aei t (k ic ) x k * x
(k ih) x k (1 i ) x
Determination of hysteresis damping constant
force

A
A

deflection

VW hA2
VW
h
A2

 A comparison between viscous damper and hysteresis damper

Particular solution:
F
m (2 2 ) 2 2 2
F
h2
m (2 2 ) 2 2
m

(k m 2 )2 2c 2
F
( k m 2 ) 2 h 2

f ( ) (2 2 ) 2 2 2
f ( ) 2 [2(2 2 ) 2 ] 0
extremum happens at
(1) 0
(2)

2
22

L L viscous damping

L L L L hysteresis damping

MF

1
f ( ) ( 02 2 ) 2 h

m2
f ( ) 2 [2( 02 2 )] 0
extremum happens at
(1) 0
(2) 0

Coulomb damping (dry friction)

F=N
where :coefficient of friction N :normal force
W

W
.
x

kx

kx
m

m
N

(a) When x is positive and x&is positive.

or x is negative and x&is positive.
(i.e. for the half cycle during which the mass from left to right )
& kx N
mx&
x(t)=A1 cosot A2 sin ot
where , o2

N
L L L L ( A)
k

k
m

(b) When x is positive and x&is negative.

or x is negative and x&is negative.
(i.e. mass moves from right to left )
& kx N
mx&
x(t ) A3cosot A4 sin ot
I.C.

N
L L L L ( B)
k

x(t 0) xo x&(t 0) 0 L L L L L (C )

Let x0 , x1 , x2 ,L denote the amplitude of motion at successive half cycles.

1st half cycle
From equation (B),(C)

.
x

A3 xo

k
, A4 0
k

x(t ) ( xo

N
N
)cos o
k
k

for

0t

extreme left position

o

2 N
x( ) ( xo
)
o
k

when

2nd half cycle

I.C. x(0) xo

2 N
k

x&(0) 0 L L L L L ( D)

From (A) and

A1 xo

3 N
k

A2 0
3 N
N

x t x0
for t 2
cos t
0
0
k
k

when t 2 ,(extreme right position)

0

x(

2
4 N
2
) xo
, x&( ) 0

The initial conditions for the third half cycle.

The procedure will be continuous until the motion stop.
i.e. when xn

N
, the number of half cycle
k

N
2 N N
k
xo n

n
2

N
k
k
k
xo

 Vibration of multiple degree of freedom system

&
& CX
& KX F
MX
2-D.O.F problem

Newton 2nd Law

d 2 xa
m 2 kxa k ( xa xb )
dt

(a)

d 2 xb
kxb k ( xb xa )
dt 2

(b)

There are couple equations:

(a)+(b)
d 2 ( xb xa )
m
k ( xb xa )
dt 2
Let x1 xa xb
d 2 x1
then m 2 kx1
dt

 x1 (t ) A1 cos (1t 1 ) , 12

k
m

(a) (b)
d 2 ( xa xb )
m
3k ( xa xb )
dt 2
x2 xa xb

let
then

d 2 x2
m 2 3kx
2
dt

x2 A2 cos (2t 2 ) , 2

Let x1 xa xb

3k
m

x2 xa xb

1
( x1 x2 )
2
1
xb ( x1 x2 )
2

xa

1
[ A1 cos (1t 1 ) A2 cos (2t 2 )]
2
1
[ A1 cos (1t 1 ) A2 cos (2t 2 )]
2

A1 , A2 , 1 and 2 are four constants to be determined from four initial conditions.

xa
1
x 2 A1

b
For N-DOF problem

Remarks

1
1
1 cos (1t 1 ) 2 A 2

1
1 cos ( 2t 2 )

(1) The vibration is a superposition of two kinds of vibration with two different
angular frequencies.
(2) Suitable I.C. will excite only one kind of vibration
G.E. in matrix form

d 2 xa
m 2
a11 a12 xa
dt

a
a22 xb
d 2 xb

21
m 2
dt

Looking for time harmonic solution of the form

xa
A
x B cos t

b
then the above equation becomes :
a11 a12
a

21 a22

A
2 A
cos

B cos t
B

a a A
A
11 12 2
a22
B
B
a21

where aij

aij
m

For one problem

d 2 xa
m 2
2k
dt

k
d 2 xb

m 2
dt

k xa
0
2k xb

 2k
m

k
m A
2
0 ,
2k B

2 k k
0

m
m
1,2
I. for

k 3k
k
3k
,

,
m m
m
m

k
m
k
m

k
m

II. for

k
A 1
m A
C1
0
k B
B 1
m

3k
m
k
m

k
m

k
A 1
m A
C2
0
k B
B

1
m

Consider a general N-D system, where the mass of each particles are not the
same
&
& KX 0
MX
Let X A cos t
2MA cos t KA cos t 0
(1) KX 2MX MX
M 1KX X
(2) DX X

Conclusions:
(1) The general motion of a n degree free vibration problem is the superposition
of n linearly independent single time harmonic motion (vibration modes,
normal modes) all going on simultaneously. By suitable initial conditions, we
can get the system to vibrate in only one mode. When only one mode is
presented, each moving parts undergoes simple harmonic motion. All parts
oscillate with the same frequency and pass through equilibrium points
simultaneously.
(2) Free vibration is equivalent to the eigenvalue problem in mathematics. The
eigenvalue is the square of the nature frequency. The eigenvector are
vibration modes.
(3) From 2-D.O.F problem
x1 xa xb

xa
1 1 1

x2 xa xb xb
2 1 1

x1
x
2

The transformation eigenvector of independent variables seems to have certain

relation with eigenvectors.
HW:
Extend the study of the example to a 3-DOF problem.

 Othogonal transformation
Theorem 1:
The eigenvactors associated to sufficient eigenvalues of a symmetric
matrix are orthogonal to each other.
Theorem 2:
The eigenvectors (eigenfunction) of a matrix (operator) will orthogonal to the
eigenvectors the corresponding to different eigenvalues of corresponding
transpose matrix (adjoint operator)
Proof:
Let AX X
AT Y Y
then
Y, AX YT AX Y, X
take transpose
XT AT Y X, AT Y X,Y X,Y
X,Y 0
if
then X,Y 0
Lemma:
For a positive definite symmetric matrix, there exists a set of eigenvectors those
are orthogonal to each other.
HW#2
(a) Give 4 different necessary and sufficient conditions for a positive definite
matrix.
(b) Show that for any symmetric matrix, there exist one set of complete
orthonormal eigenvectors. ( Theorem 1)
(c) Show that the eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix are real.

Example 11-1:
1 2
A

0 2
eigenvalues 1,2
2
5
1
normalized eigenvectors of A are e1 e2
1
0
5
normalized eigenvectors of AT are
1
5
e1 e2 *
1
e1*
e2*
e2 e1 *
2
0
5
Example 11-2:
25 0 0
A 0 34 12

0 12 41

A I 25 2 75 1250 0

1 2 25, 3 50
For 3 50

0
25 0 0

0 16 12 e 0, e 3
3

3
5
0 12 9
4

5
For 25
0 0
0
0 9 12 e 0

0 12 16
rank = 1, we have two linearly independent vector solutions.


0
1

4

e1 0 , e 2

5
0
3

5
e1 , e 2 are not unique. Here, e i , e j 0 i, j 1, 2,3 i j

Let A be symmetric

1 , 2 , 3 ,......................., n are eigenvalues.

e1 ,e 2 ,e 3 , .....................,en are orthonormal eigenvectors.
Aei ei
:
:
: : :
: : :
:
:

A e1 e 2 e 3 ....... en

:
:
:
:
:

: : :
:
:

: : :
: :
: : :
: :

e1 e 2 e 3 ....... en

:
:
:
:
:

: : :
: :

Q is nonsingular ,ie., Q 0

1 0 0 ..... 0
0 2 0 ...... 0
0 0 :
0
0

0 0 ... :
0
0 0 ... ... n

 1
0

AQ Q 0

0
0

Q AQ

0 0 ..... 0
2 0 ...... 0
0 :
0
0

0 ... :
0
0 ... ... n
1 0 0 ..... 0
0 2 0 ...... 0

0 0 :
0
0

0 0 ... :
0
0 0 ... ... n

Q QT Q I
Q T Q 1

1 0 0 ..... 0
0 0 ...... 0
2

T
Q AQ 0 0 :
0
0

0
0 0 ... :
0 0 ... ... n
For the problem :
..

MX f
Let X QY
where is the matrix formed the orthogonal eigenvectors of M
then
..
MQ Y f
..
Q T M Q Y QT f

1 0 0 ..... 0
0 0 ...... 0
2

..
0 0 :
0
0 Y QT f

0
0
...
:
0

0 0 ... ... n
Discuss :
(1) l 2 X, X X T X YQ T QY Y T Y Y,Y l12

length is conservative

Z QS
T T
(2) X,Z Y Q Z
Y TQ T QS

Y ,S
where X,Y,Z and S are uint vectors
So, angle is conservative.
Theorem:
If at least one of the two real quadratic forms
T XT AX, S XTBXT
is positive definite then it is always possible to reduce the two
forms simultaneously to canonical forms ( i.e. to diagonalize) by
a non-singular tranformation.
Step 1
Rotation
X Qy

( Q formed by the orthonormal eigenvectors of A )

T y TQ T AQy,

S y TQ TBQy

=y T

0
Step 2
Scaling

1
1

1
2

Let

y N
1

T TNT

N T

S T N TQ TBQN TG
Stop 3
R

( R formed by the orthonormal eigenvector of G )

T T R T R T
1

S T R T GR T

Where 1 , 2 , , n are eigenvalue of G

X Qy QN QNR P

 kX f
MX
X P
P T kP P T f
P T MP

For

F get

Think about :

CX
kX f
MX
classical damping problems
( proportional damping )
when C aM bk
The system can be diagonalized by a non-singular transformation
& aP TMP bP TkP & P TkP P Tf
P TMP&

Reference :
1. F. E. udwadia / R. S. Esfandiari

ASME , J. Applied Mechanics . Vol 57, pp 423-433 (1990).

2. G.L.Cronic
Approximation for determing harmonicaaly exciting response of
non-classical damped system
ASME , J. Engineering for Industry . Vol 96 , pp 43-47 (1976).

zg
3. H. N. O
u ven

J. Sound and Vibration . Vol 117, pp 213-228 (1987).

Complex modal Analysis

&
& CX
& KX f n degree problem.
MX

MX
0
add MX

&
&
& 0
M 0 X
0 M X

M C &
0 K X f

A
B
P
Let

&
X

then A 2 n2 n&2 n B 2 n2 n P2 n eit

can be solved by introducing transformation to diagonalizing the
equation.
complex eigenvalues and complex modes will happen.
Reference :
Hurty / Robinstein , Dynamic of structure , chapter 10 (1964).
Complex Model Analysis

Example :

l
k

F cos t
xa

xb

G.E.
mg
xa k xa xb mx&a F0 cos t
l
mg
&
mx&
xb k xb xa mx&b
b
l
&
mx&
a

In the matrix form

m 0
0 m

&
x&
a

&
x&
b

mg
k

m 0 x&a

x&
0
m

X P
1

P 12

1
2
1
2

g
g 2k
and 2
l
l m

P T MP P T CP P T KP P T f

k


mg
k
l

xa
F0 cos
t

xb
0

 m 0

0 m

mg
l
m 0
&
&
&

0 m

F
cos

2
t

mg
1

2k
F cos t

After having 1 and 2

1
1
2

1
xb
1
2

xa
1

P
x

2
b

xa

1
2
2
1
2
2

1 12 0

Note:

As l

2
2 2

2k
m

H.W2. (1) Show that the Aab and Ael of this 2-D problem is

1 F0
12 2
22 2

Ael

2 m 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1

1 F0

Aab

2 m 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1

(mode 1: +

mode 2: - )

(2) Draw the curves of Aab Ael

(3) Derive/Draw the curve of power input and examines that
a. 2 ? 1
b. 2 is closed to 1