ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND GLOBAL ISSUES

INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution means lowering of
environmental quality at local, regional and global
levels, by both natural and man-made processes.
The word pollution is derived from the Latin
word polluere which means to soil or defile.
Pollution is an undersirable change in the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of air, water
and land that may, can and will adversely affect
human life, or that of other living species, our
developmental activities and socio-cultural life.
It is commonly agreed that pollution is,
without doubt, the outcome of urban, industrial,
technological revolution and speedy exploitation
of natural resources.
DEFINITIONS
Pollution: It may be defined as the release
of substances and energy (In excess of permissible
limit) as waste products of human activities which
result in changes, naturally harmful, within the
natural environment.
Examples - air, soil, water, noise and
radiation pollution.
Pollutant: It can be defined as any form of
energy or matter that causes degradation and
pollution in the existing natural balance of
ecosystems.
Examples - smoke, gases, dust, toxic
chemicals, etc.

TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
Pollutants can be classified in different
aspects such as:

1. On the basis of release in atmosphere - On

this basis pollutants may be classified into two
groups.
(a) Primary pollutants - the pollutants
which are released directly from the sources to the
environment i.e., air, water or land in a harmful
form are called primary pollutants. For example
the agricultural run-off containing pesticides get
mixed in drinking water. Particulate matter,
carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons (HCs), SO2, NO.
(b) Secondary Pollutants - The pollutants
which are modified to harmful form in a medium

or are formed by some chemical reactions are

called secondary pollutants. For example, plastics
and radioactive wastes, photochemical smogs.
2. On the basis of biodegradability - Pollutants
can be categorized into two groups on the basis of
their nature of degradation:
(a) Biodegradable pollutants - The
pollutants which are capable of being broken
down into simpler substances by the activity of
microbes are called biodegradable pollutants. For
example, papers, wood, fruit and vegetable
remains, etc.
(b) Non-biodegradable pollutants - The
pollutants which are not capable of being broken
down into simpler substances are called nonbiodegradable pollutants. They can harm all the
forms of life. For example, plastic, radioactive
wastes, lead, pesticide, etc.
3. On the basis of state - Depending on the state
in which the pollutants exist under normal
conditions, they are classified into solid, liquid and
gaseous pollutants.
(a) Solid Pollutants - Solid pollutants are
divided into several types based on their sources
such as Mining wastes: Huge quantities of mining
wastes are dumped on land surface like metallic
ores, earthen materials, rock and other wastes.
Industrial wastes: A large amount of
bagasse is produced by sugarmills. Copper
smelters and aluminium industries produce
pollutants which are very injurious to vegetation
and soil.
Agricultural waste: Throughout the world,
the use of artificial or chemical fertilizers on land
has increased considerably. Though fertilizers are
generally used to fortify soil, they contaminate the
soil to a certain extent. Sometimes, excessive use
of these fertilizers may have an adverse effect.
(b) Liquid pollutants - On the basis of the
source of pollutants, liquid pollutants may be of
the following types:
Industrial effluents: Chemical pollutants
such as chloride, sulphide, ammoniacal nitrogen,
heavy metals like mercury, zinc, lead, arsenic,

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

boron, etc., organic chemical compounds and

radioactive wastes.
Agricultural
run-off:
Pesticides,
insecticides, herbicides and several other synthetic
compounds used to increase crop yield are
considered
agricultural
pollutants.
DDT
manufacturing units produce acids which have a
corrosive effect.
Urban pollutants: Various types of ions
such as sulphate, nitrate, etc., coming from the
washout of automobile and fossil fuel combustion;
calcium and bicarbonate ions from lime and
chemical fertilizers factory, etc., are considered
urban pollutants.
Natural contaminants: Volcanic dusts,
sediments due to weathering and erosion, debris
caused by landslides, decomposed organic matter
etc. are natural pollutants.
(c) Gaseous pollutants - These can be
classified as primary and secondary. Primary
pollutants include ashes form a volcanic eruption,
carbon monoxide from motor vehicle exhaust, etc.
Secondary pollutants include some particles
formed from gaseous primary pollutants and
photochemical smog such as NO2, ozone and
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
Sulphur dioxide: Natural processes which
release sulphur compounds include decomposition
and combustion of organic matter and volcanic
eruptions. The main human activities producing
sulphur dioxide are the smelting of mineral ores
containing sulphur and combustion of fossil fuels.
Particulate matter: Not only the gaseous
pollutants, there are also solid or liquid particles
that may be suspended in the air. Referred to as
particulate matter, these particles range in size
up to 50 micrometers (m) in diameter (there are
1,000,000 m in a metre) and may reduce visibility
and have an adverse effect on health. Examples of
particles in the air include dust, smoke, plant
spores, bacteria. Particles matter may be a primary
pollutant, such as smoke particles, or a secondary
pollutant formed from the chemical reaction of
gaseous pollutants.
Human activities resulting in particulate
matter in the air include mining, burning of fossil
fuels; transportation, agricultural and hazard
reduction burning, the use of incinerators and the

use of solid fuels for cooking and heating.

Atmospheric particles having diameter 10 m,
generally settle out in less than a day, whereas
particles with diameters 1 m or less can remain
suspended in air for weeks. Suspended particulate
matter in the lower atmosphere (troposphere)
causes and aggravates human respiratory illness,
like asthma, chronic bronchitis, etc. When
accumulated
in
the
upper
atmosphere
(stratosphere), particulate matter may significantly
alter the radiation and thermal budgets of the
atmosphere, lowering the temperature at the
earths surface.
Oxides of nitrogen: Are formed mainly from
N2 and O2 during combustion of fossil fuels at high
temperatures in automobile engines. NOx stands
for an indeterminate mixture of NO and NO2.
Nitrogen oxides cause the reddish-brown haze
(brown air) in traffic-congested city air, which
contributes to heart and lung problems and may be
carcinogenic. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to
acid rain because they combine with water droplets
to produce nitric acid (HNO3) and other acids. The
main oxides of nitrogen present in the atmosphere
are nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrous oxide occurs in much
smaller quantities than the other two, but is of
interest as it is a powerful greenhouse gas and thus
contributes to global warming.
Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is an
odourless, colourless gas produced by incomplete
oxidation (burning) of fossil fuels. Carbon
monoxide is produced naturally by oxidation in the
oceans and air. In cities, the motor vehicles are by
far the largest human source, although any
combustion process any produce it. It is also
present in Cigarette smoke when in haled reduces
oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
Ozone: Ozone is a faintly blue, gaseous
secondary pollutant. It is formed by chemical
reactions between reactive organic gases and
oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight.
Ozone is one of the irritant secondary pollutants in
photochemical smog and is often used as a
measure of it.
Lead: The major source of lead in the air is
leaded fuel used in motor vehicles, metal mining
and processing facilities. Lead and other metals
like, chromium, nickel, etc., are toxic in nature.

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Air toxics: Air toxics can enter the

atmosphere from a variety of sources. They are
present in motor vehicles exhaust, fuel vapour
from service stations, the smoke and exhaust from
wood-burning heaters, and the solvents used for
dry cleaning and spray painting.

Benzene and its derivatives, such as formaldehyde,

are carcinogenic (substance that cause cancer).
Formaldehyde emitted from indoor sources, such
as newly-manufactured carpeting, causes indoor
pollution. Some relatively reactive HCs contribute
to the generation of secondary pollutants. HCs are
also generated during the burning of fossil fuels
(coal
and petroleum).
Vocatile Organic
Compounds
(VOCs)
are
non-methane
hydrocarbons and oxygenated hydrocarbons. They
are found in the exhaust fumes emitted from
automobiles, biomass burning, agricultural
activities etc.

Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic

Compounds (VOCs): Are compounds composed of
hydrogen and carbon. HCs are produced naturally
during decomposition of organic matter. Methane
(CH4), the most abundant hydrocarbon in the
atmosphere, is evolved from soil microbes
(methanogens) in flooded rice fields and swamps.
Table 1. Sources and effects of air pollutants on humans, environment and property
Possible Sources
Pollutant
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

A chemical compound
produced by volcanoes
and in various industrial
process and is also a
precursor to particulates
in the atmosphere.

Natural
Volcanoes (67%)

Anthropogenic

Oxides of nitrogen

(NOx)

They are a generic term

for a group of highly

reactive gases that
contain nitrogen and
oxygen in varying
amounts. NOx are
emitted as nitrogen
oxide (NO) which is
rapidly oxidized to more
toxic nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) is a reddish-brown
toxic gas with a
characteristic sharp,
bitting odor and is a
prominent air pollutant.

Lightning

Forest fires
Bacterial activity of
soil

Combustion of fossil
fuel (coal, heavy
fuel oil) in thermal
power plants,
office, factories.
Paper industry
Extravation and
distribution of fossil
fuels
Smelting of metals
(sulfide ores to
produce copper,
lead and zinc)
Petroleum refining
Combustion process
in diesel, petrol,
natural gas driven
vehicles.
High temperature
combustion
(Internal
combustion
engines, fossil fuel
fired power
stations, industrial).

Environment
and property

Effects o Human

Respiratory illness

Acid rain

Visibility impairment

Aggravate existing
heart and lung
diseases

Aesthetic
damage

Irritates the nose and

throat

Increase susceptibility
to respiratory
infections

Precursor of
ozone formed
in the
troposphere.
Form
atmospheric
fine
particulate
matter
burden as a
result of
oxidation to
form nitrate
aerosol.

Burning of biomass
and fossil fuels.

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Respirable suspended
particulate matter
(PM10, size 10 m,
coarse fraction PM10 PM2.5). Also called
thoracic fraction.
Particulate matter (PM)
is a complex mixture of
suspended solid and
liquid particle in semiequilibrium with
surrounding gases. The
major constituents of
RSPM are organic and
elemental carbon,
metal/elements like
silicon, magnesium, iron,
ions like sulphates,
nitrates, ammonium etc.
PM10 can settle in the
bronchi and lungs and
cause health problems.

Particulate matter 2.5

(PM 2.5, size 2.5 m,
fine fraction size up to
2.5 m, respirable
fraction).
Air bone particles
smaller than 2.5 m
called fine particles.
Composed mainly of
carbonaceous materials
(organic and elemental),
inorganic compounds
(sulfate, nitrate, and
ammonium), and trace
metals compounds (iron,
aluminium nickel,
copper, zinc, and lead).
Pose the greatest
problems, PM 2.5, tend
to penetrate into the gas
exchange regions of the
lung, and very small
particles (<100
nanometers) may pass
through the lungs to
affect other organs. The
smallest particles,
however, less than 100
nm (nanoparticles) can
get into the bloodstream
and affect the
cardiovascular system.

Coarse particles are

produced by the
mechanical break-up
of larger solid
particles.
Wind blown dust
such as road dust, fly
ash, soot,
agricultural
processes.
Physical process of
crushing, grinding
and abrasion of
surface
photochemically.
Produced particles,
such as those found
in urban haze.
Pollen grains, mould
spores, and plant
and parts.
Non-combustible
materials released
when burning fossil
fuels.

Fine particles are

largely formed from
gases.

Road traffic
emissions
particularly from
diesel vehicles.

Cardiopulmonary
problems.

Asthma, bronchitis,
and pneumonia in
elder people.

Visibility
reduction

Aesthetic
damage

Industrial
combustion plants
some public power
generation.

Commercial and
residential
combustion.

Non-combustion
processes (e.g.
quarrying).

Agricultural
activities

Vehicular emission.

Oxidative stress

Industrial
combustion plants
for some public
power generation.

Respiratory symptoms
such as irritation of

the airways, coughing,

or difficulty in
breathing

Ultrafine particles
are formed by
nucleation, which is
the initial stage in
which gas becomes a
particle. These
particles can grow up
to a size of 1 m
either through
condensation, when
additional gas
condensates
(coagulation).

Commercial and
residential
combustion.

Decreased lung
function

Aggravated asthma

Chronic bronchitis.

Irregular heartbeat,
cardiopulmonary
disorders

Premature death in
people with heat or
lung disease.

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Visibility
reduction

Ozone (O3) A pale blue

gas, soluble in water and

non-polar solvents with
specific sharp odor
somewhat resembling
chlorine bleach.
Ozone is a secondary
pollutant formed in the
atmosphere by reaction
between oxides of
nitrogen and volatile
organic compounds
(VOCs) in the presence
of sunlight. Peak O3
levels occur typically
during the warmer times
of the year.

Lead
A bright silvery soft,
dense, ductile, highly
malleable, bluish-white
metal that has poor
electrical conductivity
and is highly resistant to
corrosion.

Ozone is present in

the stratosphere
zone (between about
10 and 50 km above
the troposphere) of
the atmosphere as
ozone layer. This
ozone protects us
from UV radiations.

Food (lead is
absorbed by plants)

Tropospheric ozone
(about 10 km above
the earth surface) is
harmful. It is
formed by the
reaction of sunlight
with air, containing
hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides
emitted by car
engines, industrial
operations,
chemical solvents to
form ozone.
Electronic
equipment such as
photocopiers.

Waste incineration

Metal processing

Paint industry

Lead solder in food

cans, breast milk,
drinking water,
cosmetics, ceramic
pottery, burning of
firewood or
kerosene,
indigenous
remedies, tobacco
and tobacco
products,
contaminated
drinking water,
toys, industrial
effluents, lead acid
batteries,
ammunition, paints
and varnishes,
water pipes.

Automobile
exhaust.

Tropospheric ozone
causes:

Lung function deficits

Respiratory illness
Premature death,
asthma, bronchitis,
heart attack, and other
cardiopulmponary
problems.
Ground-level ozone and
pollution which
interferes with
photosynthesis and
stunts overall growth of

some plant species.

Lead is rapidly
absorbed into the
bloodstream and is
believed to have
adverse effects on the
central nervous
system, the
cardiovascular
system, kidneys, and
the immune system.

Causes blood
disorders like anemia,
increase in blood
pressure.

Potent neurotoxin
that accumulates both
in soft tissues both in
soft tissues and the
bones.

Causes nephropathy,
and colic-like
abdominal pains.

Weakness in fingers,
wrists, or ankles.

Miscarriage and
reduction of fertility in
males, delayed
puberty in girls.

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Ozone
cracking in
car tires,
gaskets, Orings is
caused by
attack of
ozone on any
polymer
possessing
olefinic or
double bonds
within its
chain
structure,
Ozone
present in the
upper
troposphere
acts as a
greenhouse
gas,
absorbing
some of the
infrared
energy
emitted by
the earth.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Also called carbonous

oxide, is a colorless,
odorless and tasteless
gas which is slightly
lighter than air. It is
highly toxic to humans
and animals in higher
quantities. Mainly
formed by incomplete
combustion of carbon
containing fuels.

Ammonia (NH3)

Produced during
normal animal
metabolism (by the
action of
hemeoxygenase 1
and 2 on the heme
from hemoglobin
breakdown and
products
carboxyhemo-globin
in normal persons) in
low quantities and
has some normal
biological functions
(signalling molecule).

Volcanic activity

Forest and bushfires.

A compound of nitrogen
and hydrogen, a
colourless gas with a
characteristic pungent
colour. Contributes
significantly to the
nutritional needs of
terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to
food and fertilizers, and
either directly or

indirectly, is also a
building block for the
synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals.

Exhaust of internal
combustion
engines, especially
of vehicles with
petrol engines.

Burning of carbon
fuels.

Organic combustion
in waste
incineration.

Power station
processes.

Iron smelting.

Burning of crop
residues.

Putrefaction of

nitrogenous animals
and vegetable

matter. Ammonia
and ammonium salts
are also found in
small quantities in
rainwater, fertile soil
and in seawater.
During volcanic
erruption.

Farms.

Permanently reduce
the cognitive capacity
of children.

This gas enters the

blood stream through
lungs and combines
with hemoglobin
forming
carboxyhemogl-obin.
This condition is
known as anoxemia,
which inhibits bloods
oxygen carrying
capacity to organs and
tissues.

Persons with heart

disease are sensitive
to CO poisoning and
may experience chest
pain if they breath the
gas while exercising.

Adverse effects on the

fetus of a pregnant
woman.

Infants, elederly
persons, and
individuals with
repiratory diseases
are also particularly
sensitive.

Anti-inflammatories,
vasodialators and
encouragers of
neovascular growth.

Irritation to skin, eyes,

throat, and lungs and
cause coughing.

Fertilizers industry.
Industrial sites that

store ammonia or
use it as a

refrigerant can
release high levels if
the chemical leaks
or is spilled.

Burns.
Lung damage and
death may occur after
exposure to very high
concentrations of
ammonia.

The kidneys secrete

NH3 to neutralize
excess acid.

Benzene (C6H6)

Volcanoes.

A colourless, sweet
smelling liquid. It is

Forest fires.

Combustion of fuel
(automotive fuel),
wood and

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Hematotoxic,
nerotoxic,
leukemogenic,

Odour.

generated whenever
carbon-rich materials
undergo incomplete
combustion.

Polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (BaP)
(Particulate phase only)

stationary fossil
fuel, other
aromatics.

Coal tar (after a

forest fire),

Eruption of
volcanoes.

A five-ring polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon
whose metabolites are
mutagenic and highly
carcinogenic.

Arsenic (As)

A solid layered, a ruffled

analogue of graphite,
metallic gray in color
and is a semiconductor.
It is a potent poison
(IARC) recognizes arsenic
and group I carcinogen.

Volcanic ash,
weathering of the
arsenic-containing
mineral and ores as
well as ground
water.

carcinogenic effects.

Chronic exposure to
benzene may cause
chromosomal
damage, immune
suppression, aplastic
anemia,
myelodysplastic
syndrome, leukemia,
non-Hodgkins
lymphoma, and
cancer of the lung and
nasopharynx.

Effects the
reproductive system,
developing fetus and
fertility in men, low
birth weights, delayed
bone formation, and
bone marrow
damage.

Evaporation (fuel
storage containers,
during refueling.

Industrial emission.

Coke oven.

Perchlorethylene is
emitted from some
dry cleaning
facilities.

Tobacco smoke,
wood smoke.

Glues, paints,
furniture wax, and
detergents.

Incomplete

combustion of fuels
(processing of coal
and crude oil).

Combustion of
natural gas

Mutagenic and highly

carcinogenic (skin,
lung, and bladder
cancer in humans and
in animals)

Skin rash or eye

irritation

Bronchitis

Road transport

Industrial plant

Tobacco smoke

Coal tar

Automobile exhaust
fumes (especially
diesel engines), in
all smoke resulting
from the
combustion of
organic material.

Charboiled food,
burnt toast, cooked
meat producers, in
burnt foods such as
coffee.

Smelting of metals,

Epigenetic changes.

Combustion of fuels
(especially of low
grade brown coal).
Use of pesticides.

Multi-system organ
failure.

Food, water, soil and

air.

Arsenic poisoning.

Wood preservation
glass production
nonferrous metal
alloys, Electronic
semiconductor

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

manufacturing.

Nickel (Ni)

A silvery-white lustrous
corrosion-resistant
metal with a slight
golden tinge.

Urease (an enzyme

which assists in the
hydrolysis of urea)
contains nickel.

Coke oven
emissions
associated with the
smelter industry.

Combustion of fossil
fuels.

Nickel plating.

Metallurgical
processes.

Nickel sulfide fume

and dust is believed to

be carcinogenic.

Explosive in
air.

Allergy, dermatitis.
Sensitivity to nickel
may also be present in
patients with
pompholyx.

Other Pollutants Not Included in NAAQS List

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)

Noise

Respiration by
animals and plants.

Fossile fuels burning

for cooking, heating
and in power plant
furnaces.

Air conditioners,
refrigerators,

Foam insulations

Extinguishers

Solvent cleaners

Aerosol propellents

Supersonic aircraft

Breathlessness,
headache, chest
congestion.

Indirect effect due to

increase in
temperature during
green-house effect.

Indirect effects

through depletion of
ozone in stratosphere
which protests human
from harmful UV
radiation. Enhanced
UV radiations cause
skin cancer, cataracts
etc.

factories

Auditory problems

industries

Speech interference

Transport

Annoyance

Religious activities

Loss in efficiency

Physiological
disorders

F-9, MAIN ROAD, KATWARIA SARAI, NEW DELHI-16 MOB: 9711713852

Greenhouse
effect and
climate
change.

Depletion of
stratospheric
ozone.