Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism , describe the chemical

composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity on

substrates
Enzymes: Protein molecules that act as catalysts i.e. they speed up
chemical reactions but remain unchanged at the end
Metabolism: All the chemical reactions occurring in an organism
Anabolic reactions involve the formation of larger molecules from
smaller ones (e.g. glucose -> starch). They are endergonic (energy
required) -> endothermic
Catabolic reactions involve the breakdown of compounds into smaller
ones (e.g. proteins -> amino acids). They are exergonic (energy
released) -> exothermic
Chemical composition
-Enzymes are globular proteins (composed of long chains of amino
acids folded into a certain shape)
-The substrate is the molecule which the enzyme acts upon binds to an
active site (area where the enzyme catalyses the substrate)
-Some enzymes have a non-protein group that bonds with the protein
part (co-factor) and helps form the active site. The presence of the
cofactor is necessary for the enzyme reaction to work.
Role of enzymes
-accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy to maintain
the rate of biochemical reactions within an organism.
Enzymes can speed up/ slow down reactions without inducing a change
in temperature. They do this by lowering the activation energy,
meaning that no cell tissue is harmed, since heat damages living
tissue.
Characteristics of enzymes
-temperature sensitive
Enzymes work within very limited temperature range because at high/low
temperatures causes the hydrogen bonds that maintain the form of the
enzyme, causing the protein structure and shape to break (denature).
Changed shape = affected functioning (substrate can no longer fit in
the active site)
-pH sensitive
Enzymes work in a limited pH range. Anything higher/ lower changes the
shape and functioning slows down/ stops.
-substrate specific
Enzyme molecules act on only 1 type of substrate (i.e. itll only catalyse 1
type of chemical reaction)
-unchanged
The shape and form of the enzyme remains unchanged after the reaction
-reversible

Induced fit model:

Advantages
Simplify a complex biological
process
Shows how the shape of the active
site fits the substrate, emphasising
enzyme specificity
Shows a process difficult to
observe due to its time frame

Limitations
Oversimplified conditions e.g.
temperature, pH and
concentrations are not given
Does not show how the bond
actually breaks, or the nature of
the bond made
Time frame not given

Rate of chemical reactions

-enzymes are highly efficient and effective (only trace amounts are
needed for high turnover and catalysing rate)
-the rate of enzymatic reaction depends upon the concentration of
substances (i.e. as substrate concentration increases, rate of reaction
increases too until a maximum rate of reaction)
increasing the concentration of substrates past this point will not
affect anything because there is already a maximum concentration
of enzymes present catalysing
Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
pH is a scale which depicts the logarithmic value of H+ ions.
-the greater the H+ ion concentration, the lower the pH.
-pH = -log(H+)
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is
important for optimal metabolic efficiency
-Maintaining a constant internal environment helps ensure proper
functioning of enzymes
-> maximise metabolic efficiency and ensure that body is healthy
-Specifically, temperature:
Very low temperatures cause the water in cells to freeze and
expand, thus causing damage to enzymes
Very high temperatures cause the enzymes to denature, disrupting
metabolic activity and cell functioning
-Specifically, metabolites (chemicals which are necessary in the
progression of chemical reactions)
Lack of metabolites = slows/ stops chemical reactions -> reduce
metabolic efficiency
-Specifically, water and salt concentration (osmotic balance)
There needs to be enough water concentration because reactants
need to be dissolved (Without such, limits rate)
-> This is dependent on the concentration of dissolved substances
such as salt (hence a balance is necessary)
-Specifically, toxins (such as carbon dioxide, as a product of chemical
reactions)

This can block the activate site of enzymes/ alter optimal

conditions for enzyme functioning (inhibits the functioning and
thus, limits metabolic functioning)
Enzymes exposed to conditions outside a potential range can
potentially be denatured, thus losing the ability to catalyse and
ensure proper metabolism
Describe the homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a
relatively stable internal environment
Homeostasis is defined as the processes in which organisms ensure
a constant or almost constant internal state, REGARDLESS of
external environmental change
-This is carried out by the nervous and endocrine systems and
involves a negative feedback system.
-Without proper homeostasis, individuals can fall ill and die
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages
-detecting changes from the stable state
-counteracting
1. Detecting change (sensory cells/ receptors present detects changes
from optimal conditions of the body. These changes are called
stimuli)
2. Counteracting change (effector organs act to reverse the change and
ensure variables such as temperature and concentration of chemical
substances are maintained in a narrow range -> near the ideal value/
set point)
If the fluctuating from the set point is so large that it exceeds the
normal range then a negative feedback mechanism (negative
because it reverses the change) proceeds.
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to
environmental changes
Stimulus- response pathway
1. Sensory receptors around the body detect changes in
environment (stimuli)
a. Thermo- receptors in the skin detect extreme heat
2. Sensory nerves carry messages from the receptors to the spinal
cord and brain of the central nervous system
3. Control centre: CNS processes messages and develops response
mechanisms
a. Hypothtalamus in brain processes information abut hunger,
thirst and temp.
4. Motor nerve cells/ neurons transmit information from the central
nervous system to effectors

5. Effects (muscles or glands) bring about a response (change

within the body) to maintain homeostasis
a. Sweat produced in glands cools the body