Chidrawi M1 Ch01

MAINTAINING
A BALANCE
Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 1
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CHAPTER 1
Temperature regulation
Most organisms are active in a limited temperature
range
Introduction
Most organisms are active within a
limited temperature range, despite
the large fluctuations in temperature
that occur in the outside environment.
Organisms that live in environments
where they may be subjected to
extremes of temperature have
adaptations that enable them to keep
their internal temperature within a
relatively narrow range. Organisms
must also maintain a relatively constant
balance of chemicals within their bodies
if they are to remain functionally active.
One of the main reasons why the
maintenance of a constant temperature
and chemical balance is so important
is to ensure efficient metabolism
maintaining optimum conditions for
the functioning of enzymes, the organic
catalysts that control all chemical
reactions in cells.
Enzymes function under

balanced conditions
TR
Additional information
and websites
anabolic steroids
All metabolic reactions in living cells

are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
are protein molecules, present in cells,
which act as biological catalysts,
controlling the rate of each step of the
complex chemical reactions that take
place in cells. Catalysts are chemical
substances that can accelerate (speed
up) chemical reactions, but they remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction
and can be reused. They function very
rapidly at low temperatures, making
them ideal for cell functioning.
Metabolism is the sum total of all

chemical reactions occurring within
a living organism. Each step of a
metabolic pathway in cells is catalysed
by enzymes.
Metabolism is divided into two:
anabolic and catabolic. Those reactions
that involve building up large organic
compounds from simpler molecules are
termed anabolic reactions, for example
a large polysaccharide molecule
such as starch being made from
small monosaccharide units such as
glucose, a product of photosynthesis in
plants. (You may have heard the term
anabolic used to describe steroids.
Discuss the meaning of the term in this
context.)
Chemical reactions that involve
breaking down complex organic
compounds to simpler ones are termed
catabolic reactions. For example, in the
digestion of food, large food molecules
such as proteins are broken down into
small units called amino acids, which
can then be easily absorbed from the
gut into the bloodstream.
Chemical reactions may be classified
according to whether they use up or
release energy. Anabolic reactions are
usually endergonic reactions, requiring
an energy input. Catabolic reactions
usually give out energy and so they are
exergonic reactions.
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TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Enzymes and metabolism
identify the role of enzymes in metabolism

metabolism, describe their
chemical composition and use a simple model to describe
their specificity on substrates
By understanding the chemical

composition, functions and
characteristics of enzymes, we
can better understand their role in
controlling chemical reactions in cells
and therefore metabolism in living
organisms.
The chemical composition of

enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules and are
made by living cells. They are globular
proteins, meaning that they have long
chains or sequences of amino acids that
have been folded into a specific shape.
Their effective functioning relies on
their shape. The molecule on which an
enzyme acts is called a substrate. An
enzyme fits together with its substrate
molecules at a precise place on the
surface of the much larger enzyme
molecule, called the active site (much
like a key fits a particular lock). The
shape of this active site must not be
altered if the enzyme is to function (see

Fig. 1.1).
active site
(a)
(b)
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Cofactors
Some enzymes have a non-protein

group such as a vitamin (e.g. riboflavin
= B2, pantothenic acid = B5) or a
metal ion (e.g. zinc, copper or iron)
that binds with the protein part and
helps to form the active site. This is
termed a co-enzyme or cofactorit
can be easily separated from the
protein part of the enzyme, but its
presence is essential for the enzyme
reaction to occur because the enzyme
cannot function without the cofactor.
A functional enzyme may therefore
consist of protein only, or it may be
in the form of an enzymecofactor
complex (where the enzyme part of
the complex is a protein). Poisons are
substances that have harmful effects
on living organisms. Some poisons
exert their toxic effect by disabling
cofactors and thereby inhibiting enzyme
enzyme made
of protein
active site
1.1
Enzymeco-enzyme
substrate complex
Figure 1.1 The

chemical structure of
the enzyme lysozyme
(a) represented
in ribbon style;
(b) represented as
a three-dimensional
model; (c) showing
the formation of an
enzymesubstrate
complex
groove of active site
fits shape of substrate
substrate
(c)
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MAINTAINING A BALANCE
functioning. The heavy metals mercury

and cadmium replace zinc cofactors
in some enzymes and inhibit their
functioning.
TR
Teaching strategy
enzymes reduce
activation energy
The role of enzymes in

metabolism
The following functions of enzymes
lead to their effective role in
metabolism:
Acceleration of chemical reactions
Enzyme catalysts are able to speed

up (or slow down) reactions without
a change in temperature. This is
extremely important in cells, since heat
damages living tissue. For a chemical
reaction to begin, activation energy is
necessary (see Fig. 1.1). The role of
an enzyme is to lower the activation
energy needed to start a reaction, so
that the reaction can proceed quickly,
without a change in temperature.
Lowering of activation energy
Student worksheet
enzymes
Figure 1.2 Scheme

of activation energy
required for chemical
reactions: (a) without
a catalyst, activation
energy must be
supplied for a
chemical reaction;
(b) catalysts accelerate
specific reactions by
lowering the amount
of activation energy
needed to initiate the
reaction
(a)
Action on specific substrates
Enzymes are therefore substratespecific, meaning that one particular

enzyme can work on only one
particular substrate molecule, because
the active site is reciprocally shaped to
bind with that molecule. The enzyme
itself is not chemically changed in
the reaction and so it can be reused
in subsequent reactions. Enzymecontrolled reactions are always
reversible.
Characteristics of enzymes
Enzymes, due to their protein nature,
are sensitive to temperature (heat
and excessive cold) and to pH (a
measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
a substance).
Temperature-sensitive
Enzymes within cells function best

at the body temperature of the living
(b)
uncatalysed
energy supplied
TR
energy released
SR
In chemical reactions that occur in the

non-living world, heat could provide
the necessary activation energy for a
chemical reaction, but in the living
world, heat burns tissue. It is important
to remember that an enzyme does not
provide activation energyit reduces
the amount of activation energy
needed (by bringing specific molecules
together, rather than relying on them
colliding randomly). For example,
oxygen and glucose may be chemically

combined to release energy. In the
laboratory, we can activate this reaction
by adding heatwe burn the glucose
and cause it to react with oxygen in the
air to release energy as light and heat.
In the human body, we cannot add
heat to glucose and oxygen to initiate a
reaction and so an enzyme is necessary
to lower the required activation energy,
so that glucose can react with oxygen
to release energy. (See Fig. 1.2.)
activation
energy
catalysed
activation
energy
reactant
reactant
product
product
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optimum
temperature
optimum pH
for trypsin
Rate of reaction
Rate of reaction
optimum pH
for pepsin
30
(a)
40
50
Temperature of reaction (C)
organism in which they occur. In

most living things, enzymes function
normally at temperatures up to
40C; above this temperature their
efficiency (rate of reaction) decreases.
At temperatures above 60C, most
enzymes stop functioning altogether.
This is because heat causes the
hydrogen bonds that maintain the form
of the enzyme to break and this, in
turn, alters both the structure and shape
of the moleculethe molecule is said
to denature. Any change in shape
that affects the active site will alter the
functioning of the enzyme because
the altered active site is no longer
reciprocally shaped to the substrate
molecule. Excessive cold also causes
the enzyme to change shape and its
functioning to slow down or stop, but
the change in shape due to extreme
cold is often reversible.
pH-sensitive
Each enzyme has its own narrow

range of pH within which it functions
most efficiently. Levels of alkalinity or
acidity outside of the optimum pH for
an enzyme have a similar effect to that
of temperature changethey alter the
shape of the enzyme and slow down or
stop its functioning. Within cells, most
enzymes function at or near neutral, but
enzymes in the digestive tract function
1
(b)
pH of reaction
in an acidic or alkaline medium. For

example, the protein-digesting enzymes
pepsin and rennin, found in gastric
juice in the stomach, function best in
a strong acid. The enzyme salivary
amylase, found in saliva, helps break
down starch and it functions best in a
weak alkaline medium. The action of
amylase on starch stops when the food
passes into the stomach, because of the
low pH of gastric juice. Extremes of pH,
like temperature, cause the enzymes to
denature.
Figure 1.3 (a) Graph

showing the effect of
temperature on the
rate of enzyme action;
(b) graph showing the
pH-specificity of two
digestive enzymes
Substrate-specific
Enzyme molecules are specific,

acting on only one type of substrate;
therefore, each enzyme catalyses one
particular chemical reaction involving
the substrate for which it is specific.
This is due to the lock-and-key fit of
the active site to the substrate molecule
(described, overleaf in more detail in
the section How enzymes work).
Examples of enzyme specificity are:
amylase acts on starch, changing it
to glucose
rennin acts on the protein in milk,
causing it to curdle
the enzyme catalase, present in most
living cells (e.g. potato/meat/apple)
acts on toxic hydrogen peroxide and
converts it to harmless water and
oxygen gas.
TR
Teacher resource
terminology related to
enzymes
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1.2
What is pH?
iden
identify
ntify the pH as a way of describing the acidity
of a substance
pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 7
(the midpoint) represents a neutral
solution. The presence of hydrogen
ions in a solution makes it more acidic
and so solutions with a pH below 7
are acidic and those with a pH above
7 are alkaline or basic. The further
away from the neutral value of 7, the
stronger the respective acid or base.
lemon juice, vinegar
grapefruit, soft drink
tomato juice, acid rain
black coffee
urine
distilled water
sea water
baking soda
Great Salt Lake
ammonia solution
soapy water
bleach
liquid drain cleaner
pH 2
pH 3
pH 4
pH 5
pH 6
pH 7
pH 8
pH 9
pH 10
pH 11
pH 12
pH 13
pH 14
saliva (pH 6.5)
hydrochloric acid (stomach acid)

pH 1
pH 0
examples
battery acid
Figure 1.4 pH scale
weak
acid
strong
acid
increasing
acidity
PFA
H2
blood (pH 7.4)
pH is a w
way of describing the acidity
of a sub
substance. The pH scale is used
tto measure the acidity or alkalinity
of a substance, as shown below (see
Fig. 1.4). pH is a logarithmic value of
the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+) in solution. Since it is a logarithmic
value, the greater the hydrogen ion
concentration, the lower the pH. The
weak
base
neutral
pH scale
strong
base
increasing
alkalinity
How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on

substrates
Enzymes are large, globular protein
molecules with one or more
indentations on their surface called
active sites. For an enzyme to
catalyse a reaction, the small substrate
molecules must temporarily bind to
these active sites. At first a lock-andkey model was proposed: it was
thought that the active site is rigid
and the small substrate molecule is
reciprocally shaped and fits into the
active site, like a lock fits a key. Once
this enzymesubstrate complex has
formed, the close proximity of the
molecules allows the reaction to be

rapidly catalysed and the products of
the reaction are released. To validate
this model, predictions were made and
tested. The results led to the proposal
of the currently accepted amended
version of the model, known as the
induced-fit model. This model is
based on the realisation that proteins
are not rigid. Evidence suggests that the
binding of a substrate to the active site
of an enzyme induces the enzyme to
alter its shape slightly, to fit more tightly
around the substrate. (See Fig. 1.5.)
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1 substrate is sucrose, which is

composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
glucose
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme
bond
fructose
products are released
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
enzymesubstrate
complex fit in
lock-and-key
arrangement
active sites
5 enzyme is free
to bind other
substrates
enzyme
(a)
substrate is sucrose, which is

composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
glucose
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme
bond
fructose
products are released
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
active sites
enzyme
induced fit: the

binding of the substrate
induces the enzyme to
change shape and fit
more tightly
enzyme is free
to bind other
substrates
(b)
Figure 1.5 Sequence of steps in the induced-fit/lock-and-key model of specificity of enzymesubstrate
action: (a) lock-and-key model of enzyme functioning; (b) induced-fit model of enzyme functioning
The rate of enzyme reactions
Enzymes are highly efficientthey work

rapidly, having a high rate of reaction
or turnover number (the number of
substrate molecules that one enzyme
can act on in 1 minute). Catalase is the
fastest acting of all enzymes, having a
turnover number of 5 million substrate
molecules per minute.
Enzymes are highly effectiveonly
minute traces are needed to bring about
reactions and they can be reused.
The rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction is affected by the

concentration of the substrate. If an
enzyme and substrate have a high
affinity for each other, the reaction
will proceed more rapidly than for an
enzyme and substrate that have a low
affinity for each other. The higher the
substrate concentration, the greater
the rate of enzyme reaction, until all
available enzymes are being used to
catalyse reactions. This point is known
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TR
Student worksheet
graphs related to
enzyme activity
as the saturation point. Increasing

the substrate concentration beyond the
saturation point will not increase the
rate of reaction, since all enzymes are
working at their maximum turnover rate
and will have to be reused to act on
the additional substrate. The only way
to increase the reaction rate would be
to increase the enzyme concentration.
(See Fig. 1.6.)
maximum
Rate of reaction
SR
Substrate concentration
Figure 1.6 Graph showing the effect of substrate
concentration on enzyme activity
Investigating enzyme activity

FIRST-HAND
F
IRS
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.1; H11.2; H11.3
H12.1; H12.2; H12.3;
H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3
Table 1.1 Advantages

and disadvantages of
enzymes
identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or

resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
test the effect of:
increased temperature
change in pH
change in substrate concentrations on the activity
of named enzyme(s)
Background information
Enzymes are protein molecules that are made
by living cells and function as catalysts within
the cells. They accelerate the rate of reaction
without themselves being changed. A substrate
is another name for a reactant in an enzymecontrolled reaction.
In each of the investigations that follow,

the activity of a named enzyme will be studied.
There are a variety of enzymes that are
suitable to use for this investigation. Each
has its advantages and disadvantages (see
Table 1.1).
Chemical reaction
catalysed
Evidence of enzyme
activity
Determining enzyme
activity
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide
converted to water and
oxygen
Creates a fizzing effect
Measure the height of

bubbles
Amylase
(commercially available
or found in saliva)
Starch
(available as powdered
starch that can be
mixed with water, or
boiled potato)
Starch converted to
glucose
Starch no longer
present
Starch can be stained

with iodine. Time
how long until starch
disappears: enzyme
active no more
starch present
Rennin
(available as junket
tablets)
Milk protein
(caseinogen)
Converts soluble
caseinogen protein
into an insoluble form
(casein)
Milk curdles and a

precipitate forms
Time how long milk

takes to curdlethis
indicates rate of
enzyme activity
Enzyme and source
Substrate
Catalase
(potato or any fresh
plant or animal tissue)
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Task
Students will need to plan and conduct
three separate experiments so that they
can investigate the effect of each factor
independently. That is, in each experiment only
one variable is changed to ensure the validity
of the investigation. The effect of each of the
following factors on enzyme activity will be
investigated:
increased temperatureExperiment 1
change in pHExperiment 2
change in substrate concentrations
Experiment 3.
There are several ways in which this can be
tackled. Group work is recommended, as each
experiment (especially the effect of temperature
on enzyme activity) is fairly labour-intensive.
Planning the scientific investigation

Students should consult the teacher and use
the information on the Student Resource CD to
decide whether they will investigate the activity of
the same enzyme and its substrate for all three
experiments, or whether they will use a different
enzyme for one or more of the experiments.
To plan the investigation, a variety of
sources should be consulted, including the
information in the table on the previous
page, the Student Resource CD and the
text on pages 35 on the role of enzymes
in metabolism.
Teachers may like to guide the class through
planning and conducting one of the three
experiments on enzyme activity and then
allow the students to plan and conduct
the other two experiments on their own.
(Teachers resource material, The five steps
of investigation, available on the Teacher
Resource CD, may be useful.)
For each experiment, students need to:
identify the enzyme and substrate to be
used
discuss with the teacher the sources
from which both the enzyme and the
substrate that you have chosen to use
can be obtained
research the chemical reaction that the
enzyme catalyses and write out a word
equation for this reaction
determine a method to measure the
activity of the enzyme in a laboratory.
Research and list all safety precautions to
be taken and the hazards of any chemicals that
may be used.
Ensuring the validity of the

investigation
A valid experiment is one that actually tests
what it sets out to test. To arrive at valid
conclusions, it is necessary to use a control:

remove the factor you are testing and compare
the results with the experiment when the factor
was present. The comparison should show
that if the factor is missing (the control), the
same result is not obtained, proving that it is
the presence of that factor which brings about
the result. Set up two sets of apparatus for
each runone with the factor being tested
(experimental apparatus) and one without the
factor (control apparatus). Validity also depends
on keeping variables constant and ensuring
reliability and accuracy.
Identify the independent and dependent
variables and plan how you will keep all
other variables constant
Ensure reliability and accuracy: read the
Biology Skills on pages xxii (and, in
particular, take note of 12.4 e and f) to
determine how you will ensure:
reliability: the same method should yield
the same results when repeated by other
people (this may require modification
and inter-group co-operation after a test
run) and averaging and/or comparison of
results
accuracy: the results should comply
with similar scientific information (e.g.
data from other scientific sources such
as scientific journals); accuracy also
relies on choosing precise measuring
equipment and using it correctly to avoid
experimental error
Results: choose suitable format(s) to
represent your data (e.g. tables, graphs
the correct type of graph and the line of best
fit).
Additional information is available on the
Teacher Resource CD.
SR
Experiment
i
t report
t
investigating enzyme
activity
TR
Teaching strategy for

the investigation and
teacher resource
valid investigations
Reporting on the investigation

For each experiment, write up a practical report
under the standard scientific headingsaim,
hypothesis, materials, safety, method, results,
conclusion and discussion.
Results: data from results should be
measured, recorded in the form of a table
and then graphed.
Conclusions: read the aim of each
experiment again, consider your hypothesis
and then write a valid conclusion based on
your results (no inferences).
Discussion: any suggested modifications
to the method, materials or equipment
and explanations of unexpected results or
experimental error should appear under this
heading. Answer all discussion questions as
well.
TR
Sample experiments
on investigating
enzyme activity and
practical reports
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1.3
Home
Homeostasis
and feedback mechanisms
maint
maintaining a balance
Of all liv
living
ving organisms the mammalian
has best perfected keeping
body ha
internal functioning constant, no matter
changes occur in the external
what cha
conditions in the environment. The
module Maintaining a balance has as
its central theme the maintenance of
internal stability, called homeostasis,
within living organisms. In this module,
we will study regulatory systems in
both plants and animals that act to
maintain a balance in their internal
environments:
temperature regulation (brought
about mainly by the skin in
mammals and by leaves in plants)
control of chemical substances
available to cells, transported
through organisms (by blood vessels
in mammals and vascular tissue in

plants)
the control of water and salt balance
(osmoregulation) and of pH and
waste products (brought about
mainly by the kidneys in mammalian
bodies).
An organism is healthy as long as
homeostasis is maintained. When a
person visits a doctor for a medical
check-up, the doctor will monitor their
wellbeing by carrying out standard
checks, including measuring their
body temperature and taking blood
samples to compare the patients blood
composition with a standard set of
values that indicate the normal range
for optimal metabolic efficiency.
Homeostasis
describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms

maintain a relatively stable internal environment
The word homeostasis comes from the

Greek words homoios, meaning like or
the same and stasis, meaning state. This
implies a state of balance or constancy,
where conditions stay the same in
the internal environment of living
organisms to allow them to function
efficiently, despite fluctuations in the
external environment.
Homeostasis is defined as
the maintenance by an organism
of a constant or almost constant
internal state, regardless of external
environmental change.
Any organised infrastructure,
whether a living organism or a nonliving enterprise, needs careful control
and certain constants if it is to run
smoothly and efficiently, particularly
when external circumstances fluctuate
or change. If we consider the smooth
running of a hospital or even a
household, a sudden external change,
for example a power cut, could have

drastic results if the organisation cannot
continue to work independently of the
outside changes. The fluctuations need
to be monitored and counter measures
must be put in place. For example, if
there is a power failure and a hospital
does not have a back-up plan, many
lives will be lost.
In order to maintain a constant
internal environment, the following two
steps are essential:
1. detect the change
2. counteract the change.
In a similar way, living organisms
must have mechanisms in place to
enable them to function independently
of external changes and to maintain
a relatively constant internal state. In
this chapter, we look at homeostasis
and how living organisms maintain a
constant internal environment.
10
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Discuss the following analogy, which should help us to understand the importance of maintaining
constant internal conditions in an organisation such as:
a hospital
a home.
In order to maintain a constant internal environment in the event of a power cut, how would people
within the hospital or home:
1. detect the changehow will people become aware that the power supply has been cut off?
2. counteract the changewhat measures could be put in place within each organisation to
temporarily overcome the problem until things return to normal?
Compare the efficiency of these measures and relate this to the importance of the functioning of
the organisation.
When we consider our analogy in

more detail, it becomes evident that
some organisations are better equipped
to cope with change than otherspart
of the back-up plan in a hospital is
to have its own emergency generator,
which can be put into use in the event
of a power failure; however, most of
us do not have emergency generators
in our homes. It is interesting (and
not unexpected) to note that certain
living organisms have a better backup plan than others when it comes
to maintaining a constant internal
environment.
Living organisms have developed
mechanisms that ensure that they are
able to maintain a constant or almost
constant internal state, regardless
of changes from the stable state of
conditions in the external environment.
The importance of a constant internal environment
explain why the maintenance of a constant internal

environment is important for optimal metabolic
efficiency
Living organisms are made of cells,

which must function efficiently to
maintain life. All chemical reactions
within cells must occur efficiently
and be effectively co-ordinated
to bring about optimal metabolic
efficiency.
Each cell is surrounded by a small
amount of fluid called intercellular or
interstitial fluid and this, together with
the cytoplasm inside cells, makes up
their internal environment. Cells are
extremely sensitive to changes in their
internal environment and any imbalance
adversely affects their functioning. The
internal environment of an organism
1.4
must be maintained within a narrow

range of conditions, for example
temperature, volume (the amount
of cells or of fluid such as blood or
cytoplasm) and chemical content in
the internal environment must be kept
stable so that enzymes can function
effectively and metabolic efficiency can
be maintained. Enzymes are extremely
sensitive to the temperature and pH
of the environment and changes in
concentrations of these, as well as
nutrients such as glucose and oxygen,
affect their activity. Cells cannot
tolerate any build-up in levels of waste
products such as carbon dioxide or
11
21/5/08 1:08:16 PM
other metabolic wastes, as these inhibit

enzyme functioning.
Metabolic efficiency relies on a
constant (or almost constant) level of
the following variables in the internal
environment:
temperature and pH (optimal range)
for enzyme functioning
concentration of metabolites
(reactants)
water and salt concentration
(osmotic pressure), which
determines the volume of cells or
fluid such as blood)
absence of toxins that may inhibit
enzyme functioning.
The importance of maintaining

a constant level of each
variable
pH and temperature (for enzyme
functioning)
All chemical reactions necessary for

the cells survival and functioning
are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
only function within a narrow range
of temperature and pH; outside of
these ranges, narrow variations cause
a decrease in the activity of enzymes
whereas greater variations cause the
enzymes to denature, rendering them
non-functional. This reduces metabolic
efficiency.
Further problems with extreme
temperatures are that:
very low temperatures could
cause the water in cells to freeze.
This brings about changes in the
concentration of solutes in the
cytoplasm, which in turn affect
the pH and osmotic balance of the
cell. When water freezes it expands
and this may cause the cell and/or
organelles to rupture (burst).
very high temperatures cause both
enzymes and other proteins (such
as those in membranes of organelles
and the cell) to denature, further
disrupting cell functioning and
metabolic activity.
Metabolites
For any chemical reaction to proceed,

reactants must be present. Metabolites
are chemicals that participate in
chemical reactions in cells. Some (for
example, glucose and oxygen) are
taken in from the outside environment,
whereas others are products of other
metabolic pathways (for example
ATP, the type of energy produced by
chemical respiration).
Many metabolic reactions rely on
the availability of ATP energy in cells. If
cells cannot produce sufficient energy,
there is a ripple effect and other
metabolic activity will be adversely
affected. The production of energy
relies on chemical respiration, which
in turn relies on an ample supply
of metabolites such as glucose and
oxygen, as well as respiratory enzymes
and their cofactors.
A lack of any of these metabolites
may therefore slow down or stop
chemical respiration, affecting overall
metabolic efficiency.
Water and salt concentrations
(osmotic balance)
All chemical reactions in living

organisms take place in water. For
chemical reactions to proceed, the
reactants must be dissolved in water
therefore the water concentration of
cells and their surrounding fluid is
of enormous importance. Dissolved
substances such as salt affect the
osmotic balance of fluids and so
the concentration of slats and other
dissolved substances must also be
maintained within a narrow range.
An absence of toxins
A build-up of carbon dioxide and/or

other wastes (as a result of chemical
reactions in the cells) may be toxic to
cells, affecting enzymes either directly
or indirectly. Some interact directly by
blocking the active site of enzymes,
while others act indirectly by altering
the optimal conditions for enzyme
12
21/5/08 1:08:17 PM
STUDENT ACTIVITY
An explanation involves finding a cause and effect relationship. (Refer to the
verb scaffold for explain on the Teacher Resource CD.)
Analyse the above explanations of the importance of maintaining a constant
internal environment in terms of each variable, and in the form of a table:
state the underlying cause(s) of the phenomenon (the change to the internal
environment)
outline any intermediate effects
state clearly the overall effect on metabolic efficiency.
functioning (for example, carbon

dioxide alters the pH of fluid). In either
case, enzyme functioning is inhibited
TR
Verb scaffold
explain
and so these wastes must be removed

to ensure metabolic efficiency.
Negative feedbackthe mechanism of homeostasis
explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:

detecting changes from the stable state
counteracting changes from the stable state
substances) in the internal environment
of an organism are maintained within a
narrow range. Within each organism,
these variables have an ideal or
normal value, called the set point.
Homeostasis does not maintain the
exact set point, but homeostasis is
maintained as long as there is only a
narrow range of fluctuation (increase
and decrease) of the variable around
the set point. (See Figure 1.7.)
If the fluctuation is large and
exceeds the normal range, a negative
Figure 1.7 Graph

showing homeostasis
as the maintenance of
a relatively constant
internal environment
around an ideal value
or set point. The
value of the variable
fluctuates within a
narrow range and
is maintained by a
negative feedback
mechanism
upper value that triggers

a response to counteract
the increase
Normal range
Homeostasis involves an enormous

amount of co-ordination and control in
a living organism. In mammals, both
the nervous system and endocrine
(hormonal) systems are involved.
Homeostasis is brought about in two
stages:
1. detecting change: sensory cells or
receptors present within the body
detect change in the temperature
and/or chemical composition
within the body. This change in the
environment is called a stimulus.
2. counteracting change:
effector organs (such
as muscles or glands)
then work to reverse the
change. A response that
successfully reverses the
change will return the body
to homeostasisits relatively
constant state.
Homeostatic mechanisms
ensure that variables (such
as temperature or the
concentration of chemical
1.5
set point (ideal value)
lower value that triggers

a response to counteract
the decrease
Time
13
28/5/08 1:44:21 PM
feedback mechanism comes into

operation in response to this change;
it is termed negative because it
counteracts the change (the stimulus),
returning the body to within the normal
rangei.e. to a state of homeostasis.
1.6
Note: The secondary-source

investigation to model a feedback
system (see page 20) may be done at
this point in time OR after temperature
regulation.
Temperature regulation and the nervous system

Temp
outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and

responding to environmental changes
Introduction to the nervous

system
The structures of the nervous system

involved in the stimulusresponse
pathway of co-ordination are:
receptorssensory cells, sometimes
in sense organs (for example,
olfactory receptors in the nose)
a control centrethe central
nervous system, which includes
brain and spinal cord
effectors (e.g. muscles and glands)
nerves, which link all the other
parts, relaying messages from one
part to another in the form of
electrochemical nerve impulses.
Co-ordination
The stimulusresponse pathway
The function of the nervous system is

co-ordination and this takes place in
three steps:
1. It detects information about an
animals internal and external
environments.
2. It transmits this information to a
control centre.
3. The information is processed in the
control centre, generating a response
to ensure the maintenance of a
relatively constant internal state.
A stimulus is detected by a receptor,

a message is carried by nerves to a
control centre and a response is
triggered (see Fig. 1.8).
For example, if you touch a hot
stove with your finger, receptors in
your skin detect the heat and pain, and
the result is that you withdraw your
finger rapidly. How is this co-ordinated?
This rapid reaction requires a link
between the receptors that detect the
stimulus and the effectors, the muscles
Any change in the external

environment could affect the balance
in the internal environment of the
organism and so a mechanism is
needed to ensure homeostasisthe
maintenance of a stable internal
environment, despite fluctuations in the
external environment. The mechanisms
that allow this to occur are based on a
negative feedback system, co-ordinated
by the nervous system.
Figure 1.8 Flow chart

showing the stimulus
response pathway
stimulus
receptor
control
centre
effectors
response
14
21/5/08 1:08:20 PM
(or sometimes glands) that carry

out a response. The co-ordination
is carried out by the nerves and
the central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) of the body. See
Figure 1.9, which illustrates the
role of the nervous system in the
stimulusresponse pathway.
Co-ordination pathway
(change in
environment)
Detecting change:
receiving stimuli
Sensory cells called receptors

detect stimuli (changes in the
internal or external environment
of an organism). In their most
simple form, receptors consist of
single cells, scattered over the
body of an organism. In their
more complex form, receptors
have become concentrated in
particular areas to form sense
organs such as the eye, ear
and tongue. In many animals
(including humans), receptors
in sense organs detect stimuli
in the external environment.
However, there are also receptors
that are sensitive to internal
stimuli within the body. These
interoreceptors within the
body are important in detecting
changes related to homeostasis
that is, internal stimuli such as
changes in pH, body temperature,
osmotic pressure and the chemical
composition of blood.
Loud noise
stimuli
The role of the nervous

system in homeostasis
The role of the nervous system
in homeostasis is co-ordination.
A pathway exists, whereby a
stimulus is detected by a receptor,
a message is carried by nerves to
a control centre and a response
is triggered. In homeostasis, the
response usually counteracts
the stimulus (change), reducing
its effect so that a balance is
maintained. This is termed a
negative feedback mechanism.
Example
detected by
(sensory cells in
sense organ)
receptors
hair cells in ear
convert stimuli to impulses

(sensory nerve
carrying nerve
impulses)
auditory nerve
messengers
I
I
I
+
+
+
I
I
+
+
+
I
I
I
+
+
transmit impulses
(brain and spinal

cord)
CNS
brai n
process information and trigger

new impulses
(motor nerve
carrying nerve
impulses)
motor
nerves
messengers
transmit impulses
(muscles or
glands)
effectors
muscles
react
(reaction)
response
head jerks
and looks
back
Figure 1.9 The role of the nervous system in detecting

and responding to environmental change
15
28/5/08 2:13:45 PM
Receptors may be named according

to the type of energy or molecules
they detect. Those receptors important
in our study of homeostasis are
thermoreceptors, which detect
internal changes in temperature, and
chemoreceptors, which detect the
concentration of certain chemicals
inside the body (for example, carbon
dioxide levels) in the blood. Other
receptors that you may come across
in your studies (e.g. if you study the
biology option Communication) are
photoreceptors (sensitive to light, found
in the eye) and mechanoreceptors
(sensitive to movement or vibrations,
found in the ear).
Co-ordination: the role of the nervous
system in processing information
The brain and spinal cord make up the

central nervous system (CNS). The
peripheral nervous system consists of
nerves, which carry information to and
from the CNS. The information carried
by nerves is messages transmitted in the
form of electrochemical nerve impulses.
Incoming information passes from
sensory receptors via sensory nerves
to the CNS, which in turn transmits
outgoing information to effector organs
via motor nerves. The role of the CNS is
to process incoming information, analyse
it and then initiate an appropriate
response. Within the CNS, information
is processed and analysed by a number
of interconnecting nerve cells (neurons)
and then a message is generated and
transmitted, stimulating the effector
organs. Some actions involving the
nervous system may take place
voluntarily, but all of those involved
in homeostasis take place without any
conscious thoughtthey are involuntary
and many are inborn, unconditioned
reflexes in response to a particular
stimulus.
Counteracting change: responding
A response is a reaction in an
organism or its tissues, as a result
of receiving a stimulus. It is carried

out by structures in the body known
as effector organsthese are often
muscles and/or glands. The response
reaches the effectors from the CNS
and causes the body to correct any
deviation from the normal balanced
state, thereby maintaining homeostasis.
The role of the nervous system

in thermoregulation in humans
Causes of temperature change
within the body
Heat gain within the body may arise as

a result of:
normal cell functioning
(metabolism): the oxidation process
of chemical respiration in cells
releases heat energy
muscle contractions: a large
proportion of the energy needed for
any muscle activity is converted into
heat during muscle functioning (this
explains why we get hot when we
exercise)
hot food and drinks
heat (radiant energy) from external
sources such as the sun, radiators
and heaters.
Heat loss from the body results from:
radiation of heat from the body to
cooler surroundings
convection: air currents (wind)
remove warm air surrounding the
body and replace it with cool air
evaporation (for example sweating):
when liquid droplets on the body
surface evaporate, heat is required
to change them from liquid
(droplets) to gas (water vapour).
We are familiar with the fact that
vaporisation requires heatfor
example, a kettle heats water and
turns it to steam. In temperature
regulation, heat from an organisms
body is used for evaporation,
cooling the internal environment of
the body down in the process.
(See Fig. 1.11.)
16
21/5/08 1:08:26 PM
(a)
(b)
Detecting change
Thermoreceptors are present

both outside and inside the body.
Peripheral receptors are located in
the skin and central thermoreceptors
monitor the temperature of the blood
as it circulates throughout the brain.

The central receptors are present in
the hypothalamus of the brain (see
Fig. 1.11) and are sensitive to extremely
small temperature changes (a fraction
of a degree).
Figure 1.11 Flow

chart showing the
regulation of body
temperature in
humans
skin blood vessels dilate; blood

carries heat to the skin surface
body temperature
decreases: hypothalamus
shuts off cooling
mechanisms
in hypothalamus control centre detects

change and activates cooling mechanisms
begin here
STIMULUS: increased body
temperature (e.g. when
exercising or in hot
surroundings)
body temperature increases:

hypothalamus shuts off
warming mechanisms
Figure 1.10 Humans

are able to maintain a
relatively constant body
temperature despite
fluctuations in the
external environment
sweat glands activated,

high increasing evaporative
cooling
HOMEOSTASIS
body temperature
low
skin blood vessels constrict,

keeps control centre warm and
reduces heat loss from skin
surface
or begin here
STIMULUS: decreased
body temperature (e.g.
due to cold surroundings)
hypothalamus control centre

detects change and activates
warming mechanisms
skeletal muscles
activated; shivering
generates heat
17
21/5/08 1:08:26 PM
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
In pairs, discuss the familiar responses that you are aware of in your own bodies on a hot day or
when you have been exercising, as opposed to your body responses on a really cold day. Try to
work out how these responses bring about heating or cooling.
Co-ordination
The hypothalamus is also the control

centre for temperature regulation
in the mammalian body and so the
receptors do not have to transmit the
information very far in order to elicit a
response. The anterior hypothalamus
has a heat-loss centre, which sends
messages to effectors to cool the body
down, and the posterior hypothalamus
has a heat-gain centre, which initiates
responses that help the body to
warm up.
Counteracting change
The main homeostatic organ involved

in temperature regulation in humans is
the skin. Effectors that assist the body
to cool down when it has overheated,
or to warm up if it has overcooled,
include the blood vessels (arterioles) in
the skin, sweat glands and hair erector
muscles in the skin, and the muscles
of the body. The thyroid gland, which
affects overall metabolic rate, is also an
effector. (See Fig. 1.11.)
Warming the body
If the body becomes too cold, the heatgain centre of the hypothalamus
stimulates responses in the effector
organs to generate and/or retain heat
within the bodyon a cold day we get
goose bumps on our skin, become
pale and shiver:
Raised hairs on the body (goose
bumps) are an attempt to trap
a layer of warm air around the
body to reduce the amount of heat
lost by radiation, convection and
conduction. The hypothalamus

stimulates the erector muscles in the
skin to contract, raising the hairs.
This is more effective at trapping
heat where the hair is thicker, for
example on our heads (and all over
on animals with thick fur).
Vasoconstrictionconstriction
(narrowing) of the arterioles to the
skin: people who are very cold
tend to appear pale-faced, with
blue-tinged lips, fingers and toes
due to poor circulation. Heat is
carried throughout the body in
the bloodstream. To prevent too
much heat being lost from the
body surface, the muscular walls
of the small blood vessels known
as arterioles constrict so that most
blood flow is redirected to the core
(centre) of the body, preventing heat
loss from the cooler body surface.
Shivering is brought about by rapid,
small muscle contractions, which
generate heat in the body.
Increased metabolism: the heat-gain
centre stimulates the activity of the
thyroid gland, causing it to speed up
metabolism.
(See Fig. 1.12.)
Cooling the body
If the body becomes too hot, we

become red, sweaty and sluggish, signs
that our heat-loss mechanism has been
activated to bring about cooling of the
body. The heat-loss centre of the
hypothalamus stimulates the effector
organs to lose heat:
18
21/5/08 1:08:29 PM
(a)
(b)
blood vessel constricts

(vasoconstriction)
blood vessel dilates

(vasodilation)
increased
heat loss
across
epidermis
epidermis
epidermis
heat conservation
(c)
water
vapour
sweat
droplet
Figure 1.12
Temperature-regulating
responses of the skin:
(a) vasoconstriction
conserves heat;
(b) vasodilation brings
about heat loss;
(c) sweating brings
about heat loss
increased heat loss

evaporation
hair
heat
pain
receptors
sweat pore
epidermis
sweat
duct
sweat
gland
increased heat loss
Vasodilationdilation (expansion)
of the arterioles to the skin: blood
carrying heat is directed towards the
surface of the body so that heat can
be lost by conduction, convection
and radiation to the surroundings.
Sweating: Sweat glands, the main
heat-loss structures in the body, are
activated by the heat-loss centre in
the hypothalamus. Liquid sweat is
secreted through the sweat pores
onto the surface of the skin and
heat is removed from the body to
evaporate the liquid. (If you stand
in the sun and the heat from the
sun evaporates the sweat, you will
not cool down as quickly as in the
shade, where heat is being removed
from your body for evaporation.)
Animals that do not have sweat

glands still lose heat by evaporation;
for example, dogs pant, and rodents
and kangaroos lick their bodies so
that the saliva evaporates and cools
them down. A cooling process based
on evaporation occurs in plants
as wellwater evaporates from
the leaves, removing the heat of
vaporisation from the plant in the
process. This loss of water from the
plant is known as transpiration.
Decreased metabolism: the heatloss centre causes the thyroid gland
to lower the rate of metabolism,
generating less heat. This accounts
for why we feel tired and lethargic
on hot days.
SR
TR
Student worksheetthe
role of the nervous
system in the stimulus
response pathway for
temperature regulation
19
21/5/08 1:08:30 PM
Model of a feedback system

SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.2; H12.3; H12.4
gather, process and analyse information from secondary

sources and use available evidence to develop a model of
a feedback mechanism
H13.1
H14.1f; H14.3
SR
Relevantt websites
b it and
questionsnegative
feedback model
TR
Answers to student
worksheet
To maintain homeostasis, organisms

must monitor any changes in the internal
environment and then correct the deviations.
Monitoring change and then responding to
it is termed feedback. The type of response
determines whether this feedback is positive
or negative. If the response counteracts or
cancels out the change (stimulus), this is known
as negative feedback and this mechanism
ensures that a constant internal environment is
maintained. Temperature regulation is a typical
feedback mechanism. Most living systems rely
on negative feedback to maintain homeostasis.
If the body implements a response that
increases (enhances) the change (stimulus),
this is termed positive feedback. Positive
feedback is very unusual in living systems and
occurs only in rare and specific instances. For
example, during childbirth the stretching of the
uterus wall causes the muscles of the uterus
to contract. The contractions cause the uterus
wall to stretch further; this in turn increases
the contractions, eventually resulting in the
birth of the baby. Within the body, most positive
feedback systems are part of some broader
overall mechanism that maintains homeostasis.
There are many examples of negative
feedback in everyday life, both in living systems
and in the non-living world. For example, the
thermostat control of oven temperature in the
kitchen or the cooling and heating of buildings
by air-conditioning units both rely on a negative
feedback mechanism. Within biological systems,
examples include the regulation of temperature
in the organisms, as well as maintaining the
concentration of the many chemicals present. In
mammals, chemical balance in blood includes
maintaining the glucose (blood sugar) level,
the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration,
regulating pH levels and much more. Negative
feedback loops in the human body are
meticulously co-ordinated by the nervous and/
or endocrine (hormonal) systems.
Task
Students are required to develop a model
to demonstrate the concept of a feedback
mechanism. The model should entail a
generalised representation of a negative
feedback loop and may take the form of a flow
chart, an annotated sequence of diagrams or

a combination of these, or it may be an actual
working model accompanied by a written
explanation. This model will then be applied to
explain the negative feedback mechanism of
temperature regulation in the human body. (See
PFA H2.)
1. To develop a model to show the sequence
of steps typical of a negative feedback
mechanism:
(a) Gather information from a variety of
sources, looking at several negative
feedback mechanisms in both the
living and non-living world (see the
recommended websites on the Student
Resource CD).
(b) Present your model in a simple and
concise format that can be applied to
explain specific examples of negative
feedback loops typical of living
organisms.
(c) Represent each of the following on your
model:
(i) stimuli: stimulus increases/decreases
(ii) co-ordinating (control) centre
(iii) effectors
(iv) responses.
2. Use your model to explain how temperature
regulation in humans is a negative feedback
mechanism.
3. Answer the questions below.
Discussion questions
1. Draw a flow-chart diagram of your model of
a negative feedback mechanism.
2. Use the websites listed to develop a general
model for a negative feedback mechanism
and then compare your model with negative
feedback in temperature regulation in
humans.
Model
Temperature
regulation
The stimuli
The co-ordinating (control)
centre
The effectors
The negative feedback loop
20
21/5/08 1:09:08 PM
3. Using the model of a negative feedback

mechanism that you have developed or
the generalised one given to you by your
teacher, use different-coloured pens to
annotate the model with the various stages
of temperature regulation in humans.
4. Validating your model:
(a) Describe ways in which the application
of your model to temperature control is
an accurate representation of a negative
feedback mechanism.
(b) Describe any limitations of this model for
temperature control.
5. Complete the table below by naming the
effectors and summarising the responses
that occur in each when body temperature
increases in mammals.
Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus

sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
Effectors
Responses
6. Complete the table below by naming the

effectors and summarising the responses
that occur in each when body temperature
decreases in mammals.
Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus
sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
Effectors
Responses
Temperature limits of living organisms
identify the broad range of temperatures over which life

is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species
Temperature tolerance in
living things
Temperature is one of the many
limiting factors that can determine the
presence of life on Earth. Without these
limiting factors (such as water, nutrients,
light, oxygen and a balanced pH) living
organisms cannot survive. A reduction
in the accessibility of these resources
restricts the metabolic processes or
growth within an organism. Chemical
reactions that occur in cells take
place only within a relatively narrow
range of temperatures, due to the
temperature sensitivity of enzymes.
For example, tissue temperatures
greater than 42C are lethal to most
organisms, as important enzymes begin
to denature at this temperaturethe
weak hydrogen bonds in enzymes
break and temperature increases; the
changed shape of the enzymes (and
their distorted active sites) results in a
reduced ability to function and this has
adverse effects on metabolism. Extreme
temperatures (above 100C) denature
1.7
not only proteins, but also nucleic

acids; this destruction of DNA results in
cell death. It is therefore not surprising
that habitats that offer temperature
conditions that are fairly stable and
those that fall within a relatively narrow
range are highly sought after and result
in much competition. Most living things
live at temperatures between 10 and
35C. Active growth in most plants
occurs between 5 and 40C. Some
species of plants and animals have
moved and adapted to occupy niches
where temperatures fall outside of the
optimal temperature range, expanding
the range of temperatures over which
life can be found.
The broad range of temperatures
over which life is found
The diverse array of living organisms on

Earth are found across a broad range of
temperaturesthere are living creatures
that can survive in temperatures as low
as 70C (at the poles) or as high as
56C in deserts and 350C (in hot vents
21
21/5/08 1:09:10 PM
in the sea). However, individual species

cannot survive in an environment with
a temperature range this large; they
need much narrower ranges.
There is an enormous variation
in temperature over the Earth. The
average variation in environmental
temperature is more prominent on land
(89 to 60C) compared with ocean
water (2 to 30C), although near
submarine hydrothermal vents ocean
temperatures can exceed 350C. This
vast range of temperatures found on
Earth has been beneficial in allowing
diversity of niches for species. Species
that occupy habitats with extreme
conditions (such as very hot water,
ice or extreme salt conditions) are
sometimes referred to as extremophiles.
The narrow limits of temperature
for individual species
Much like enzymes, species have

an optimal range of temperatures at
which they can function. For each
living species, this is a fairly narrow
temperature range within which they
can live comfortably. The temperature
range in which a species can survive
is termed its tolerance range for
temperature and is usually only a few
degrees outside of the range at which
it is comfortable. There are exceptions
(e.g. the Pompeii worm described
below), but very few organisms
can survive in a broad range of
temperatures.
including extremes such as salinity,

drought and flood.)
One of the hottest environments on
Earth is in the vicinity of submarine
hydrothermal vents, where temperature
can reach 350C. These extreme
environments support a community
of creatures including microbes such
as the hyperthermophilic microbe
Pyrolobus fumarii, which grows
optimally at 106C but can withstand
temperatures of 113C. The most
heat-tolerant animal known is the
Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana),
discovered by French scientists in the
1980s (see Fig. 1.13). These polychaetes
live in tubes on the sea floor near
hydrothermal vents and they show
extraordinary tolerance to an extremely
wide range of temperaturesthey have
been recorded living in water with
the tail end at 80C and the head end
at 22C. Scientific research into how
Pompeii worms can withstand such
extreme temperatures seems to suggest
that they are insulated to some degree
by a fleece-like covering of bacteria
on their backs. They have a symbiotic
relationship with the bacteriathe
worms secrete mucus from tiny glands
on their backs to feed the bacteria
Tolerance ranges for individual species
Water-holding frog (Cyclorana

platycephala)
3 to 39C
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
anatinus)
8 to 34C
Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus
saligna)
1 to 34C
Silky oak (Grevillea robusta)
found in alpine regions
0 to 38C.
(The tolerance range of an organism
is the degree to which an organism
can tolerate and survive a significant
variation in environmental factors,
Figure 1.13 Pompeii worm
22
21/5/08 1:09:11 PM
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Source an image of hydrothermal vents and/or the organisms that can be found living in their
vicinity.
The term hypothermophilic means extremely heat loving and is derived from Greek. Try to match
the English meaning with its Greek word roots.
in return (see the interactive website

on the Student Resource CD). Other
organisms living in this community
include vent crabs and tubeworms.
Deserts are another environment
where there are extreme temperature
conditions. In some deserts, the
difference between day and night
temperatures is very large. The Sahara
desert in North Africa is the location
of the most heat-tolerant insect
the Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis
bicolor). It can maintain its core body
temperature at approximately 56C for
an extended period of time, when the
surface temperature is 70C. Australia
also has a large number of plants and
animals that can survive the extreme
temperatures associated with deserts
these will be studied in the secondarysource investigations that follow.
Some organisms can withstand
(a)
the immense temperatures of fires.

Australian plants such as the banksia
rely on the intense temperature of
fires for seed release; and bottlebrush
trees have buds in a protected position
beneath the barkthese buds resprout
after fire.
In contrast to extreme heat, freezing
environments also provide extreme
conditions. Microbes including bacteria,
lichen (a symbiotic association between
algae and fungi) and fungi (yeasts)
have been found in environments
where the temperature range is 17C
to 20C. Some multicellular organisms,
such as the Arctic fox, can withstand
even colder temperatures such as
70C, having adaptations such as
countercurrent exchange and shunting
blood vessels within their limbs. Polar
bears can survive temperatures as cold
as 50C.
SR
Student
d t activity
ti it
temperature and living
things
Figure 1.14
Animals that live in
temperature extremes:
(a) arctic fox; (b) camel
(b)
23
22/5/08 8:38:41 AM
1.8
Temp
Temperature
regulation in ectothermic and
endot
endothermic organisms
compare responses of named Australian ectothermic

and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
The terms ectotherms and endotherms

relate to the ability of an animal to
regulate its body temperature. (Therm
relates to temperature; ecto means
outside and endo means within.)
Ectothermic organisms depend on an
external sourcethe environmentfor
heat energy. Fish, amphibians, reptiles
and most invertebrates fall into this
category. Endotherms rely on internal
sources such as metabolic activity for
heat energy. Birds and mammals are all
endothermic.
The ambient temperature is the
temperature of the environment
the air or water in the immediate
surroundings of an animal.
Ectothermic organisms
Under laboratory conditions, the body
temperature of ectotherms tends to
fluctuate (rise and fall) over a wider
range of temperaturesit is influenced
by the ambient temperature and the
organism has only a limited ability to
control its body temperature. In nature,
these organisms adapt their behaviour
to regulate their body temperature and
so if it is measured in the wild (using
a radio telemetry device), their body
temperature does not show as wide a
range of fluctuations.
The eastern brown snake
(Pseudonaja textilis) is found in hot,
dry areas of Australia, along the eastern
seaboard. Brown snakes are found
across most of Australia, inhabiting a
range of habitats from open grasslands
to desert scrub, but not in rainforest
areas.
Brown snakes are usually diurnal
(awake during the day), but may
become active at night if the daytime

temperature is too hot. If the ambient
temperature rises beyond the brown
snakes tolerance level, it will seek
shelter in the shade during the day
and become active in the later part of
the day when it is cooler, or even at
night. If the ambient temperature drops
below the optimum, snakes bask in the
sunlight to gain additional heat. In very
cool weather, the snake becomes less
active, slowing down its metabolism
and using fat reserves. If the cold
period is prolonged (e.g. in winter), the
snake will hibernate in a sheltered spot.
The central netted dragon
(Ctenophorus nuchalis) is an Australian
desert-adapted lizard that inhabits
central Australias plains and open
scrub. It is able to withstand variations
in body temperature from 13 to 44C.
In low ambient temperatures the dragon
will lie in the sunlight and alter its
body position to expose more of its
body surface area to the suns rays,
increasing its core body temperature.
Figure 1.15 Central netted dragon
24
21/5/08 1:09:13 PM
It shelters from cold winds and may

move out into the sun on warmer days.
If the ambient temperature rises above
its heat tolerance level, the central
netted dragon will retreat into the
shade of rocks and vegetation or into a
burrow and reduce its activity to avoid
overheating. It will then emerge at night
to hunt when it is cool.
Endothermic organisms
Under laboratory conditions and
in nature, the body temperature of
endothermic organisms tends to remain
stable (within a couple of degrees),
despite variation in the ambient
temperature. An endothermic organism
has the ability to control its body
temperature and maintain it at a stable
level within a very narrow range. If
the ambient temperature rises above
or drops below the animals tolerance
level, endothermic mammals and birds
are able to adjust their metabolic rate to
control heat loss.
In low ambient temperatures, the
main source of heat in the body of
endotherms is that generated as a
result of the metabolic activity of their
cells, particularly the muscle and liver
cells. The size of an animal also plays
a significant role in the regulation of
body temperaturea small body loses
heat much more quickly and so small
mammals often have a high metabolic
rate.
Some endotherms have special heatproducing tissue called brown fat,
which can be quickly metabolised in
cold conditions. The common bentwing
bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) produces
brown fat in late summer and through
autumn when food is abundant. In the
cold winter months, periods of torpor
can last up to 12 days. The brown fat
is metabolised and used to increase the
body temperature, allowing these bats
to fly after periods of torpor.
If the ambient temperature is high,
endotherms have a physiological
cooling mechanism as wellthe rate
of heat loss from the body can be

adjusted by altering the flow of blood
near the body surface. Evaporative
cooling such as sweating, panting or
licking saliva onto the body surface is
another common cooling mechanism.
Evaporative cooling brings with it the
risk of water loss. Animals that live
in hot, dry climates have to develop
mechanisms for cooling that do not
allow too great a loss of water.
Endotherms also show adaptations
in their behaviour to help regulate their
body temperature. Body temperature in
humans is approximately 37C and that
of birds is 40C (these may fluctuate
within about 1.5C).
The fairy penguin (Eudyptula
minor) is found along the southern
Australian coastline and in Tasmania
and New Zealand. It is the smallest of
all penguins and lives in burrows in
coastal sand dunes, not in the ice and
snow like most penguins. (For those
students living in or visiting Sydney,
the colonies of fairy penguins on the
harbourside at Manly are well worth
seeing.)
Fairy penguins have feathers that
provide an insulating layer; trapping a
layer of air close to the skin reduces
the amount of heat lost. This layer
of air can be altered depending on
the ambient temperature. In cold
conditions the feathers are lifted
away from the skin, increasing the air
layer and providing a greater degree
of insulation. In hotter conditions
the fairy penguins feathers lie flat
against the skin, trapping a smaller
amount of air. Penguins also have
behavioural mechanisms to regulate
body temperature, moving into the
water to cool down in hot conditions
or huddling close together in cold
conditions to reduce the surface area
of each penguin exposed to the cold.
They may also retreat to their burrows.
The mountain pygmy possum
(Burramys parvus) lives above
1400 metres in the alpine regions of
25
21/5/08 1:09:15 PM
Figure 1.16
Fairy penguins
south-eastern Australia. It has short

legs, a round body and small ears
with limited circulation, which assist
in minimising heat loss. In prolonged

cold during the winter months, they
hibernate and go into a state of
torporthe pygmy possums curl into
a ball, drawing all appendages (legs,
nose, ears and tail) in towards the body
to reduce the surface area exposed to
the cold. They also use a burrow to
shelter from the cold in shorter periods
of low ambient temperature.
To avoid overheating, mountain
pygmy possums are nocturnal
marsupialsduring the day they shelter
in rock crevices and this behaviour
allows them to avoid exposure to
excessive temperatures (and predators)
and to keep their metabolic rate low
during the heat of the day.
Adaptations and responses of Australian organisms

for temperature regulation
SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
INVE
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
analyse information from secondary sources to describe

adaptations and responses that have occurred in
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
H13.1
H14.1
What is an adaptation?
SR
Student
d t activity
ti it
adaptation and
responses to change
Have you ever experienced what it is like to

spend winter outdoors in the freezing cold of
the Snowy Mountains, or summer in the hot, dry
desert regions of central Australia? Most of us
are not very comfortable at these temperatures,
yet indigenous Australian flora and fauna live
there year after year. These organisms are
able to do so because they are well suited
to their unusual environments, as a result of
evolutionary change by natural selectionthat
is, the process of adaptation. An adaptation
is a characteristic that increases the survival
and reproductive chances of an organism in its
environment.
Note: An adaptation is not a change that an
organism makes in response to the environment,
to help it survive. Adaptations usually begin as
variations that arise randomly in individuals and
have a genetic basis (i.e. they can be inherited).
Natural selection acts upon these variations,
so that those that suit the organism to its
environment are passed on within a population
survival of the fittest. (The genetic basis of
adaptation will be dealt with in more detail when

you cover evolution and genetics in Module 2.)
Adaptations can be divided into three major
groups: behavioural (the way an organism
acts), structural (the physical characteristics
of the organism) or physiological (the way the
organisms body functions). Organisms will
show a combination of adaptations to deal with
temperature regulation.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are displayed by
both ectotherms and endotherms. The main
behavioural adaptation seen in animals is that
they alter the position of the body and increase
or decrease the amount of exposure of their
surface area to the sunlight. Many organisms will
seek shade or shelter in burrows if the ambient
temperate exceeds their tolerance level. Frillnecked lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) bask
in the sun until they reach an adequate core
body temperature and will then retreat into the
shade. During the hottest part of the day the
red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) will seek shade
and sit in a position where its hind legs and tail
are shaded by the rest of the bodythey are
26
21/5/08 1:09:16 PM
positioned at right angles to the body, with the

tail pointing forward, to reduce the large surface
area exposed to sun. The water-holding frog
(Cyclorana platycephala) retires to a burrow
in extreme temperature conditions. It survives
hot, dry conditions by living in burrows below
the surface. In extremely arid conditions, it lives
within a cocoon made from secreted mucus and
its cast-off skin, which is shed after rain and
then dries out, forming a waterproof covering.
This minimises exposure to heat as well as
reducing water loss and dehydration.
Nocturnal activity is another common
behavioural adaptation seen in animals that
live in habitats where the daytime temperature
is very hot. Nocturnal animals remain relatively
inactive during the heat of the day, so that they
do not generate additional metabolic body heat
as a result of increased activity. (Increased
activity must be supported by greater energy
production, which relies on a higher metabolic
rate.) Nocturnal activity is seen in many reptiles
and birds that inhabit hot, arid areas and the
few mammals that are able to survive desert
conditions (for example, the bilby, Macrotis
lagotis). Some organisms like the common
wombat (Vombatus ursinus) and the brown
snake are diurnal, but change their normal
active periods from daytime to night during hot
weather.
Migration is another behavioural adaptation
that can assist in the regulation of body
temperature. Migrating organisms physically
move to a different habitat that is within their
tolerance range. The grey plover (Pluvialis
squatarola) breeds in the Northern Hemisphere
between May and August and then migrates
to Australia over August and stays until April.
This migration allows the birds to avoid severe
(a)
weather during winter. (See the Student

Resource CD for additional information.)
As these migratory waterbirds inhabit many
countries, there is a need for international cooperation to recognise and to conserve these
species. Over the past 30 years, this has come
about through international conventions on
migratory species, and bilateral agreements
with Japan, China and more recently the
Republic of Korea have assisted with
conservation of the species and their habitats.
The flight path, East AsianAustralian Flyway,
launched in 2006, has also been acknowledged
as one of eight major waterbird flyways, which
cover 22 countries.
Structural adaptations
Structural adaptations that assist with
temperature control include insulation such as
fur, hair, feathers, insect scales and coats that
enable a layer of air to be trapped to reduce
the amount of heat lost. The feathers of the
emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) act as an
insulator to reduce heat gain or loss. Blubber
is another form of insulation to reduce heat
loss from organisms living in water, such as
the Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus
doriferus). This significantly minimises heat
loss.
The surface area to volume ratio is also an
important structural component of temperature
regulation, as larger animals have a smaller
surface area to volume ratio, which means they
will not lose as much heat as smaller animals.
Larger animals such as the common wombat
(Vombatus ursinus) have large, compact bodies
that have relatively small surface areas from
which they can lose their internally produced
heat; therefore the wombat loses very little heat
(b)
Figure 1.17 (a) Red

kangaroos lying in a
shaded position;
(b) water-holding frog
27
21/5/08 1:09:18 PM
Figure 1.18 Bilby
to its surroundings, which is mostly helpful in

the cooler months.
Colouration of animals also assists
temperature regulation, since dark colours
absorb light (and associated heat) and so these
animals can tolerate colder temperatures (e.g.
the diamond-backed python, Morelia spilota).
Physiological adaptations
Physiological adaptations focus on the
inner body functions. Metabolic activity is
important for the functioning and the survival
of individuals, but this activity also generates
heat within the body. The rate of this activity
can be altered to ensure that an individual has
a better chance of surviving conditions below
or above their tolerance range for temperature.
Hibernation and torpor are examples where
organisms lower their metabolic rate to
conserve energy and, as a result, reduce the
amount of metabolic heat energy that they
generate within their own bodies. Another
advantage of hibernation and torpor is that
the organism requires very little food in this
state because it does not need to expend large
amounts of energy trying to regulate its body
temperature by other means (e.g. shivering or
sweating).
Hibernation is an extended period of
inactivity in response to cold, where the body
temperature does not drop below 30C, but
the heart rate and oxygen consumption drop
considerably. (Oxygen consumption is a good
indicator of metabolic activity involved in
generating energy.) Hibernation is a form of
mild torpor and is less intense, but may last for
a longer period of time.
A state of torpor is a short-term hibernation
where the body temperature drops much lower
(below 30C) and metabolism, heart rate and
respiratory rate decrease, accompanied by a
reduced response to external stimuli. Torpor
may be part of a daily cycle of temperature

change and, because the body temperature
drops to almost the same temperature as the
air around it, brings with it the advantage of a
slower metabolism, in addition to helping them
to conserve energy, which is in short supply as
they do not eat and drink in this state.
In contrast, the mountain pygmy possum
hibernates during cold winters to reduce the
amount of energy required to keep its body
warm.
The common wombat (Vombatus ursinus)
slows its metabolism down to a third of its
normal metabolic rate on hot days, particularly
when sheltering in its burrow. This is a useful
strategy, as wombats do not have sweat glands
to assist in heat loss.
Organisms can also regulate the blood
flow to increase or decrease the amount of
heat lost to the surroundings. Since blood
carries heat and usually the body temperature
of an organism is higher than that of its
surroundings, vasodilation of capillaries near
the skin surface increases the amount of heat
released. This mechanism is used in the red
kangaroo (along with a behavioural adaptation
of licking the forearm to increase heat loss as
the saliva evaporates). Blood flow can also be
increased or decreased at extremities to control
temperature. The bilby (Macrotis lagotis) has
an extensive network of capillaries throughout
the ear which aid in releasing heat to its
surroundings. Furthermore, a mechanism called
countercurrent exchange allows the warm blood
in arteries (flowing from the heart towards the
extremities) to heat the cooler blood in the veins
coming back from the cold extremities, before
this blood is returned to the heart. This occurs in
the feet of platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
as well as the fins of the Australian fur seal, so
that the internal core temperature is not lowered
by cool blood returning from limbs that have a
large surface area exposed to the cold water.
Change to colouration can occur in some
organisms in response to exposure to high or
low temperatures. As previously mentioned,
colour plays a role in temperature regulation
because darker colouration assists in the
absorption of light to gain heat. If the colour of
an organism can change, this enables it to live
and remain active over a wider temperature
range. For example, the male Australian alpine
grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), commonly
referred to as the chameleon grasshopper, is a
dark, almost black colour at temperatures below
15C (for example, during the cool parts of the
day such as morning) and as it basks in the sun
it becomes a paler blue colour to reflect light
and avoid overheating. Its blue colouration is
typically seen at temperatures above 25C.
28
21/5/08 1:09:19 PM
In addition to this physiological change

linked to behaviour, they also show other
behavioural methods of reducing overheating
such as seeking shade or exposing themselves
to wind. In this way the Australian alpine
grasshopper increases the amount of time that
it can be active during the day.
As is evident from the above examples,
some adaptations are a combination of
structural, behavioural and physiological
features. For example, a red kangaroo licks its
paws to cool itself down through the evaporation
of water on its skin. The location of many blood
vessels near the surface of the skin in the
forearms and paws is a structural adaptation;
the dilation of arterioles in hot conditions to
direct more blood flow through these vessels is
physiological; and the licking activity to impart
saliva for evaporative cooling is behavioural.
Task
1. Select TWO named Australian animals
that you will use for an in-depth study of
temperature regulation. One should be an
ectotherm and one an endotherm.
Some suggested examples are:
Australian ectothermsblue-tongue
lizard, water-holding frog, brown
snake, broad-headed snake, thorny
devil, Kangaroo Island tiger snake and
crocodile
Australian endothermsred kangaroo,
emu, duck-billed platypus and spinifex
hopping mouse.
2. Analyse information from secondary
sources relating to these animals and
then answer the questions on the Student
Resource CD. Read information in the
textbook (pages 2429) and on the Student
Resource CD, which are secondary sources.
Additional sources may be accessed,
depending on the organisms selected for

study.
Discussion questions
See the Student Resource CD for discussion
questions.
Adaptations and responses
of Australian organisms for
temperature regulation:
http://www.environment.gov.au/events/iydd/
pubs/fauna.pdf
Australian desert-dwelling animals and their
adaptations
http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/
abstract/20/6/1278
Body-temperature regulation studies in
some Australian Aboriginal people and
investigating animals in extremes-polar
and desert environments
Temperature changes and responses in plants
identify some responses of plants to temperature change
Changes in temperature in the natural

environment of plants affect both
their functioning and their growth.
(Growth and temperature change is
dealt with on the Student Resource
CD.) Maintenance of a relatively
stable internal environment is just as
important for plant metabolism as
Figure 1.19
Australian alpine
grasshopper
(Kosciuscola tristis)
has blue colouring at
higher temperatures
and an almost
black colour at low
temperatures
TR
Skillprocessing and
analysing information
from secondary
sources
1.9
it is for animals. Plants respond to

changes in light, water availability
and temperature, all of which are
linked, since heat is often associated
with light (for example, the radiant
energy of sunlight) and hot areas are
often dry, compromising evaporative
coolinga plant needs to strike a fine
29
21/5/08 1:09:20 PM
balance between the risks of excess

water loss during cooling versus heat
build-up during water conservation.
Low availability of water may also be
associated with very cold temperatures,
since frozen water (ice and snow) is
not available for use by plants. In this
chapter, we deal with responses of
plants to temperature change, and in
Chapter 3 we deal with adaptations of
plants to assist in water conservation,
but these are closely linked.
Plant responses to high

temperatures
Temperatures above 40C may cause
damage to proteins and those above
75C to chlorophyll pigment within the
plant. Since plants cannot move into
the shade the way animals can, plant
responses to excessive temperature are
mostly structural and physiological:
Evaporative cooling (transpiration):
exposure to heat (and light)
causes the stomata in plants to
open, leading to a loss of water by
transpiration (evaporation of water
from the stomata of leaves). The
advantage of this water loss is that
it decreases the internal temperature
in plants by evaporative cooling.
However, the plants run the risk of
dehydration due to water loss and
so excessive heat in plants will cause
stomata to close. This poses the
threat of overheating. Plants have
developed adaptations to cope with
this (see Chapter 3).
Turgor responsewilting: some
plants respond with changes in
turgor pressure, which allows
them to reduce the exposure of
their surface area to the sun and
its associated heat and light, for
example a wilting response. In
extreme heat, plants transpire and
lose turgor in the palisade cells of
leaves; as a result the leaves wilt,
reducing the surface area that is
exposed to the sun. If water is
available to the plant, this wilting is
temporary, but, if not, permanent

wilting followed by death will
occur. Many exotic plants that are
introduced into Australia do not
have adaptations that are favourable
for the dry climate and so they wilt
in hot temperatures. Examples are
hydrangeas, peace lilies and roses
(see Fig. 1.20).
Leaf orientation: to overcome
the problems of overheating and
excessive water loss, some plants,
for example eucalypts, are able
to change the orientation of their
leaves so that they hang vertically
downwards in hot weather. This
reduces the surface area that is
exposed to the sun during the heat
of the noonday sun. The flat part of
the leaf blade, with its large surface
area, is exposed to the less intense
rays of the early morning and late
afternoon sun, but in the middle
of the day when the sun is at its
hottest, the suns rays strike the
thin edge near the leaf stalk of the
vertical leaves.
In addition, eucalypts regulate
the times of stomata opening and
closing: during the cooler early
morning and late afternoon, stomata
are open for photosynthesis and
transpiration can also occur to keep
the internal temperature down, but
when the temperatures increase to a
level that causes water stress to the
plant, the stomata will close.
Leaf fall: many trees lose their leaves
during the cold winter months, but
eucalypts are evergreen trees that
drop some of their leaves during
the dry season in hot climates to
reduce the surface area exposed to
absorb heat. This also reduces the
risk of losing too much water by
transpiration.
Reseeding and resprouting
in response to extreme high
temperaturesfire: in Australia,
one of the extreme temperature
changes plants have to respond to
30
21/5/08 1:09:22 PM
Figure 1.20
Orientation of the
leaves of a eucalypt
to the rays of the
sun over a period of
12 hours
small surface area of

leaves exposed to suns
rays in heat of midday
sun
12 noon
sun
6 am
sun
6 pm
large surface area of

rays in cool morning
6 am
large surface area of

rays in cool late afternoon
12 noon
is caused by bushfires. Plants have

two general responses that ensure
their survival after the firethey
may resprout or release seeds.
Resprouters, such as the bottle
brush, tea trees and eucalypts, have
epicormic buds underneath the bark
that are protected from damage by
a fire and then resprout; or they
may have lignotubers, which are
underground and sprout new growth
after the fire.
Seeders release seeds into
the environment after the plant is
exposed to extreme heat. Some
plants (for example, banksias) have
seed pods that need to be exposed
to fire to release their seeds),
whereas other plants (for example,
eucalypts) release their seeds from
the top of the canopy in response to
the intense heat.
Thermogenic plants: biologists have
been surprised to discover that there
are some flowers that are able to
heat up by altering their metabolic
rates when the ambient temperature
drops. An example is the bud of
the sacred lotus, Nelumbo nucifera
6 pm
(found in Asia and Australia), which

maintains a steady temperature of
32C (see the Student Resource CD).
Plant responses to cold

temperatures
Plants have several responses to cold
temperatures:
Organic anti-freeze : it is often the
water between cells that freezes
first, posing the greatest risk of
damage to plants. Plants that inhabit
environments where the ambient
temperature is extremely cold,
for example in alpine areas, have
strategies to reduce the risk of ice
forming within the cells. Some
produce organic compounds that
act as an anti-freeze substance,
reducing the temperature at which
the cytoplasm or cell sap in the
vacuole freezes. (Biologists are
currently researching a gene in the
Antarctic hairgrass plant, which has
the ability to inhibit the growth of
ice crystals, preventing the plant
from freezing and dying, with a view
to genetically engineering other
31
21/5/08 1:09:23 PM
Figure 1.21 (a) The

sacred lotus flower,
Nelumbo nucifera;
(b) fire resistant woody
fruits
Figure 1.22
Deciduous trees lose
their leaves in winter
(a)
plants to increase their tolerance to

coldsee the Student Resource CD.)
Dormancy: in response to cold
temperatures, deciduous trees
lose their leaves in winter (leaf
(b)
fall) and undergo a period of

dormancy, which allows them to
survive not only the extremely low
temperatures, but also the water
shortages and lower availability of
sunlight. For example, the deciduous
beech (Nothofagus gunnii), found
in Tasmania, is the only indigenous
Australian deciduous tree. It loses
its leaves in late April and May after
they turn into a range of autumn
colours. The abscission (falling off)
of leaves occurs in response to the
shortening of days in autumn. The
decreased period of daylight leads
to a waterproof layer forming at the
base of each leaf. Without water,
photosynthesis cannot occur and
the pigment anthocyanin becomes
visible as chlorophyll declines,
giving the leaves their spectacular
colourings.
To survive long periods of very
low temperatures, some plants may
produce seeds or spores, or the
plant parts above the ground may
die off, while the parts beneath
the ground remain dormant, ready
32
21/5/08 1:09:28 PM
to grow again when the warmer

weather returns.
The alpine ash uses seed
dormancy to allow it to withstand
colder temperatures at higher
altitudes than other species.
Vernalisation: some plants flower
in response to low temperatures;
for example, tulip bulbs must be
exposed to between 6 weeks and
3 months of intense cold before they
will flower. Australian gardeners
often mimic this effect by removing
tulip bulbs from the ground in
winter and storing them in the

refrigerator, before replanting them
in spring, to ensure that they flower.
Many responses of plants to
temperature change (such as leaf
fall and flowering) are the result of
temperature and/or light changing
the concentration of chemical growth
regulators in plants. Responding to
temperature change and the regulation
of internal temperatures is important
not only for the individual plant,
but also for the continuation of the
species.
SR
Additionall iinformation
f
ti
on plant responses to
temperature changes
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the importance of homeostasis in living organisms.
2. Describe the role of receptors in homeostasis.
3. Explain,
Explain using an example, what is meant by a negative feedback mechanism and its importance
in living systems.
4. Explain the relationship between metabolic rate and temperature regulation in birds and mammals.
SR
TR
5. Describe the advantage to ectotherms of allowing their body temperature to fluctuate with the
ambient temperature, especially at low temperatures.
6. Draw a graph to illustrate the differences in body temperatures recorded in an ectothermic reptile
and an endothermic mammal who are subjected to environmental temperatures that increase
steadily (in 10C increments) over a period of time from 10C to 40C. What is the optimum
temperature range for an endotherm?
Answers to revision
questions
7. Identify whether each of the following is a structural, behavioural or physiological response or

adaptation to assist in heat gain or heat loss and explain how it assists temperature regulation in
living organisms. Give an example of an animal that exhibits each. (Answer in the form of a table.)
Type of response or
adaptation
Example of animal in
which it occurs
Explanation
(a) Animal curls in a ball,

limbs drawn in
(b) Large, thin ears
(c) Burrowing
(d) Basking in the sun
(e) Shivering
(f) Panting
(g) Red face
(h) Lips and nose appear blue
(i) Thick fur
33
21/5/08 1:09:33 PM

Chidrawi M1 Ch01

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MAINTAINING

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 1

Enzymes function under

All metabolic reactions in living cells

Metabolism is the sum total of all

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 2

Enzymes and metabolism

identify the role of enzymes in metabolism

By understanding the chemical

The chemical composition of

altered if the enzyme is to function (see

Some enzymes have a non-protein

Figure 1.1 The

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 3

functioning. The heavy metals mercury

The role of enzymes in

Enzyme catalysts are able to speed

Figure 1.2 Scheme

Action on specific substrates

Enzymes are therefore substratespecific, meaning that one particular

Enzymes within cells function best

In chemical reactions that occur in the

oxygen and glucose may be chemically

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 4

Temperature of reaction (C)

organism in which they occur. In

Each enzyme has its own narrow

in an acidic or alkaline medium. For

Figure 1.3 (a) Graph

Enzyme molecules are specific,

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 5

lemon juice, vinegar

grapefruit, soft drink

tomato juice, acid rain

Great Salt Lake

liquid drain cleaner

saliva (pH 6.5)

hydrochloric acid (stomach acid)

Figure 1.4 pH scale

blood (pH 7.4)

How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on

molecules allows the reaction to be

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 6

1 substrate is sucrose, which is

products are released

substrate is sucrose, which is

products are released

induced fit: the

The rate of enzyme reactions

Enzymes are highly efficientthey work

The rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction is affected by the

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 7

as the saturation point. Increasing

Investigating enzyme activity

Table 1.1 Advantages

identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or

In each of the investigations that follow,

Creates a fizzing effect

Measure the height of

Starch can be stained

Milk curdles and a

Time how long milk

Enzyme and source