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*7 ;of The WorldBank

EDI-13

The Role of
CommunityParticipation
in DevelopmentPlanning
and Project Management

MichaelBamberger

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r13

AN EDI POLICY SEMINAR REPORT * NUMBER 13

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AN EDI POLICYSEMINARREPoRT * No. 13

The Role of Community Participation

in Development Planning
and Project Management
Report of a Workshop on Community Participation
held in Washington D.C.,
September 22-25, 1986

Michael Bamberger

The World Bank

Washington, D.C.

Copyright 1988
The InternationalBank for ReconstructionandDevelopment/ THEWORLDBANK
1818H Street,N.W.
Washington,D.C.20433,U.S.A.
All rightsreserved
Manufacturedin the UnitedStatesof America
FirstprintingOctober1988
The EconomicDevelopmentInstitute(EDI) was establishedby the WorldBank in 1955to train
officialsconcernedwith developmentplanning,policymaking,investmentanalysis,and projectimplementationin memberdevelopingcountries.Atpresentthe substanceof theEDI's workemphasizes
macroeconomicand sectoraleconomicpolicyanalysis.Througha varietyof courses,seminars,and
workshops,most of whichare givenoverseasin cooperationwith localinstitutions,the EDI seeksto
sharpenanalyticalskills used in policy analysisand to broadenunderstandingof the experienceof
individualcountrieswitheconomicdevelopment.In additionto furtheringthe EDI's pedagogicalobjectives,Policy Seminarsprovideforumsforpolicymakers,academics,andBank staff to exchange
viewson currentdevelopmentissues,proposals,andpractices.Althoughthe EDI's publicationsare
designedto supportits training activities,many are of interestto a muchbroaderaudience.EDI materials,includingany findings,interpretations,and conclusions,are entirelythoseof the authorsand
shouldnotbeattributedin anymannerto the WorldBank,to its affiliatedorganizations,or to members
of its Boardof ExecutiveDirectorsor the countriestheyrepresent.
Becauseof the informalityof thisseriesand to makethepublicationavailablewith the leastpossible
delay,the typescripthas notbeenpreparedandeditedas fullyas wouldbe the casewitha moreformal
document,and the WorldBankacceptsno responsibilityforerrors.
Thebacklistof publicationsby the WorldBankis shownin theannualIndex ofPublications,which
is availablefrom PublicationsSalesUnit,The WorldBank,1818H Street,N.W.,Washington,D.C.
20433,U.S.A.,or fromPublications,Banquemondiale,66, avenued'Idna, 75116Paris,France.
MichaelBambergeris a seniortrainingofficerin the Coordinationand DevelopmentAdministration
Division,EconomicDevelopmentInstitute,the World Bank.
Libraryof CongressCataloging-in Publication Data
Bamberger,Michael.
The role of communityparticipationin developmentplanningand
project management : reportof the EconomicDevelopmentInstitute
Workshopon CommunityParticipation,Washington,September22-25,
1986 / MichaelBamberger.
p. cm. -- (An EDI policy seminar report ; no. 13)

ISBN0-8213-1100-X
1. Economicdevelopmentprojects--Management--Congresses.
2. Communitydevelopment--Management--Congresses.
3. Economic
development--Social
aspects--Congresses. I. EconomicDevelopment
Institutute(Washington,D.C.) II. EconomicDevelopmentInstitute
Workshopin CommunityParticipation(1986: Washington,D.C.)
III. Title. IV. Series.
HD75.8.B35 1987
338.9'0068--dcl9
EDI CatalogNo. 076/002

88-24298
ISSN 1012-490X

Foreword
This document is one of a series reportingon policy seminarsorganizedby the Economic
DevelopmentInstitute of the World Bank. Policy seminarsprovide a forum for an informal
exchangeof ideasand experiencesamongpolicymakersfrom differentcountries,leadingexpertsin
development,and WorldBank staff withrespectto majorissuesof developmentpolicy.
Policyseminarreportsfocuson issuesraisedduringseminarsthat maybe of interestto a wider
audience.They are not intendedto be comprehensiveproceedings.However,they seek to convey
the essenceof the discussionthat took place and to bring out any principalareasof agreementor
disagreementthat emergedamongstthoseparticipating.
ChristopherR. Willoughby
Director
EconomicDevelopmentInstitute
of The WorldBank

iii'

Contents
Executive Summary
1. Introduction

vii

EmergingConcerns 2
The Workshop 2

2. Community Participation Defined

3. The State of the Art: What Do We Know about the Organization

and Potential Impacts of Participatory Approaches?
9
PotentialBenefitsand Costsof CommunityParticipation 9
SuccessfulImplementationof ParticipatoryApproaches 11
Beyondthe ProjectCycle 14
4. The Treatment of Community Participation
Activities
15
5. The EDI's Role

in EDI Training

17

EDI's PotentialRolein CommunityParticipation 17

Strengtheningthe Coverageof CommunityParticipationin EDI's
CurrentTrainingActivities 19

6. Proposed Strategy

23

RegionalSeminarson CommunityParticipation 23
DevelopingModulesfor RegularEDITrainingActivities 23
Strategiesfor DevelopingTeachingMaterials 24
Coordinationwith OtherOganizations 25

Annexes
A. Listof Participants 27
B. WorkshopTimetable 31
C. Contentsof Readingsin CommunityParticipation:PapersPresented
at theEDI Workshop 33

References

35

Executive Summary
TheEDI has beenconcernedfor sometime that mostof its trainingprogramspay littleattention
to the social aspects of development.Coursesand seminarsreflect the economic,financial,and
technical approaches of the World Bank, and little attention is given to issues such as the
involvementof intendedbeneficiariesin the planningand implementationof projects,applications
of socialanalysisin developmentplanning,and genderissuesin developmentplanningand project
management.
Several factors have contributedto an increasing recognitionof the need to address social
aspects of development.First is the accumulatingevidence about the effects that beneficiary
participationin project design and managementhave on the efficiencyof implementation,cost
recovery,and projectsustainability.Secondis the limitedcapacityof nationaland local government
agenciesto manageeffectivelythe increasingnumberof developmentprojectsand programs.Third
is the belief that developmentplannershave a moralobligationto "listen to the people,"both to
understandtheirneeds and to assesshow theirlives are actuallybeing affectedby donor-sponsored
projectsand policies.A final factoris the concernover genderissues.Womenarenot able to make
their full contributionor receivetheir full shareof benefitsunlessprojectsaredesignedto take into
accountthe specialneedsand potentialsof women.
To addresstheseconcernsan internationalworkshopon communityparticipationwasorganized
in Washington from September 22 to 25, 1986, to help the EDI define how to incorporate
communityparticipationmaterialintotrainingactivities.Theworkshopwas attendedby participants
from governmentand nongovernmentorganizationsin Asia, Africa,and Latin Americaand the
Caribbean working in the areas of urban development,rural development,and population and
health; representativesof internationalorganizations;and Bank staff from the Water and Urban
Development, Population, Health and Nutrition, and Agriculture and Rural Development
departments.Twenty-onepapers werepreparedfor the workshopand were subsequentlycompiled
in a two-volumeset of readings.
The most importantoutcomefor the EDI wasthe surprisinglygeneralconsensuson the key role
that theEDI can playin promotingcommunityparticipation.As part of the WorldBank,the EDIis
consideredto enjoy a number of unique advantages. In addition to its access to World Bank
experience,information,and lecturers,the EDI also has accessto senior governmentofficialsand is
ableto "legitimize"issues.
Community Participation Defined
Therewasbroad acceptanceof the definitionproposedby SamuelPaul:
"In the context of development, community participation refers to an active process

wherebybeneficiariesinfluencethe directionand executionof developmentprojects

ratherthanmerelyreceivea shareof projectbenefits."

vI!

viii

The Role of CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

Participantsemphasized,however,that communityparticipationshouldbe seen as an evolutionary

processin which activitiesat the project level can createthe conditionsfor an increasedpopular
participationin developmentprogramsat the local,regional,or nationallevels.
There is a need to distinguish between beneficiary involvement in the planning and
implementationof externallyinitiated projects (communityparticipation);externalassistancein
strengthening or creating local organizations (local organizational development); and the
spontaneousactivitiesof local organizations(indigenouslocal participation).
Therewas also a broad agreementon Paul's fiveproposedcommunityparticipationobjectives,
namely,projectcost sharing,increasingprojectefficiency,increasingprojecteffectiveness,building
beneficiarycapacity,and empowerment.Oneof the most controversialissuesis whetherefficiency
and empowermentshouldbe consideredas complementaryor conflictingobjectives.The approach
to community participation will be determined by the answer given to this question. The
prioritizationof communityparticipationobjectivesis determinedby what are perceivedto be the
overallgoalsof development:is it to improvethe economicconditionsof the poor or to bring about
a morejust society?
The definitionof communityparticipationmust also considerthe organizationsand groups
involved,the project implementationmethods,the stagesof the project in whichbeneficiariesare
involved,the scopeof the program,whoparticipates,and the intensityof participation.
What Do We Know about the Benefits and Costs of Community Participation?
Active communityparticipationin project planningand implementationmay improveproject
designthroughthe use of local knowledge;increaseprojectacceptability;producea moreequitable
distributionof benefits;promotelocal resourcemobilization;and helpensureprojectsustainability.
Communityparticipation may also entail the following costs: delays in project start-up;
necessary staff increases; and pressure to raise the level or range of services. Participatory
approachesmay also be morerisky thanbureaucratic/technical
managementas there is a dangerof
the cooptionof the projectby certaingroups,the creationof conflicts,or lossesof efficiencydue to
inexperiencewiththe participatoryapproaches.
Do We Know How to Implement Participatory Approaches Successfully?
There is considerableagreementon the socialfactors that should be taken into account,but
social analysishas not been institutionalizedin the way that economic,financial,and technical
analysis has. Thus while there is convincing evidence of the problems that can arise if the
communityorganizationand local power structureare not well understood,there is much less
guidance on exactly how social analysis should be conducted or interpreted to avoid these
problems.
Thereis extensivedocumentationon strategiesfor promotingcommunityparticipationand on
the factors affectingthe degree and success of participatory approaches.Many of the greatest
benefits of communityparticipationoccur once a project is operationaland must be sustained.
Considerableexperienceexistsin the ruraldevelopmentsectoron the roleof popularparticipationin
the design of sustainable projects. There is less experience in other sectors such as urban
development,promotion of small-scaleenterprises,and health services, but there is sufficient

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

ix

experienceto produceguidelinesfor each sector.There is little systematicinformationon waysto

involvebeneficiariesin the monitoringandevaluationof projects.
Beyond the Project Cycle
The workshopexpressedtheconcernthat the projectapproachfrequentlyconstrainslocal-level
participationas the timeboundnatureof projectsandthe administrativeneedto defineobjectivesand
budgetsbeforeimplementationbegins reducethe scopefor involvingbeneficiariesin the designand
implementation.Whilenone of the aboveare immutableand considerableflexibilityhas beenbuilt
into some projects, these are significant potential constraints. The potential for local level
maybe enhancedwhena sectoralor programapproachis
participationand local institution-building
adopted.
The Treatment of Community Participation in Recent EDI Training Programs
A reviewof recent EDI trainingprogramsshowedthat communityparticipationalmostnever
appearedas a centralthemein EDI coursesor seminars.There are severalreasonsfor this. The EDI
reflects the World Bank emphasison economicand technical aspects of project appraisal and
management;most EDI staff are trained in economics,finance, and technical fields rather than
sociology;the project cycle frameworkmakes it difficultto give a full treatment to community
participation;and the courseparticipants,who also comefrom economic,financial,and technical
backgrounds,areoftenreluctantto devotetime to "soft" socialissues.
The Potential Role of the EDI
Despitethe EDI's limitedexperiencewithcommunityparticipation,workshopparticipantswere
suprisingly unanimouswith respect to the key role that it could potentially play in promoting
community participation. This stems from (a) the unique access that the EDI has to senior
governmentofficials around the world; (b) accessto World Bank staff and information;(c) the
EDI's extensive experience in training of senior and middle-level government officials in
macroeconomicand project-levelcoursesand seminars;and (d) the EDI's technicalexpertisein the
fieldsof projectanalysisand sectoraland nationalplanning,whichpermitsit to presentparticipatory
approacheswithina broadmacroeconomicand developmentframework.
Several possible roles were proposed for the EDI: sensitizing of government officials to
community participation issues; developing a conceptual framework acceptable to planners,
policymakers,and managersas wellas to communityparticipationpractitioners;promotingresearch
and documentation; supporting regional training and research institutions; disseminating
intemational experience; promoting dialogue and cooperationbetween the main actors in the
developmentprocess;developingtrainingmaterialsand programs;and integratinggenderissuesinto
mainstreamdevelopmentplanningand management.
A numberof areas were identified where participatoryissues could be introducedinto EDI
training.Within projectcycle training someof the areasincludethe influenceof socialfactors on
projectdesign,implementation,and sustainability;participatoryapproachesto projectanalysisand
design;participatoryorganizationalstyles;designingsustainableprojects;ensuringaccessibilityto
all sectorsof the target population;and constraintsimposedby the projectapproachon community

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

participation.Participatoryissues, for example,the social impacts of structural adjustmentand

macroeconomicpolicies,can also be introducedintomacroeconomicand sectorpolicytraining.The
EDI's new emphasison developmentmanagementalso offersscopefor discussingthe contribution
of communityparticipationto effectivedecentralization
policies.
Proposed Strategies for the EDI
It was proposed that the EDI should organize a series of regional seminars to strengthen
contactswith regionaltrainingandresearchinstitutionsand to developregionaltrainingmaterialand
trainingactivities;developand test communityparticipationtrainingmaterials;and coordinatewith
otherinternationaland nationalorganizationsinvolvedin this field.

1
Introduction
For some time, EDI staff have been concerned that most of EDI's training programs pay very little
attention to the social aspects of development. Courses and seminars reflect the World Bank's
economic, financial, and technical approaches (critics would say biases), with very little systematic
attention to issues such as the involvement of intended beneficiaries in the planning and
implementation of projects, the incorporation of social analysis into national development planning,
and the consideration of gender issues in development policy and project management. A recent
study that reviewed the content of EDI training activities during the past two years documented the
limited treatment of these social issues:

The fact that CommunityParticipationrarely appears as a main topicprovidesan indicationof the

main emphasis of most EDI courses. The main message of many courses seems to be on how to
provide an economicand administrativeenvironmentwhich gives incentives to farmers, business
people etc, to produce more, and more efficiently....In most courses, the methodologywhich is
presented in the analysis of the project cycle suggests that there is relatively little community
involvementin the selectionof projects(coursesmainlyemphasizeeconomic,financialand technical
issues in project selectionand design). The extent and way in whichparticipationis discussedwill
dependon the attitudeof the coursedirector,or the interestof the participants,and thereis no standard
approach(ShieldsandBamberger1986).

Most training activities are directed to mid-level or senior government officials, with the emphasis
on top down planning and the creation of economic incentives so that the sectors or populations at
which programs or projects are directed will "respond rationally" and behave as the World Bank
and goverunent planners believe they should. In addition to the economic and technical orientation
of the offerings, a further constraint is that most project-level training is organized within the
framework of the project cycle. The project frameworkl limits the possibilities for discussing
community participation as many of the key ways in which communities can be involved occur
before project planners have defined the scope and objectives of a project (that is, the community
would be involved in the initial decisions on resource allocation and type of projects) or after the
project is completed (evolution of community organizations, sustainabiity of benefits).
1. Conventionalprojectshave a definedtimeframethat begins at the time of appraisaland ends when
begins,and
is complete,a budgetwhoseline itemsare definedbeforeimplementation
projectimplementation
clearly defined(and usually) quantitativeobjectives. All of these make involvinglocal organizationsin
projectpreparationdifficultin anysignificantway. Whilethe Bank and otherdonorsare not rigidlyboundto
this conventionalprojectframework,it doesprovidea seriousconstraintto communityparticipationin many
cases.

The Role of Community Participation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

Emerging

Concerns

Increasing recognition within EDI and the rest of the World Bank of the need to address the social
aspects of development has resulted from a number of factors. First, evidence about the relationship
between beneficiary involvement in project design and management, the efficiency of
implementation, cost recovery, and project sustainability is accumulating (Operations Evaluation
Department 1985). While by no means conclusive, available evidence makes a strong case for a
more systematic examination of the role of beneficiaries at the project and sectoral levels. Samuel
Paul (1987, table 1) has documented the increasing recognition of the importance of community
participation in Bank projects. He found that 48 percent of recent Bank projects in the urban, rural,
and population/health areas included community participation in their design as a way to increase
project efficiency.
Second, development experts are increasingly becoming aware of the limitations on the capacity
of national and local government agencies to manage effectively the rapidly growing number of
development projects and programs. Irrespective of political philosophies as to what the role of the
state ought to be, functions clearly need to be decentralized from national to local government
agencies and from them to community organizations. In most developing cities, the informal sector
produces more low-income housing than the formal sector, and the informal sector is frequently the
main provider of many services, such as transport and education, and of a wide range of consumer
goods. If development is not to stagnate, governments have no option but to provide the private
sector, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and community organizations with greater roles.
Third, development planners are increasingly recognizing that they have a moral obligation to
"listen to the people," both to understand the needs of the populations that development is intended
to benefit, and to assess how their lives are actuallybeing affected (Baum and Tolbert 1985; Salmen
1985; Conable 1987). This concern is taken further by those who believe that an objective of
development is empowerment of underprivileged populations by giving them control over the
resources and decisions affecting their lives. Empowerment has been of much less concern in World
Bank circles that in some other international organizations such as UNICEF and ILO, and certainly
much less so than for most NGOs.
A final factor is the growing concern about gender issues. The evidence that women will not be
able to contribute fully or to receive their full share of the benefits of many kinds of projects unless
the projects are specificallydesigned to take into account the special needs and potentials of women
in a particular culture and socioeconomic environment is extensive (Moser 1987; Arunachalam
1987; Shorey-Bryan 1987). Workshop participants cited examples of agricultural projects that had
to be redesigned after several years because women, who managed half or more of the farms, were
not able to use loans without the provision of technical assistance and childcare centers and help in
opening up new marketing channels. They give similar examples from urban and health projects.
The Workshop
To help address these concerns, EDI organized an international workshop on community
participation in Washington from September 22-25, 1986. The workshop's purpose was to bring
together an experienced group of community participation practitioners to help EDI define how it
should introduce material on community participation into its training programs. The intention was
for this diverse group to help EDI identify those areas in which it might have a comparative

The Role of CommnunityParticipation in Development Planning and Project Management

advantageand whereits accessto seniorgovernmentofficials,its economicand managerialfocus,

and its linkagesto the WorldBankwouldpermitit to bringnew resourcesand a new perspectiveto
these issues.
MichaelBamberger(EDI)directedthe workshop,whichwas codirectedby SamuelPaul (Projects
PolicyDepartment,WorldBank)and coordinatedby ElisabethShields(EDI).It wasattendedby 13
participants from government and nongovernmentalorganizationsin Asia, Africa, and Latin
America and the Caribbeanworkingin the fields of urban development,rural development,and
populationand health; by 9 representativesof internationalorganizations(see Annex A), and by
representativesof the WorldBank's WaterandUrbanDevelopmentDepartment;Population,Health
and NutritionDepartment;and Agricultureand RuralDevelopmentDepartmentwho,togetherwith
SamuelPaul, formeda steeringcommitteethat had helpedto plan the workshop.Threeconsultants
who had prepared reviews of community participation experience in agriculture and rural
development,urban development,and populationand healthalso attended.2
The workshop'sobjectiveswereto
* learn from participants' experience in the application of community participation
approaches;
* assess howfar experiencesand approachesdifferby sector and by region,and to consider
3
whetherany approachesor guidelinesarewidelyapplicable;
assess the lessons that the World Bank can draw from the experiences of other
organizationsand to considerthe appropriateroles for the Bank in promotingand using
participatoryapproaches;
* suggestwaysin which issuesrelatingto communityparticipationshouldbe incorporated
intoEDItrainingactivities;
recommendtypes of training materialsrequiredand how they should be developedand
used.
The workshopwas organizedas follows (see AnnexB for program):
* presentationand discussionof three sectoralreviewpapersby consultants(5 hours),
* presentationand discussionof reviewpapers on Bank and EDI approachesto community
participation(3 hours),
* presentationsby participantson their programs(5 hours),
* smallgroup discussions(4 hours),
* panel discussions(3 hours),
* generaldiscussionsessions(5 hours).
An importantsubthemeof the workshopwas the issue of genderand how the specialneeds and
potentialsof women should be incorporatedinto a participatorydevelopmentstrategy. Several
participants were selected because of their work on women in development issues, and the
workshop'sorganizersalsotriedto ensurebalancedsexratios amongparticipantsfrom each region.
2. Norman Uphoff (Cornell) prepared the review of agriculture and rural development; Caroline Moser
(Development Planning Unit, University of London) prepared the urban review, and Patricia Martin
(consultant) prepared the population and health review. These review papers are included in Readings in
Community Participation: Papers Presented at an International Workshop (Washington, D.C.: EDI, 1987) and
are also listed separately in the EDI Training Materials Catalog.
3. Due to time constraints the workshop could not devote much time to this issue, but it is addressed in
Caroline Moser's review paper on urban development.

The Role of Community Participation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

A total of 21 papers (listed in Annex C) were prepared for the workshop and subsequently
distributedin a two-volumeset of readings.
On the first day, manyparticipantsexpressedtheir surprisethat EDI wouldorganizea workshop
on communityparticipationas theydid not believethatthe Bank wasconcernedwith these issues.
At theend of the workshop,however,a numberof participantsexpressedtheir satisfactionthat EDI
wasmakinga seriouscommitmentto participatorydevelopment.An importantconsequenceof the
workshopmay have been to establishpositivecontactswith a wide range of U.N., international,
NGO, and governmentagencies whose cooperationEDI will probably need in the design and
implementationof its activitiesin this field.
The specificrecommendationsand conclusionsof the workshopwillbe reportedthroughoutthis
document.Perhaps the most importantgeneral conclusionfor EDI was the surprisinglygeneral
consensuson the key role that EDI can play in promotingcommunityparticipation.As part of the
WorldBank, EDI enjoys a numberof uniqueadvantages.In additionto its accessto WorldBank
experience,informnation,
and staff,EDI also has accessto seniorgovernmentofficialsand is ableto
"legitimize"issues.People alsoperceiveEDI as havingconsiderablymoretraining resourcesthan
most otherorganizations.
During the design of the workshop,the questionarose of whetherto addressissues relatingto
decentralizeddevelopment.While this is an extremelyimportantand closely related topic, the
organizersdecidednot to overburdenthe scopeof the workshopandto excludethis topic.It willbe
takenup in otherEDI trainingactivities.

2
Community Participation Defined
The different resource persons and workshop participants had a number of ideas about the
definitionof communityparticipation.CarolineMoser,afterdescribingthe evolutionof the concept
of communityparticipationduring the last two decades,stressedthe importanceof not confusing
communityparticipationwith communitydevelopment(Moser 1987, Section 1). Various other
participantsagreed with Moserthat communitydevelopment,a concept popularin the 1960s,is
now considered in some countries to have colonialist overtones and has become discredited.
Participantsgenerally acceptedPaul's definition:"In the context of development,Community
Participationrefersto an activeprocesswherebybeneficiariesinfluencethe directionand execution
of developmentprojectsratherthanmerelyreceivea shareof projectbenefits"(Paul 1987).
WhilePaul's definitionfocuseson the level of the individualproject,communityparticipationis
an evolutionaryprocessin whichactivitiesat the projector micro-levelcan createthe conditionsfor
increasedpopularparticipationin the planningand implementationof developmentprogramsat the
local, regional,or nationallevels. Organizationsvary considerablywith respect to the degreeof
importancethey attachto the evolutionarynature of communityparticipation.The objectivesand
organizationof project-levelactivitiesarequite differentfrom those of programsat the nationalor
regionallevels,and thelevel or scopeof theactivitymustbe takenintoconsiderationwhendefining
objectives.
Threequitedistinctkindsof localparticipationcan be distinguished:
* beneficiaryinvolvementin the planningand implementationof externallyinitiatedprojects,
or communityparticipation;
* externalhelpto strengthenor createlocalorganizations,but withoutreferenceto a particular
project,or localorganizational
development;
* spontaneousactivitiesof local organizationsthat havenot resultedfrom outsideassistance,
or indigenouslocalparticipation.
The first two are externallypromotedparticipatoryapproachesused by governments,donors,or
NGOs, while the third is the kind of social organizationthat has evolved independentlyof (or
despite) outside interventions. While the proposed terminologyis not entirely adequate,the
distinctionbetweenthesethreekindsof activitiesis very important.
The participantsalso generallyagreedwith Paul's fiveproposedobjectivesto whichcommunity
participationmightcontribute,namely:
* sharingproject costs-participants are asked to contributemoney or labor (occasionally
goods)duringtheproject'simplementationor operationalstages;
* increasing project efficiency-beneficiary consultation during project planning or
beneficiaryinvolvementin the managementof projectimplementation
or operation;
* increasingproject effectiveness-greaterbeneficiaryinvolvementto help ensure that the
projectachievesits objectivesandthat benefitsgo to the intendedgroups;
* buildingbeneficiarycapacity-eitherthroughensuringthatparticipantsareactivelyinvolved
in project planningand implementation(for example,throughthe formationof self-help
house constructiongroups), or through formal or informal training and consciousness

The Role of ConmmunityParticipation in Development Planning and Project Management

raising activities(Rahman1987).This is a longer-termevolutionaryobjectivethat often

envisagesthe integrationof local level organizationsto form higher-leveldistrict, or even
nationallevel, organizations(Abed1987);
increasingempowerment-definedas seekingto increasethe controlof the underprivileged
sectors of society over the resources and decisions affecting their lives and their
participationin the benefitsproducedby the societyin which theylive. Empowermentis
oftenpoorlydefinedeitheras a processor as a goal; and, althoughit is relativelysimpleto
definefor the planningand executionof a single,small-scaleprojectits meaning and the
stepsto its achievementaremuchlessclear withrespectto large-scaleprograms.
While thesefive objectivesadequatelyreflectthose pursuedby governments,donorsand NGOs
throughexternallyfundedprojects,(the communityparticipationapproach)theydo not adequately
describethe objectivesof localorganizationaldevelopmentwherethereis no specificprojectfocus.
Agenciesvary considerablyin the relativeprioritiesthey assignto each objective.While many
donor agenciesmay focusmainly on efficiencyand cost sharing,other agenciesmore concerned
with equity or with increasinglocal control over resources may emphasizeempowermentand
capacitybuilding.
Dom Mendes de Almeida reminded workshop participants that the basic questions about
developmentdo not concernefficiency,but what kind of societywe are hopingto achieve.Are we
hoping to raise the economiclevel of poor familiesso that they can benefit from the fruits of an
unjust and exploitativesociety,or is the purposeof developmentto achievesocialjustice through
changingsociety's basic valuesand the way in which societyis organized?If socialjustice is the
objective of development,then participatoryapproachesshould be considerededucational. If,
however, the objective of development is defined in terms of economic development,then
participatoryapproacheswouldbe assessedin termsof theircontributionto projectefficiency.
One of the most controversialissuesin this field is whetherefficiencyand empowermentare
complementaryor conflictingobjectives.Severalworkshopparticipantsexpressedthe widelyheld
view that an organizationmust decide which of these two primary objectivesto pursue. They
classifiedthe WorldBank and most bilateraland multilateraldonoragenciesas organizationsthat
use participatoryapproachesexclusivelyin pursuitof efficiencyobjectives.
An alternativeview is that efficiencyand empowermentobjectivesare complementarystagesin a
long-termevolutionarystrategy.Advocatesof this approacharguethat empowermentis a longertermobjectivethat first requiresthe strengtheningof communityinstitutions,whichis best achieved
throughthe organizationof small and then increasinglylarger projects.If this approachis valid,
tracingan increasingdegreeof communityempowermentwith each successiveproject shouldbe
possible.
A completedefinitionof communityparticipationmust alsotakethe followingintoconsideration:
* The agentsor organizationalgroupsused (or what Paul calls the "instruments").These can
includefield workersof the project agency,paidor voluntarycommunityworkers,groupscreated
for a specific purpose (self-helphouse constructiongroups or water user groups), or existing
multipurposecommunityorganizations.Distinguishingbetweenexisting("traditional")groupsand
those createdspeciallyfor the project may also be useful. Uphoffsuggestedthat distinctionsbe
made between organized group and individual participation and between public and private
organizations.
* The medium or methods used. These can include formal leadership training programs,
learning by doing through the implementationof a project, consciousnessraising, or the use of

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

"animateurs"throughwhich communitiesare helpedto understandtheir ownneeds and to identify

possiblesolutions.
* The stagesof theprojectin whichbeneficiariesare involved.Uphoffsuggestsdistinguishing
betweenparticipationin decisionmaking;in implementation;in social,political,cultural,and other
benefits;and in the evaluationof the activityand its outcomes.
* Theprogram'slevelor scope.A broad distinctioncanbe madebetweenmicro-levelprojects,
micro-levelprograms(involvingseveralprojects),district-levelactivities,and regionaland nationallevel activities.
* The participants. Moser shared the view that special attention should be paid to the
participationof women, partly because genderissues have been largely overlooked,and partly
because the sexual divisionof labor and consumptionmeans that the participationof womenis
likelyto be qualitativelydifferentfromthat of men:
Women,as much as men havethe right and duty to participatein the executionof projects
which profoundlyaffect their lives. Since women,as wives and mothers,acceptprimary
responsibility for child bearing and rearing, they are most affected by housing and
settlementprojects. They should, therefore, be involved in the planning and decisionmakingas well as in the implementationand managementof projectswhich relateto their
lives(Moser1987).
This view was reiteratedby Jaya Arunachalamwith referenceto the Indiancontextand by Norma
Shorey-Bryanfor the Caribbean(Arunachalam1987;Shorey-Bryan1987).Issues also arise as to
whetherthe project is being coopted by powerfuleconomic,political, or cultural groupsto the
exclusion of certain groups of intended project beneficiaries.Lawrence Salmen cited several
exampleswhereprojectorganizerswere unawarethat large segmentsof the targetpopulationwere
effectivelyexcludedfromparticipationin the projectand accessto its benefits(Salmen1987).
* The intensity of participation.Paul suggestedthat ascendinglevels of intensity could be
classified as information sharing, consultation, decision making, and initiative taking. Other
indicatorscould also includethe numberof peopleinvolvedand the durationor regularityof their
involvement.

3
The State of the Art: What Do We Know about the Organization
and Impacts of Participatory Approaches?
Beforediscussingthe EDI's potentialrole in promotingcommunityparticipation,we must ask
two key questions.First, how muchdo we knowaboutthe potentialbenefitsand potentialcostsof
adoptingparticipatoryapproachesand about the probabilityof benefits being achievedor costs
beingincurredin a particularprojectenvironment?Statedin operationalterms,do weknow enough
to be ableto advisea managerif and whento incorporateparticipatoryapproachesintothe planning
and implementationstages of a project? Second, do we know how to successfully implement
participatoryapproaches?This sectionassessesthe conclusionsof the workshopconsultantsand
participantsaboutthesetwo questions.
Potential Benefits and Costs of Community Participation
If target populationswillrespond"rationally"to the righteconomicsignals,surelythe formulafor
successfulprojectsis to "get the pricesright" and to ensure that projectsare technicallysound.If
these conditions are fulfilled, why should policymakers,planners, and project managers be
concernedaboutinvolvingbeneficiariesin projectdesign and implementation?Will the protracted
process of communityconsultationsnot simplyinterrupt the smooth flow of the project cycle,
creatingunnecessarydelays,perhaps raising costs, leading to the danger of the managerlosing
controlof the project and probablyleadingto demandsfor additionalservicesfor whichthereis no
budgetaryprovision?
The participantsidentifieda numberof reasons,listedbelow,whywise and prudentdevelopment
plannersand managersshouldbe concernedto ensure that beneficiariesare adequatelyconsulted
andinvolvedfromthe beginningof the project.
* Involvementof thecommunityat an earlystage is likelyto improvedesignby ensuringthat
full advantageis taken of local technologyand knowledgeof climatologicaland topographical
conditions,and ensuringthat the project is fully adaptedto the social organizationof production.
Participantscited many examples of the drastic consequencesof not consulting beneficiaries:
bridges collapsed,irrigationchannelscouldnot accommodatethe monsoonfloods (in a few cases
the channelswere actuallyfilled in again by the farmersand rerouted) (Uphoff1987),expected
labor was not available during religious or communityfestivals, and certain house designs or
sanitarysystemswere not acceptableto particulargroups.Baum and Tolbert (1985) and Cemea
(1985)provideampleadditionaldocumentationon the consequencesof excludingpeoplewith local
knowledgefromthe projectdesign.
* Communityinvolvementcan ensure a project's social acceptabilityand can increase the
likelihoodof beneficiariesparticipatingin the project.Mosergave examplesof squatterupgrading
projectsin politicallyvolatileareaswhereit wouldhavebeenimpossiblefor theprojectto havebeen
implemented without the systematic efforts to involve major community groups through
consultation and planning meetings from the very beginning of the project. Where this social

10

The Role of CommunnityParticipation in Development Planning and Project Management

acceptanceis not achievedprojectsmay neverbegin,participationlevelsmay be much lowerthan

expected,or servicesmay not be used.
* Communityparticipationmay help ensure the more equitabledistributionof benefits and
mayensurethat politicallyor economicallyweak groupsmayhave accessto the projectservicesand
benefits.It was pointedout, however,that participationcanbe a two-edgedswordin this respectas
thereis a dangerof the projectbeingcooptedby the politicallypowerfulwith the resultthat certain
groupshavemuchless accessthanthey wouldhave had werethe projectto havebeen administered
withoutany communityinvolvement.
* Resourcemobilizationis much easier when beneficiariesare committedto a project and
activelyinvolvedin its design and implementation.The communityresourcesmay be providedin
the form of labor, materials, or money. Cost recovery rates are often much higher when the
communityis activelyinvolved.Extensiveevidencefrom irrigationand housingprojectsindicates
that if users are not involvedin project designthey arevery unlikelyto agreeto pay user charges.
The willingnessof a communityto providelaboror otherresourcesduringprojectimplementationis
also closelyassociatedwiththeir feelingof involvementin the project.
* Communityparticipationis usuallyan essentialconditionfor the sustainabilityof irrigation
projects.Uphoffcitesexamplesof the differencesin maintenanceand cost recoveryrates between
projectswherethe communitywasand wasnot involvedat the designand implementationstages.A
USAIDstudyof watersupplyprojects(1982)foundthat in all caseswhere userscovered0 and M
costs,the schemeswere still working(Uphoff1987).Thereis less systematicevidencefrom other
sectors, but both Moser and Martin felt that participationwas probably an equally important
determinantof the sustainabilityof housingandhealthprojects.
* Althoughlittle documentedevidenceis available,experiencesuggeststhat at least some of
thecommunityinstitutionsdevelopedduringprojectimplementation
willcontinueto producefurther
benefitsoncethe projectis completed.
Many discussionsof communityparticipation imply that if only politicians, planners, and
managers could be made aware of the benefits of participatory approaches,they would all be
anxiousto use them. Unfortunately,the activeinvolvementof beneficiariesin project planningor
implementationis likely to involvecosts (someof them difficultto foreseeor calculate)and risks
(someof them verylarge).Someof thepotentialcostsincludethe following:
* Projectstart-upmay be delayedby negotiationswith beneficiaries.The time factormay be
significantwhenmanydifferentgroupsmust be consulted,however,no informationis availableas
to howmuchof the lost time maybe recoveredbecauseof fasterand smootherimplementationas a
resultof communitysupportand involvement.
* Studies by USAIDcited in the workshopfound that participatoryapproachesfrequently
increasedthe numberof managerialand administrativestaffrequired(Goddardand Cotter 1987).In
addition to the financial cost, this can become a significantburden for senior managementas
organizedcommunitygroupswillnot be contentto meet onlywithjuniorprojectofficers.
* Wellorganizedcommunitiesare ableto exertpressureto raisethe level or widenthe rangeof
servicesbeyondthose originallyplanned,with consequentincreasesin projectcosts. Oftenthe cost
of theseadditionalservicescannotbe includedin theprojectloan andmust be borne directlyby the
local or nationalgovernment.Whetherthis is consideredas a cost or a benefitwilldependupon the
perspectivetaken,but it is certainlya cost to the administrativeagencythat must find the additional
funds.
Participatoryapproachesmayalsobe moreriskythanbureaucratically
managedprojects.

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

11

* A constantconcernof plannersandmanagersis lossof controlof the project.If beneficiaries

do not want the servicesofferedor wouldratherhave otherservices,theymay fail to cooperateor
even activelyopposethe project.The risk of this happeningis obviouslymuchless if beneficiaries
were neverconsultedor informedaboutthe project (in whichcase the project will probablyhave
beenconstructedand inauguratedbeforeanyoneevenknows aboutit or has been ableto protest).In
politicallyactiveareas,an oppositionpartymay seek to use the communityorganizationsto wrest
controlof the projectfromthe implementingagency.
* The projectmay be cooptedby a powerfuleconomic,social,or politicalgroupso that most
of the benefitsdo not reach large sectionsof the intendedtarget population.Examplescited in the
workshopincludedbenefitsof a squatterupgradingprojectthat went onlyto homeownersand not
to tenants; a project to distribute irrigation water that was controlledby certain ethnic groups;
agriculturalprojectsin whichalmostallcreditswentto male ratherthanfemalefarmers.
* Informingbeneficiariesabouta projectwill increasetheirfrustrationor dissatisfactionif the
projectis delayedor deliversless servicesthanplanned.As the startand completionof projectsmay
be unpredictablydelayed for reasonsbeyond the control of project management,managers are
understandablyreluctantto raiseexpectationsand thenbe blamedfor delaysor changestheycannot
control.
* In politicallyvolatile areas, the attemptto involve communityorganizationsmay create
conflictsthat eitherparalyzethe projector createmuchwiderproblems.
* Finally,the communityparticipationmethodologyis muchless well knownandpredictable
than traditionaltechnical/bureaucraticapproaches.Managersare therefore riskingproject delays,
reducedquality,increasedcosts,or benefitsnot reachingthe targetgroup.
Successful Implementation of Participatory Approaches
Assumingthat planners and managersare convincedof the potential benefits of participatory
approaches,the questionarisesas to whetherthetools for participatoryapproachesare sufficiently
developedfor use by plannersand project officers,very few of whomare trained socialscientists.
Variousworkshopparticipantsreferredto thesetools as "socialtechnology,"but we willretain the
term "tools,"as otherparticipantsfelt that socialtechnologywastoo mechanisticand impliedthat
participatoryapproachescouldbe consideredas a sciencewhenthey are really an art. This section
dealswith participants'conclusionsaboutthe stateof knowledgeof the participatorytools available
for use at differentstagesof the projectcycle.
ParticipatoryApproaches to Project Identificationand Planning. A number of World Bank
operationalmanual statementsacknowledgethe need to take social factorsinto considerationin
projectidentificationand planning,and thereis considerableagreementas to the factorsthat should
be taken into accountin socialanalysis(Baumand Tolbert 1985;Cernea 1985,especiallychapters
1, 12, 13).Some of these socialfactorsare
* socioculturalanddemographiccharacteristicsof the intendedbeneficiaries,
* socialorganizationof productiveactivities,
* culturalacceptabilityof projectsandprojectorganization,
* methodsof elicitingparticipation(commitment),
* projectaccessibilityto differentsocioculturalgroups,
* genderissuesin designandimplementation.

12

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

During the workshop, participants gave examples where even seasoned staff had designed
projectsbased on assumptionsaboutthe communitythat later provedto be incorrect.For example,
the SecondIntegratedRural DevelopmentProjectin Jamaicahad assumedthat most farms were
either managedby women or were jointly managedby a man and a woman. Consequently,no
provisionwas made for the special credit, technical assistance,and supportingservices(such as
daycarecentersand helpto break intomarketingnetworkslargelydominatedby men) that women
neededto be ableto use creditsuccessfully.Dueto this oversight,the projecthad to be substantially
redesignedafterabouttwo years to provideservicesfor womenfarmers(Womenand Development
Unit 1985).
Despite the recognition of their importance, the analysis of social factors has not been
institutionalizedin the waythat the analysisof economic,financial,and technicalfactorshas been.
While the previouslycited worksby Cemea, Baumand Tolbert, and Salmenindicatethe factors
likely to influenceprojectoutcomes,guidelineson howto collect and analyzedata on thesefactors
are still needed.Also most of the examplescited are of the problemsthat arisewhenthese factors
arenot taken into account.Littleinformationis availableabouthow to use socialanalysisto avoid
these problems. Clearly, more research on completed projects is needed to understand the
relationshipsbetweenformsof communityorganization(forexample)and projectoutcomes.In his
workshopreviewpaper,Uphoffcited some of the researchnowbeingconductedon this topic.
ParticipatoryApproaches to Project Implementation.Strategies for promoting community
participationand the factors affectingthe degree and success of participatory approachesare
extensivelydocumented.The followingfactorsare widelyacknowledgedas increasingthe potential
forsuccessfulbeneficiaryparticipationin projectimplementation:
* the degreeof governmentcommitmentand politicalsupportfor participatoryapproaches;
the degree of homogeneityof the target population-the more diverse the population,the
harderto introduceparticipation;
* theexistenceof traditionalformsof communitycooperation;
* theperceivedneedforthe project;
* the perceivedtechnicalcomplexityof theproject-the moretechnicalthe project,the more
willing beneficiariesare likely to be to leave design decisionsin the hands of government
technicians;
* the form of financing-whether projects are financedby loans or by nonrepayablegrants
will affect community participation, however, experts disagree about which form of
financingis most likelyto stimulateparticipation;
* the level of education-some evidencesuggeststhat the level of education is related to
communityparticipation,but the formof the relationshipappearsto vary from one projectto
another.
Workshopparticipantsproposedthe followingguidelinesfor promotingparticipation:
* projects should be designed flexibly to accommodateexisting local organizationsand
changesin organizationandobjectivesas projectsevolveas opposedto thelow participation
strategyin whichoutsideconsultantsand expertsdesignan inflexibleblueprint.Feedbackis
requiredto assessthe effectivenessof differentkinds of organization.Some of the options
that shouldbe testedand experimentedwith includefonnal versusinformalorganizations,
existingversusneworganizations,and smallversuslarge organizations;
* projectsshouldmakemaximumuse of indigenoustechnologiesand materials;

The Role of CommunityParticipationin DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

13

* catalysts(animators,promoters)shouldbe used to help strengthencommunityorganization

andparticipation;
* a multiple tiered approach is needed to ensure participationat all levels of the project
organizationfromthe communitylevelup to high-levelgovernment;
* bureaucraticreorientationthroughtrainingand othermethodsis neededso that bureaucrats
willbe ableto workwithlocal groupsratherthanseeingthemas a threat;
* participatory approaches are intimately linked to decentralized development, thus
achievementof significantcommunityinvolvement,especiallyfor largeprojects,dependson
a willingnessto delegateauthorityto local govemment;
* the use of paraprofessionalsis often an effectivewayto increaseaccessto servicesand to
reducethegap betweenbeneficiariesandgovernmentandhenceto increaseparticipation;
* implementationproceduresmust be designedto ensureparticipationof particularsectorsof
the communitysuchas womenand othergroupsthat areeconomicallyor politicallyweak;
* training for communitygroupsand local governmentagenciesis essentialto developboth
skillsand atfitudes;
* a concertedeffortmustbe madeto identifyand promotecommunityleaders.
DesigningSustainableProjects.Manyof thebenefitsof communityparticipationonly occuronce
a project is operationaland when it must be sustained.Where the main priority is to ensure the
completion of the physical infrastructureor the delivery of a service (such as vaccination or
approvalof credits),the involvementof beneficiariesmay seemto produceunnecessarydelaysand
raise costs. There are often a numberof trade-offs(Honadleand Vansant [1985,p.8] call them
"contradictions")between the design and organization for efficient implementationand the
requirementsfor projectsustainability,for example:
e an ad hoc organizationalstructuremay be effectivefor implementationas it avoids many
bottlenecks,but willusuallyproveineffectivefor sustainingprojects;
* projectscan be designedmorerapidlyif communityinvolvementis kept to a minimum,but
beneficiariesmay refuseto cooperateor helpfinancethe maintenanceof projectson whose
designtheywere not consulted;
* a centralizedmanagementstructuremay ensuremoreefficientimplementation,but may not
producesufficientlocal supportto ensuresustainabiity.
Considerableexperienceexistsin the ruraldevelopmentsectoron the roleof popularparticipation
in the design of sustainableprojects,and a numberof writers such as Uphoff(1986)and Honadle
and Vansant(1985)haveproducedguidelines.Therecommendations
focuson topicssuchas
* maldnginitialdiagnosticstudies;
* identifyingand eliminatingfinancial,organizational,and policyconstraints;
* introducing institutional strategies to reorient existing institutions to make them more
responsiveto beneficiaryparticipation;
* strengtheninglocal organizationsandpromotinglocalleadership;
* implementingdecentralizeddevelopment;
* usingappropriatetechnology;
* movingfromproject-basedto program-basedapproaches.
There is less experience in and documentationof other sectors such as urban development,
promotionof small-scaleenterprises,and health, but sufficientexperienceto be able to produce
guidelinesis probablyavailablein eachof thesesectors.

14

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

ParticipatoryEvaluation.A potentiallyimportantareais theinvolvementof intendedbeneficiaries

in the monitoringof project implementationand the evaluationof project impacts. While little
systematic documentation on this point exists, various workshop participants stressed the
significantimprovementsthat can be achievedin implementationand the equitabledistributionof
project benefitswhenthe communityis awareof the levels of resourcesthat have been approved,
howthey willbe used, andthe intendedoutcomesand impacts.
Beyond the Project Cycle
The workshop shared the concernsof many authors that the project approach will frequently
constrainlocallevelparticipationin thefollowingways:
* Projectsare "time-bound"with definitestartingand completiondates.The needto preparea
projectfor approvalwithin a certainfinancialyear makesit difficultto engagein potentiallylong,
drawn-out communityconsultations. Similarly,the need to complete the project by a certain
deadlinemay also discourageprojectofflcersfrominvolvinglocal organizationsin implementation
wherethis may causedelays.
* The project cycle usually ends with the completionof the physical infrastructure(this is
whenthe projectcompletionreportis prepared),and consequentlymost of theprojectobjectivesare
definedin terms of short-runand numericallyquantifiableindicators.Institutionbuildingor longterm issuesof sustainabiityof servicesand benefitstend not to be included.
- Donor agenciesusually requirethat project design, outputs, and budgetarycategoriesare
precisely defined at the time of project approvalto facilitate supervisionand to ensure that the
project's original objectivesare achieved.This makes it more difficult to build in the flexibility
required to adapt the project to the requirements and organizational patterns of the local
communities.
* Donor agencies frequentlyrequire the use of internationalconsultants and international
procurementprocedures,whichcan restrictthe use of local designs,technology,and labor.
The potentialfor local-levelparticipationand localinstitutionbuildingis greatlyenhancedwhena
sectoralor programapproachis adopted.The sectoralapproachmakesit easierto focus on service
delivery,institutionaldevelopment,andlocal resourcemobilizationand to ensurethat servicesare
accessibleto all sectorsof the population.Consequently,the WorldBank's movetoward a country
focus and withinthat to sectoralapproaches,providesa frameworkwithinwhich facilitatingthe
promotionof local-levelparticipationat all stages of identification,design, implementation,and
sustainabilityshouldbe easier.

4
The Treatment of Community Participation
in EDI Training Activities
Workshopparticipantsreviewedthe treatmentof communityparticipationin a sampleof EDI
trainingprogramsheld betweenJuly 1984and June 1986(Shieldsand Bamberger1986),in those
areasmoreamenableto participatoryapproaches: agriculture,ruraldevelopment,and ruralcredit;
water,urbandevelopment,health, and population;industryand financialmanagement;education;
and developmentmanagement.The dataon whichthe discussionwas basedwas gatheredprimarily
from course programs and final course reports. This reliance on written materials may have
producedsome underrepresentationas the subjectof communityparticipationoften arisesduring
discussionsessionsevenwhennot scheduledin theprogram.However,if communityparticipation
only entersthroughthe backdoor, as it were,this is indicativeof its low priority.
The treatmentof communityparticipationin recentEDI trainingprogramsis summarizedbelow.
AGRICULTURE.
Communityparticipationwasnot includedas a maintopic in any of the 20 training
activities reviewed, including policy seminars and training at the sectoral and project levels,
althoughproject-levelcoursesdid coverparticipationissuesto some extent, and issues relatingto
communityparticipationoften arosein discussions.
The underlyingassumptionsof most of the courseswere first, that farmersact rationallyand that
outputwill increaseif theyare givenappropriateeconomicincentives;and second,that improving
projectmanagementand correctingadministrativefactorsmilitatingagainstthe effectiveexecutionof
projects is essential. In some courses,particularlythose on agriculturalcredit, how to motivate
intendedbeneficiariesto participatein the projects or to apply for credit was one of the issues
raised. There was little reference to the participationof beneficiaries in project planning or
management, and participativeissues were mainly concemedwith motivatingbeneficiariesto
participatein a projectwhoseobjectivesand organizationhad alreadybeendetennined.
URBAN,WATER,POPULATON,
AND HEALTH.
The 24 activitiesexaminedhad no moduleson community
participationspecifically,but the needfor participationwasa centralthemeof healthand population
activities.Assumptionsaboutthe role of communitieswere differentfor each of the topics.Water
supply and sanitationactivitiesconcentratedon service deliveryto individualhouseholds,with
extensive discussion of how to encourage participation. The population seminars addressed
decisionsmade at the householdlevel,but recognizedthe influenceof communities,throughculture
and social structure, on such decisions.Although populationseminars did not seem to address
communityparticipation in project design, they consistently addressed the role of women in
development.The health seminarsfocused on community-basedprimary health care, including
communityparticipationin managingcommunityhealthworkers.For both health and population,
participationmeantgettinginformationto communitiesso that familieswouldhavethe opportunity
to recognizehealth needs and decide on appropriateaction. Urban activities have been shifting
towardmunicipalmanagementand away from urban housing(whichhad includeda discussionof
self-help housing and neighborhoodassociations). The discussion of participation currently
concentrateson projectdesignandimplementation,wherethe importanceof beneficiarypreferences
is stressed.
1s

16 The Role of Community Participation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

INDUSTRY
AN TRADE.
The 12 activities discussed covered six substantive areas: development
banking, industrial projects, public enterprise, small-scale industry, entrepreneurship, and
technology transfer. In some of these areas, developmentbanking, for example, community
participationis not an importantissue. In activitieswhere this was not the case, participationwas
treatedextensivelyeventhoughit did not appearon the courseprogram.
DEvELopmENT
ADMNsTRATIoN.
The

activities examined focused either on the project cycle (economic

and financialanalysis,project implementation,etc.) or on public investment.Issues relatingto

communityparticipationdid not appearon the agenda of either type of course (although some
discussionof participation-related
issuesin the projectcyclecoursesoftentook place).The courses
assumedthat projectsareselectedon thebasisof theireconomic,financial,and technicalfeasibility.
The interestsand needs of intendedbeneficiarieswouldbe addressedthroughmarket studies,but
therewasrarely anymentionof involvingbeneficiariesin the selectionor designof projects.
Theworkshopidentifieda numberof factorsthat explainthe limitedattentionpaid to community
participationin EDIactivities.
* EDI tends to reflect the World Bank emphasison the economicand technical aspects of
project appraisaland management.Like the WorldBank, EDI has paid only scant attentionto the
roleof beneficiariesin projectpreparationand implementation.
* MostEDI staff comefrom the Bank and havethe same rangeof professionalbackgrounds,
withtheir strengthsin the areasof economics,finance,and technicalfields.Veryfew EDI staffhave
professionaltrainingin sociology,anthropology,or politicalscience,and most havehad very little
experiencewith participatoryapproachesor socialanalysis.
* The conceptualframeworkof the projectcycle makesgivinga full treatmentto community
participationdifficult.The projectcycle emphasizesthe achievementof clearlydefinedphysicaland
financial goals within a prescribed time period. There is little possibility for discussion of
communitycontrolover resources(as loans arenegotiatedbetweengovernmentand international
donors)and the projectcycleendswith the completionof the physicalinfrastructure,givingequally
littleopportunityto discusslong-tern communityand institutionaldevelopment.
* The course participants, who also come from economic, financial, and technical
backgrounds,are oftenreluctantto devotetime to "soft" socialissues.
Participatoryissuesare,however,likelyto receiveconsiderablygreaterattentionin the futurefor
a numberof reasons. First, EDI staff are workingon addressingsocial sectorissuesin all training
activities.Two initiativesthathave beentaken in this directionarethe organizationof the workshop
describedhere and the settingup of an EDI task forceon womenin development.Second, one of
EDI's priorities is to develop a training programon developmentmanagement.This involves,
among other things, an examination of political and administrativefactors that affect project
performanceand an assessmentof waysto make developmentadministrationmore responsiveto
the needs of the populationsthat projects and programsare intendedto serve. Third, a numberof
seminarand coursemoduleshavebeenorganizedon projectand programmonitoringand evaluation
that include discussionof howto assessprojectimpacton the targetpopulation,and howto assess
the interrelationships
betweena projectandthe sociopoliticalenvironmentin whichit operates.

5
EDI's Role
Despite its limited experience with community participation, workshop participants were
surprisinglyunanimouswith respectto the key role that EDI might play in promotingcommunity
participation.
EDI's Potential Role in Community Participation
Participantsthoughtthat EDI had a numberof comparativeadvantagesthat place it in a unique
position to promote community participation. This stems from EDI's (a) access to senior
governmentofficials around the world; (b) access to World Bank staff and data; (c) extensive
experiencein trainingseniorandmid-levelgovernmentofficialsin macroeconomicand project-level
courses and seminars; and (d) technical expertise in project analysis and sectoral and national
planningthat permitsEDI to discussparticipatoryapproacheswithina broad macroeconomicand
developmentframework. Most of the organizations with extensive community participation
experience do not enjoy these advantages, nor do they have the same understandingof how
policymakers,planners,and projectmanagersthinkand behave.
These advantagesare offsetby EDI's limitedexperiencewithparticipatoryapproachesand by the
limited direct involvementin participatoryissuesof most participantsin its programs.EDI must
establishclose cooperativearrangementswith organizationsthat have this grassroots experience,
therebycreatinga bridgebetweencommunityparticipationpractitionersand the seniorgovernment
officialswhomust be convincedto usetheseapproaches.Withinthis context,participantsidentified
a numberof possiblerolesfor EDI as describedbelow.
* Sensitizingparticipantsand theirsponsorsto the issues.EDI can help"legitimize"community
partcipationby introducingit intoits activities.This willdemonstratethe importanceof this topicto
participantsand their sponsoringagencies,and may stimulatefurther discussionand follow-up
withinthe agencies.
* Developinga conceptualframeworkthat is acceptabletoplanners,policymakers,managers,
and communityparticipationpractitioners.Muchof the discussionon communityparticipationuses
a vocabularyand conceptualframeworkthat economists,planners,and projectmanagersfind hard
to understand,and to which they consequentlyreact negatively.Terms such as "empowerment,"
"participation,""stakeholders,""sensitization,""animateur,"and "people's power" are likely to
createthe impressionthat communityparticipationis either vagueor politicallythreatening.EDI's
familiaritywith the vocabularyand conceptualapproachesof planners,policymakers,and managers
means that it could make a major contributionby presentingthe basic issues, approaches,and
findingsof communityparticipationto themwithina familiarframework,for example,by
- showinghowto estimatethe impactof participatoryapproacheson projectcosts and on the
implementation
timetable;
- showinghow to estimatethe impactof participatoryapproacheson the stream of project
costs and benefitsrelatingto cost recovery,maintenanceand sustainabilityof the project,
distributionof benefits,and so on;
17

18 The Role of Conmmunity

Participationin DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

- including participatory management styles as options in the discussion of project

organizationandmanagement;
- discussing the uncertainties related to participatory approachesin sensitivity and risk
analysis;
- assessingthe contributionof participatoryapproachesto projectsustainability.
Theconceptualframeworkshouldalso helpEDIparticipantsunderstandsomeof thelimitationsof a
project approach,and should show how communityparticipationbecomesmore importantwhen
programor sectoralapproachesare used.
* Promotingresearchand docwuentation.Researchto assessandquantifythe benefitsand costs
of participatoryapproachessystematicallyin differentsectorsand contextsis urgentlyneeded.Very
few good studiesare availableand muchof the evidenceis anecdotal.Selectinga sampleof projects
that havebeen operationalfor a numberof years,developingindicatorsof the intensityand types of
participation,and relatingthese to estimatesof costs and benefitsshouldbe possible.Quantitative
analysisshouldbe combinedwith in-depthcase studiesof a smallsampleof projectsto understand
the dynamicsof participatoryapproachesand howthey producedtheirimpacts.A systematicstudy
of this kind is probablybeyondEDI's resourcesand shouldbe conductedin cooperationwith other
Bank divisions or outside organizations.Producing systematic documentationof how to use
participatoryapproachesat the local, regional, and nationallevels is also necessary.This can be
done through a combinationof in-depthcase studies and comparativeanalysis of a number of
similarprojects.The productionof this kind of materialfallsdirectlywithinthe provinceof EDI and
couldbe conductedin cooperationwith a numberof EDI's partnerinstitutions.
* Supporting nationaland regionaltraining and research institutions.EDI could identify a
numberof regionalinstitutionsinvolvedin socialand participatorytraining and researchand could
providethe samekindsof institutionaldevelopmentassistancethat it is givingto institutionsin other
subjectareas.
* Disseminatinginternationalexperience.This can be done by includingmaterial in the EDI
training materials catalog, preparingbibliographies(as was done for women in development),
including modulesin training courses, and helping partner institutionsto disseminaterelevant
infornation.
* Promotingdialogueand cooperationbetweenthemain actorsin thedevelopmentprocess.EDI
has considerableexperiencein organizingseminarsand workshopsin which senior government
officials involved in development are brought together for frank and open discussions. One
approachthat has provedeffectiveis to preparecase studieson whichthe discussionscan focus.In
a discussionof communityparticipationthe rangeof actorswouldbe broaderthan for manyEDI
seminarsas it shouldincluderepresentativesof communityorganizations;nationaland international
NGOs; local, regional, and national government agencies; political parties and religious
organizations;and internationaldonoragencies.
* Developingtrainingmaterialand trainingprograms.Thsis EDI's mainareaof expertiseand is
discussedbelow.
* Integratinggender issuesinto mainstreamdevelopmentplanning and management.Gender
issuesare an integralpartof a communityparticipationstrategy.Experiencehas shownthat women

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

19

will not be successfully integrated into the management and benefits of development projects and
programs unless specific provision is made for their needs and potential.
Strengthening the Coverage of Community Participation in EDI's Current
Activities

Training

This section discusses some of the general areas in which participatory issues could be
introduced.
Project Planning and Management Courses. Most project courses pay very scant attention to
social factors and to beneficiary involvement in project planning and implementation. The following
are some of the areas where social and participatory issues should be introduced.
a. The influence of social factors on project design, implementation, and sustainabiity. Most
courses either do not cover these issues at all, or provide only one general lecture. Extensive
literature on this subject is available, but it is also important to ensure that examples are drawn from
the particular countries and sectors covered by the course. To illustrate the possibly drastic effects
of neglecting social factors, examples must be dramatic and convincing.4 Participants can also be
asked to provide their own examples.
b. Operational procedures for incorporation of social analysis (social impact analysis) into the
project appraisal process. Explaining to participants, most of whom will have no social science
research experience, how to carry out and use social analysis is essential. Guidelines must be
prepared and case studies developed to illustrate the methods participants can use, and exercises
should be developed to give practical experience. Ideally, the exercises should be conducted in the
field, although this will not be possible in most courses. Some of the issues to be treated include
* identifying social factors that might affect the project;
* analyzing community organizations and leadership structures, assessing how different
groups are likely to respond to the project, and evaluating the potential costs and benefits of
different organizational systems;
* ensuring that the views of all potential beneficiary groups are obtained;
* employing research methods for data collection;
* interpretatingthe data and incorporating it into project design;
* incorporating data from social analysis into economic analysis and the estimation of rates of
retum;
* organizing the social analysis (decisions as to whether to conduct the analysis in-house or to
contract consultants, guidelines on the selection and supervision of consultants, budget and
timetable).
c. Participatory approaches to project analysis and design. While beneficiaries' views are often
sought during project preparation, systematic involvement or consultation with beneficiaries or local
organizations during project analysis and design is rare. The potential advantages and disadvantages
of participatory planning should be discussed with examples or case studies to illustrate both the
positive and negative sides. Discussion of administrative difficulties involved in participatory
4. We have cited examples earlier of bridges that collapsed, village construction projects that were never
completed because the villages refused to provide labor and materials for a project on which they had not been
consulted, dramatic differences in maintenance and sustainability of projects which did and did not involve the
community, and so on.

20

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

approachesis important,for example,problemscausedby delaysin completionof the appraisaland

the needto buildmoreflexibilityintothe budgetsothat beneficiariescan influencethe allocationof
certainbudgetline items.
d.
Participatoryorganizationalstyles.CourseParticipantswould consideralternativewaysto
incorporatecommunityorganizationsintothe projectorganization,and wouldassessthe advantages
of doing so and problemsthat mightarise.Someof the issuesto covermightinclude.
* institutionaldevelopmentand leadershiptraining to create permanentlocal institutionsto
ensuretheproject's long-termsustainabilityandto developfutureprojects;
* mechanisms to ensure two-way communicationbetween project management and the
differentsectorsof the beneficiarypopulation;
* specificareasor activitiesin whichlocal organizationscanbe involved.
e. Designingsustainableprojects.The organizationaland design issuesfor ensuringsuccessful
project implementationaredifferentfrom those for ensuringsustainableprojects.The roleof local
organizationsbecomesmuch moreimportantwith respectto the latter. Some of the issues to be
coveredincludelinkagesbetweenbeneficiaryinvolvementin projectplanningand designand their
willingnessto assumeresponsibilitiesfor maintenance,cost recovery,and continueddeliveryof
services;and methodsfor involvingbeneficiariesin projectoperationand sustainability.
f. Ensuringthe participationin and accessibilityof the project to all sectors of the beneficiary
population.Projectorganizationand accessto benefitsis frequentlymonopolizedby certaingroups.
The moduleshoulddiscussthe role of beneficiaryparticipationin ensuringthe project continuesto
be accessibleto all sectors.
g.
Constraintsimposedby the projectapproachon communityparticipation.Participantsin all
projectcoursesshouldbe made awareof the constraintsthat thetime-boundnatureof projects,their
emphasison the completionof quantitativetargets, and their limited attentionto operationsand
maintenancecan place on the involvementof beneficiaries.Theyshouldbe made awarethat many
communityparticipationpractitionersconsiderthe projectapproachto be a seriousbarrierto genuine
communityinvolvement.
The SocialImplicationsof Macroeconomicand SectorPolicies.Educatorstend to assumethat
while social issues such as communityparticipation and women in development should be
discussedat the projectlevel, theydo not have a place in coursesand seminarson macroeconomic
and sectorissues.Althoughcommunityparticipationobviouslyfits less easily into these kinds of
high-leveldiscussions,a number of participatoryissues should be addressed,for example, the
socialimpactsof structuraladjustmentand macroeconomicpolicies.Untilnow the socialimpacts
have been assessedmainly by economists,whohave sought to developquantitativeindicatorsso
that impacts can be "monetized" or otherwise assimilated into the conceptual framework of
macroeconomics.This frequently leads to a very superficialtreatment of the issues. Current
economicapproachessuffer from two weaknesses.First, discussionof how to assess or monitor
the impact of programs at local levels and how to understandwhy they do or do not work as
expected is limited. Second, discussion of how to involve the affected populations in the
identification,design,or implementationof policiesis nonexistent.Economistsimplicitlyassume
that thepopulationwill"act rationally"oncethe correcteconomicincentivesand marketsignalsare
in place, and consequentlythat they do not need to consultthe populationon the wisdomof the
policiesor to seek their involvement.Participatoryconceptsand approachescouldbe introducedin
the followingareas:
* creatingmechanismsto ensurethat the affectedpopulationgroupswill be consultedduringthe
design of structural adjustmentloans and other macroeconomicpolicies-this is somewhat

The Role of CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management 21

analogousto beneficiaryconsultationduring project design althoughmuch more complex and

politicallydifficult;
* developingmechanismsforinvolvinglocal organizationsin the implementationand monitoring
of macroeconomicpolicies,for example,to obtainfeedbackon how smallfarmershaveresponded
to the differentkinds of incentivesbuilt into theprojects and what impactsthe changedeconomic
environmenthas had;
* exploringmechanismsfor involvingcommunitiesand local organizationsin the design and
implementationof programsto promotedomesticresourcemobilization;
* broadeningthe range of participantsinvited to senior policy seminarsso as to involve, for
example,representativesof laborunions,NGOs,otherkindsof privateorganizations;and teachers.
Development Management. Development management training programs have not so far
addressed communityparticipationas a priority issue, but participatoryissues will probablybe
incorporatedin someof the futureactivities.The followingare somelikely areas.
a. Decentralizationof developmentplanningandmanagementis a centralissuein manyparts of
the world.Many countrieshave found that devolutionof planning,budgeting,and management
responsibilityto local-levelorganizationsdoesnot automaticallyensure an adequaterepresentation
of the local community'sopinions.Governmentofficersare accustomedto receivingorders from
above and are often reluctant to consult with local communities in their district. Traditional
communityleadersalso wishto maintaintheirpower and are oftenreluctantto permitinvolvement
of local communities in decisions about resource allocation. This suggests a need to assess
appropriatemanagementand administrativestrategiesfor ensuringadequaterepresentationof the
viewsof local communities,an issue that is becomingimportantin many countriesthat aremoving
towarddecentralization.
b.
Assessmentof the role of local organizationsand NGOs,the extent of and methodsfor
incorporatingthem into government programs, and the extent to which they should operate
independently.

c. Meansby which governmentand donorsshould work with NGOs. What kinds of financial
incentivesor support should the governmentgive them? What roles can they be given in the
selection,appraisal,management,and evaluationof projects? Whatkinds of technicalassistancedo
they require? Can NGOsbe integratedintogovernmentprogramswithoutweakeningthe NGOsor
alienatingthemfrom theirconstituencies.

6
Proposed Strategy
EDI's financial and human resources will inevitably be limited, thus EDI must identify a minimum
set of activities that will be sufficient to stimulate concern about community participation and to
encourage the initiation of further activities.
Regional Seminars on Community Participation
EDI should plan a series of regional seminars or workshops to establish relations with interested
organizations in each region, to understand the regional context, and to develop material and
modules that can be used in standard regional courses. A prototypical training strategy in each
region could involve the following:
a. Identification of a partner institution with experience and interest in this field and with a
regional capability or mandate. Ideally the institution should have experience in general project
planning and management training to give legitimacy to its programs on community participation.
b. Organization of a training activity that should comprise two components: a case writing
workshop and a seminar. Cases would be prepared to illustrate projects that have successfully
included participatory approaches and to assess the attitudes and experiences of the major
stakeholders with the participatory approaches. Some of the cases would cover donor financed
projects while others would focus on local level projects that did not involve donors (or possibly
even governmuent).The seminar would involve training institutions, government planners and
managers, NGOs, and possibly donors. The objectives would be to assess participatory
experiences in the region and to consider the appropriate role of local-level organizations, NGOs,
local and national government agencies, and international organizations in the promotion of
participatory approaches. The seminar would also propose follow-up training programs and the
development of training material.
c. Organization of follow-up activities to develop modules for incorporation into ongoing
training programs or to develop special training programs.
Developing Modules for Regular EDI Training Activities
The previous section lists some of the areas in which issues relating to community participation
could be introduced into regular EDI training programs. The cooperation of interested divisions and
project officers should be sought to develop and test modules on some of these topics for inclusion
in regular training programs. Ideally modules should be developed in cooperation with a number of
different divisions so as to assess how generally applicable these issues are to EDI. The following
is a recommended list of priority modules, together with the suggested sectors that could be
involved in their development and testing. Once tested, the modules could be adapted for use in
other sectors.

23

24 The Role of CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

a. Socialanalysis-this shouldinclude atleast one sessionaboutthe influenceof socialfactors

on project design, implementation,and sustainability(agriculture,rural developmentor urban
development).
b. Designingsustainableprojects(education,urban,watersupply,healthor ruraldevelopment).
c. The social impacts of structural adjustmentand macroeconomicand financial policies
(nationaleconomicmanagementor financeand industry).
d. Decentralizeddevelopmentand communityparticipation(developmentmanagement).
The costsof developingthesemodulesshouldbe sharedbetweenthe coursebudgetand a special
authorization.In this waydivisionswouldhave an incentiveto cooperateas they wouldhaveaccess
to additionaltechnicaland financialresources.
Strategies for Developing Teaching Materials
EDI should resist the opportunityto reinventthe wheel.A great deal of case study and training
materialexists and manyexperiencedlecturers are available.Some of the existingmaterialswill
haveto be adaptedto meetEDI's trainingneeds.The followingare someof the waysin whichEDI
coulddevelopteachingmaterial:
* Requestparticipantsin EDI seminarsand workshopsto preparepaperson their organizations'
experiences with communityparticipation. The Washingtonworkshop successfullyused this
approach-participants produced 16 very informativepapers. However, to use this approach
effectively,
- ensurethat participantsare given sufficientadvancenoticeso that they have timeto prepare
papers(in practicethis is oftendifficult);
- providedetailedguidelineson the contentandorganizationof the papers;
- have an editorattendthe workshopto workwiththe participants;
- encourageparticipantsto revisethe papersafterwards;
- have a clear publicationstrategy-for maximumbenefitall papers shouldbe compiledinto
an uneditedbook of readingsthat canbe distributedquickly(perhapswith an introductory
chapter),the best papers shouldbe includedin the EDI training material catalog;a more
formaldocumentmay be preparedfor reviewandpublication.
Commissionresourcepersonsto preparereviewpapersthat are presentedand discussedin a
workshop.The papersshouldthenbe revisedto incorporatesuggestionsfrom the seminarand from
reviewers.Sufficienttime and resourcesshouldbe budgetedboth for a detaileddiscussionof the
papers and for incorporatingthe commentsand examples.
* Commissioncase studies on interestingprojects. EDI will have to work closely with the
personspreparingthe cases and provideclear guidelineson content,structure,and use. Staff will
haveto avoidthe dangerof commissioningcaseswithouta clearteachingobjectivein mind.
* Prepare case studies to be used in communityparticipationseminars.Ideally, EDI would
organizea case writingworkshopat least six monthsprior to the seminarto permit sufficienttime
for casepreparationand review.The cases wouldthenform one of the focal pointsof the seminars
with a day or more assignedto each case.The cases wouldbe revisedfollowingthe seminarand
put in a form suitablefor futureuse.
* Take the lead in promotingresearch proposalsthat could be jointly sponsoredwith other
World Bank divisions or outside agencies. Resources would also be required to convert the
researchfindingsintoteachingmaterials.Someof thetopicsmightbe

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

25

estimationof the costsand benefitsof participatoryapproaches;

- analysisof the perspectivesand experiencesof different stakeholderson the costs and
benefitsof participatoryapproaches;
- comparisonof successfulparticipatoryexperiencesto developguidelineson projectdesign
and organization.
* Commissionsome of the organizationsthat have specializedin this field to prepare and test
trainingmaterialsfor EDI.
Once materialhas been developed,participants,partnerinstitutions,and EDI staff must test and
evaluateit. Wherepossible,havingthe materialevaluatedby outsideexpertswould alsobe helpful.
A numberof NGOswouldbe willingto cooperatein this.
-

Coordination with Other Organizations

Communityparticipationis clearlya fieldin whichEDI is a relativenewcomerand whereit has a
greatdealto learn from otherorganizations.An essentialcomponentof its communityparticipation
strategyshouldthereforebe to developrelationshipswith organizationsknowledgeablein this field,
forexample:
* UN organizationssuch as ILO, UNICEF,Habitat,and IFAD-many of these organizations
have expressedinterestin helpingselect countriesand sectorsthat wouldbe receptiveto training
activitiesand in cooperatingin the design,delivery, and possibly financingof an activity.Some
would also be interestedin helpingdevelopnew trainingmaterials.Theymight also be willingto
formpartof a consultativecommitteeto adviseEDI in this area.
a
Other internationaldonoragenciessuchas the regionaldevelopmentbanks and a numberof
the bilateral agencies-they could help in ways similar to the UN and also possibly provide
cofmancing.

* Intemationaland nationalNGOs-these are someof the main repositoriesof knowledgeand

experience in this field, but EDI has very limited contacts with them. One of their main
contributionscouldbe to offer both a nationaland a local-levelperspectiveand to forceEDI not to
thinkonly in termsof internationallyfinancedprojectsimplementedthroughnationalgovernments.
Many of these organizationscould also help to design and deliver training courses, to prepare
trainingmaterial,and to design anyresearchprojects.
* Universitiesand otherresearchorganizations-many universitieshaveextensiveresearchand
trainingexperiencein this fieldand muchdocumentationthat couldhelpEDI.
All these institutionsare wellplaced to prepare reviewpapers and to help in the designof any
researchprojects.Manyorganizationsalso haveconsiderableteachingexperienceand couldmake
availabletheirtrainingmaterials.

Annex A
List of Participants

Mr. Ole Therkildsen

Research Fellow
Centre for Development Research
9 Ny Kongensgade
Copehagen, 1472
DENMARK

Mr. Fazle H. Abed

ExecutiveDirector
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
(BRAC)
66, Mahakhali
Dhaka 12
BANGLADESH
Dom Luciano Mendes de Almeida
General Secretary
National Conference of Brazilian Bishops
SE-SUL-801 B
Brasilia 70.000
BRAZIL

Mr. Jose Roberto Samayoa

Coordinador de AsistenciaTecnica en
Planeamiento
Unidad de Innovaci6n y Apoyo Tecnico
Banco Ecuatoriano de la Vivienda
1731 10 de agosto
P.O. Box 7052
Quito
ECUADOR

Mr. Ibrahim B. Nebie

of Training and Organizationof
DiMrector
Farmers
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
P.O. Box 360
Ouagadougou
BURKINA FASO

Mrs. Jaya Arunachalam

President
National Union of Working Women
55 Bhima Sena Garden
Madras 600004
INDIA

Dr. Xan Xuegui

Deputy Director
Department of Health and Epidemic
Prevention
Ministry of Public Health
Beijing
CHINA

Mr. Johan Silas

Senior Lecturer
Institute of Technology Surabaya
Laboratory for Housing and Human
Settlements
12 Jalan Cokmaminoto
Surabaya 60264
INDONESIA

Ms. Nancy L. Nicalo

Assistant for Development
Church World Service
National Council of Churches
475 Riverside Drive
New York,N.Y. 10115
U.S.A.

27

28 The Role of Commnunity

Participation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

Mr. Muhammad A. Rahman

Employment and Development
InternationalLabour Office
4RoutedeMorrillons
P.O. Box 500
Ch 1211 Geneva 22
SW1TZERLAND

Dr. Stephen N. Mbandi

Director, Buea Campus
Pan African Institute for Development
P.O. Box 133
Buea
CAMEROON

Mrs. Hidaya Saad Al-Khairy

Director
Population Affairs Directorate
Urban Development Department
P.O. Box 927198
Amman
JORDAN

Mr. Leopold Gahamanyi

Director of Research
AgriculturalResearch Institute of Rwanda
P.O. Box 138
Butare,
RWANDA

Ms. Mueni Monica Mutuku

Assistant Director
(Community Development)
Housing Development Departnent
Nairobi City Council
P.O. Box 42047
Nairobi
KENYA

Ms. Christinia M. K. Nsekela

Executive Secretary
Family Planning Association of Tanzania
(UMATI)
Samora Ave./ Zanaki St.
P.O. Box 1372
Dar-es-Salaam
TANZANIA

Mr. Manuel Contijoch Escontria

Coordinator
PRODERITH
IMTA- SARH
106 Privada de la Selva
Cuemavaca, Morelos
MEXICO

Mr. Robert T. van der Hoff

Human Settlements Officer/TrainingOfficer
Research and DevelopmentDivision
UNCHS - HABITAT
P.O. Box 30030
Nairobi
KENYA

Mr. Mario E. Martin

Unit Chief
Infrastructure and Services
Departmentof Social Affairs
Organization of American States
1889 F Street
Washington, D.C. 20006-4499
U.S.A.

Ms. Ana Maria Brasileiro

Project Officer
UNICEF
21 Ruan MexicoJ9
Rio de Janeiro 20.000
BRAZIL

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

Ms. Mary Hollnsteiner Racelis

Regional Director
Eastern and Southem Africa Regional Office
UNICEF
P.O. Box 44145
Nairobi
KENYA
Ms. Paula 0. Goddard
Deputy Director
Centre for Development Information and
Evaluation
Bureau for Program and Policy
Coordination
United States Agency for International
Development (USAID)
Room 215 A, 5.A.18
Washington, D.C. 20523
U.S.A.
Ms. Norma Shorey-Bryan
Director
Women and Development Unit (WAND)
University of the West Indies
Pinelands
St. Michael
BARBADOS

29

Annex B
Workshop Timetable
Monday, September 22
9:00 - 9:30 a.m.

Topic:
Speaker:

Opening session
Mr. Christopher Willoughby

9:30(- 9:45 a.m.

Topic:
Speaker.

EDI's objectives in organizing the workshop

Mr. Michael Bamberger

9:45 - 10:15 a.m.

Topic:

Evolution of the concept of community

participation and the experience of the World Bank
Mr. Samuel Paul

Speaker.

10:30 - 11:30 a.m. Discussion: The discussion covered both Mr. Paul's paper and
also participants' views on some of the key issues to
be covered in the workshop
11:30 - 12:00 noon Topic:
Speaker.
2:00 - 3:30 p.m.

Topic:
Speaker:

3:45 - 5:00 p.m.

Topic:
Speakers:

Administrative arrangements for workshop

Ms. Annie Ronco
Approaches to community participation in population
and health: presentation and discussion
Ms. Patricia Martin
Presentations by participants on the community participation
strategies adopted in their programs
Two participants to be selected

Tuesday, September 23
9:00 - 10:15 a.m.

Topic:
Speaker:

10:30 - 12:00 noon Topic:

Speaker:

Approaches to community participation in urban

developmentprograms: presentation and discussion
Ms. Caroline Moser
Approaches to community participation in agriculture
and rural development: presentation and discussion
Mr. Nornan Uphoff

31

32 The Role of CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

2:00 - 4:00 p.m.

Topic:

Small group discussions of factors affecting the success of

community participation

4:00 - 4:30 p.m.

Topic:

Reports on the small group discussions

4:30 - 5:00 p.m.

Topic:
Speaker

Presentation on community participation strategies

To be selected by participants

Wednesday, September 24
9:00 - 10:15 a.m. Topic:
Speakers:
10:30 - 12:00 noon Topic:
Speakers:

The role of EDI inpromoting community participation:

experience and issues-presentation and discussion
Elisabeth Shields and Michael Bamberger
Training strategies for community participation
Presentations by three participants followed by discussion
To be selected by participants

2:00 - 3:30 p.m.

Topic:

Small group discussions on community participation

training strategies at the level of community, project
staff, and program managers and policymakers

3:45 - 4:30 p.m.

Topic:

Report on small group discussions on training

strategies

4:30 - 5:00 p.m.

Topic:

Presentation by participant on community development

strategies
To be selected by participants

Speaker
Thursday, September 25
9:00 - 10:15 a.m. Topic:
Speaker
10:30 - 12:00 noon Topic:
Panel:

Community participation and project accessibility to the

intended beneficiaries: presentation and discussion
Mr. Lawrence Salmen
Panel discussion on the role of international organizations in
the promotion of community participation
Three-four panelists to be selected by participants

2:00 - 3:30 p.m.

Topic:

Guidelines for EDI and other international organizations in

the promotion of community participation: discussion

3:45 - 5:00 p.m.

Topic:

Workshop evaluation

Annex C
Contents of "Readings in Community Participation:
Papers Presented at the EDI Workshop"
CHAPTER
I:

Introduction,MichaelBamberger

Section 1: Community Participation Experience in Multisectoral Programs

CHAPrER2: CommunityParticipationin DevelopmentProjects: The WorldBank
Experience,SamuelPaul
CHAPTER
3:

CaseStudyof NationalUnionof WorkingWomen- An IndianExperiment,

Jaya Amnachalam(India)

CHAPTER
4:

USAID'sExperiencewith CommunityParticipation,Paula Goddard(U.S.A.)

CHAPTER
5:

Experiencesof thePan AfricanInstitutefor Developmentwith Community

Partcipation,StephenN. Mbandi(Cameroon)

CHAPTER6:

TheProcessof FacilitatingCommunityParticipation- The WAND

Experience,Nonna Shorey-Bryan(Barbados)

Section 2: Community Participation Experience in Population, Health, and Water

Supply Programs
CHAPTER7:

CommunityParticipationin HealthandPopulationPrograms,PatriciaMartin

CHAPTER
8:
CommunityParticipationin DiseaseControlandHealthCarein China,
XueguiXan (China)
CHAPTER
9:

Experienceof FamilyPlanningAssociationof Tanzania(UMATI)with

CommunityParticipation,ChristiniaM.K.Nesedela,(Tanzania)

CHAPER10:

Participationin RuralWaterSupply:Experiencesfrom a DanishFunded

Project in Tanzania, Ole Therkildsen (Denmaik)

33

34

The Role of CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentPlanning and Project Management

Section 3: Community Participation Experience in Urban Development Programs

CHAPTER11:

Approaches to CommunityParticipation in Urban Development Programs in

Third World Countries, CarolineMoser

CHAPTER
12:

CommunityParticipation in Brazil, Ana Maria Brasileiro

CHAPTER13:

The Urban Development Department and its Encouragement of Community

Participation,Hidaya Khairi (Jordan)

CHAPIER 14:

Some Aspects and Experiences of CommunityParticipation in Dandora

Project, Monica M. Mutuku (Kenya)

CHAPTER15:

Community Participation in Low-Income Setlement Improvement

Programme - Case Study: The Kampung Improvement Programme of
Indonesia, Johan Silas (Indonesia)

Section 4:

Community Participation Experience in Agriculture and Rural

Development

CHAER 16:

Approaches to CommunityParticipationin Agriculture and Rural

Development, Nornan Uphoff

CHAPTER17:

Scaling Up in Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC),

F. H. Abed (Bangladesh)

CHAPTER18:

CommunityParticipationfor Development: The Programfor Integrated

Development of the Humid Tropics (PRODERITH), Manuel Contijoch
Escontria (Mexico)

CHAPTER19:

Increasing CommunityParticipation in DevelopmentProjects in Burkina

Faso, I. B. Nebie

CHAPTER20:

Participationof the Rural Poor in Development: Approach and Experience in

an ILO Effort, Md. Anisur Rahman

References
Abed, F. H. 1987. "Scaling up in Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee." In Readings in
Community Participation. Washington, D.C.: EDI. Chapter 17.
Arunachalam, Jaya. 1987. "Case Study of National Union of Working Women-An Indian
Experiment." In Readings in CommunityParticipation. Washington, D.C.: EDI. Chapter 3.
Baum, Warren, and Stokes Tolbert. 1985. Investing in Development. New York: Oxford
University Press. Chapter 22.
Cemea, Michael (ed.). 1985. Putting People First. New York: Oxford University Press.
Conable, Barber. 1987. Address to the Board of Govemors of the World Bank. September 29.
Goddard, Paula, and Jim Cotter. 1987. "The United States Agency for Intemational Development
Community Participation Experiences." In Readings in CommunityParticipation. Washington,
D.C.: EDI. Chapter 4.
Honadle, George, and Jerry Vansant. 1985. Implementation for Sustainability: Lessons from
Integrated Rural Development. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
Moser, Caroline. 1987. "Approaches to Community Participation in Third World Cities." In
Readings in Community Participation. Washington, D.C.: EDI. Chapter 11.
Operations Evaluation Department. 1985. Sustainability of Projects: First Review of Experiences.
Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Paul, Samuel. 1987. "Community Participation in Development Projects: The World Bank
Experience." In Readings in CommunityParticipation. Washington, D.C.: EDI. Chapter 2.
Rahman, Anisur. 1987. "Participation of the Rural Poor in Development: Approach and Experience
in an ILO Effort." In Readings in Community Participation. Washington, D.C.: EDI. Chapter
20.
Salmen, Lawrence. 1987. Listen to the People. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shields, Elisabeth, and Michael Bamberger. 1986. Treatment of CommunityParticipation iri Recent
EDI Training Activities. Washington, D.C.: EDI. September (processed).

35

36

The Role of Community Participation in Development Planning and Project Management

Shorey-Bryan,Norma. 1987."The Processof FacilitatingCommunityParticipation- The WAND

Experience."In Readingsin CommunityParticipation.Washington,D.C.:EDI. Chapter6.
Uphoff,Norman. 1986.Local InstitutionalDevelopment:An AnalyticalSourcebookwith Cases.
WestHartford:KumarianPress.
Uphoff, Norman. 1987. "Approaches to Community Participation in Agriculture and Rural
Development."In Readingsin CommunityParticipation.Washington,D.C.:EDI Chapter16.
Women and DevelopmentUnit. 1987.Planningfor Womenin Rural Development.St. Michael,
Barbados:Universityof the WestIndies.ChapterIm.

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3..

ISBN

0-8213-1100-X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

ISSN 1012-490X

i:

0Co