"Creativity" by Wikipedia

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Creativity
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Creativityisaphenomenonwherebysomethingnewandsomehowvaluableisformed.Thecreateditemmaybeintangible(suchasanidea,ascientific
theory,amusicalcomposition,orajoke)oraphysicalobject(suchasaninvention,aliterarywork,orapainting).
Scholarlyinterestincreativityinvolvesmanydefinitionsandconceptspertainingtoanumberofdisciplines:psychology,cognitivescience,education,
philosophy(particularlyphilosophyofscience),technology,theology,sociology,linguistics,businessstudies,songwriting,andeconomics,coveringthe
relationsbetweencreativityandgeneralintelligence,mentalandneurologicalprocesses,personalitytypeandcreativeability,creativityandmental
healththepotentialforfosteringcreativitythrougheducationandtraining,especiallyasaugmentedbytechnologythemaximisationofcreativityfor
nationaleconomicbenefit,andtheapplicationofcreativeresourcestoimprovetheeffectivenessofteachingandlearning.
Contents
1
2
3
4
Definition
Aspects
Etymology
Historyoftheconcept
4.1 Ancientviews
4.2 TheEnlightenmentandafter
4.3 Twentiethcenturytothepresentday
4.4 "FourC"model
5 Theoriesofcreativeprocesses
5.1 Incubation
5.2 Convergentanddivergentthinking
5.3 Creativecognitionapproach
5.4 TheExplicitImplicitInteraction(EII)theory
5.5 Conceptualblending
5.6 Honingtheory
5.7 Everydayimaginativethought
6 Assessingindividualcreativeability
6.1 Creativityquotient
6.2 Psychometricapproach
6.3 Socialpersonalityapproach
7 Creativityandintelligence
7.1 Creativityasasubsetofintelligence
7.2 Intelligenceasasubsetofcreativity
7.3 Creativityandintelligenceasoverlappingyetdistinctconstructs
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7.3 Creativityandintelligenceasoverlappingyetdistinctconstructs
7.4 Creativityandintelligenceascoincidentsets
7.5 Creativityandintelligenceasdisjointsets
8 Neuroscience
8.1 Workingmemoryandthecerebellum
8.2 REMsleep
9 Affect
9.1 Positiveaffectrelations
10 Creativityandartificialintelligence
11 Mentalhealth
12 Creativityandpersonality
13 Creativityacrosscultures
14 Inorganizations
15 Economicviewsofcreativity
16 Fosteringcreativity
17 Listofacademicjournalsaddressingcreativity
18 Seealso
19 Notes
20 References
21 Furtherreading
22 Externallinks
Definition
Inasummaryofscientificresearchintocreativity,MichaelMumfordsuggested:"Overthecourseofthelastdecade,however,weseemtohavereached
ageneralagreementthatcreativityinvolvestheproductionofnovel,usefulproducts"(Mumford,2003,p.110),[1]or,inRobertSternberg'swords,the
productionof"somethingoriginalandworthwhile".[2]Authorshavedivergeddramaticallyintheirprecisedefinitionsbeyondthesegeneral
commonalities:PeterMeusburgerreckonsthatoverahundreddifferentanalysescanbefoundintheliterature.[3]Asanillustration,onedefinitiongiven
byDr.E.PaulTorrancedescribeditas"aprocessofbecomingsensitivetoproblems,deficiencies,gapsinknowledge,missingelements,disharmonies,
andsoonidentifyingthedifficultysearchingforsolutions,makingguesses,orformulatinghypothesesaboutthedeficiencies:testingandretesting
thesehypothesesandpossiblymodifyingandretestingthemandfinallycommunicatingtheresults."[4]
Aspects
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Theoriesofcreativity(particularlyinvestigationofwhysomepeoplearemorecreativethanothers)havefocusedonavarietyofaspects.Thedominant
factorsareusuallyidentifiedas"thefourPs"process,product,person,andplace(accordingtoMelRhodes).[5]Afocusonprocessisshownin
cognitiveapproachesthattrytodescribethoughtmechanismsandtechniquesforcreativethinking.Theoriesinvokingdivergentratherthanconvergent
thinking(suchasGuilford),orthosedescribingthestagingofthecreativeprocess(suchasWallas)areprimarilytheoriesofcreativeprocess.Afocuson
creativeproductusuallyappearsinattemptstomeasurecreativity(psychometrics,seebelow)andincreativeideasframedassuccessfulmemes.[6]The
psychometricapproachtocreativityrevealsthatitalsoinvolvestheabilitytoproducemore.[7]Afocusonthenatureofthecreativepersonconsiders
moregeneralintellectualhabits,suchasopenness,levelsofideation,autonomy,expertise,exploratorybehavior,andsoon.Afocusonplaceconsiders
thecircumstancesinwhichcreativityflourishes,suchasdegreesofautonomy,accesstoresources,andthenatureofgatekeepers.Creativelifestylesare
characterizedbynonconformingattitudesandbehaviorsaswellasflexibility.[7]
Etymology
ThelexemeintheEnglishwordcreativitycomesfromtheLatintermcre"tocreate,make":itsderivationalsuffixesalsocomefromLatin.Theword
"create"appearedinEnglishasearlyasthe14thcentury,notablyinChaucer,toindicatedivinecreation[8](inTheParson'sTale[9]).However,itsmodern
meaningasanactofhumancreationdidnotemergeuntilaftertheEnlightenment.[8]
Historyoftheconcept
Ancientviews
Mostancientcultures,includingthinkersofAncientGreece,[10]AncientChina,andAncientIndia,[11]lackedtheconceptofcreativity,seeingartasa
formofdiscoveryandnotcreation.TheancientGreekshadnotermscorrespondingto"tocreate"or"creator"exceptfortheexpression"poiein"("to
make"),whichonlyappliedtopoiesis(poetry)andtothepoietes(poet,or"maker")whomadeit.Platodidnotbelieveinartasaformofcreation.
AskedinTheRepublic,[12]"Willwesay,ofapainter,thathemakessomething?",heanswers,"Certainlynot,hemerelyimitates."[10]
Itiscommonlyarguedthatthenotionof"creativity"originatedinWesternculturethroughChristianity,asamatterofdivineinspiration.[8]Accordingto
thehistorianDanielJ.Boorstin,"theearlyWesternconceptionofcreativitywastheBiblicalstoryofcreationgivenintheGenesis."[13]However,thisis
notcreativityinthemodernsense,whichdidnotariseuntiltheRenaissance.IntheJudaeoChristiantradition,creativitywasthesoleprovinceofGod
humanswerenotconsideredtohavetheabilitytocreatesomethingnewexceptasanexpressionofGod'swork.[14]Aconceptsimilartothatof
ChristianityexistedinGreekculture,forinstance,MuseswereseenasmediatinginspirationfromtheGods.[15]RomansandGreeksinvokedtheconcept
ofanexternalcreative"daemon"(Greek)or"genius"(Latin),linkedtothesacredorthedivine.However,noneoftheseviewsaresimilartothemodern
conceptofcreativity,andtheindividualwasnotseenasthecauseofcreationuntiltheRenaissance.[16]ItwasduringtheRenaissancethatcreativitywas
firstseen,notasaconduitforthedivine,butfromtheabilitiesof"greatmen".[16]
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TheEnlightenmentandafter
Therejectionofcreativityinfavorofdiscoveryandthebeliefthatindividualcreationwasaconduitofthedivinewould
dominatetheWestprobablyuntiltheRenaissanceandevenlater.[14]Thedevelopmentofthemodernconceptofcreativity
beginsintheRenaissance,whencreationbegantobeperceivedashavingoriginatedfromtheabilitiesoftheindividual,and
notGod.Thiscouldbeattributedtotheleadingintellectualmovementofthetime,aptlynamedhumanism,which
developedanintenselyhumancentricoutlookontheworld,valuingtheintellectandachievementoftheindividual.[17]
FromthisphilosophyarosetheRenaissanceman(orpolymath),anindividualwhoembodiestheprincipalsofhumanismin
theirceaselesscourtshipwithknowledgeandcreation.[18]Oneofthemostwellknownandimmenselyaccomplished
examplesisLeonardodaVinci.
However,thisshiftwasgradualandwouldnotbecomeimmediatelyapparentuntiltheEnlightenment.[16]Bythe18th
centuryandtheAgeofEnlightenment,mentionofcreativity(notablyinaesthetics),linkedwiththeconceptofimagination,
becamemorefrequent.[19]InthewritingofThomasHobbes,imaginationbecameakeyelementofhumancognition[8]
WilliamDuffwasoneofthefirsttoidentifyimaginationasaqualityofgenius,typifyingtheseparationbeingmade
betweentalent(productive,butbreakingnonewground)andgenius.[15]
Greekphilosopherslike
Platorejectedtheconcept
ofcreativity,preferring
toseeartasaformof
discovery.AskedinThe
Republic,"Willwesay,
ofapainter,thathe
makessomething?",Plato
answers,"Certainlynot,
Asadirectandindependenttopicofstudy,creativityeffectivelyreceivednoattentionuntilthe19thcentury.[15]Runcoand
hemerelyimitates."[10]
Albertarguethatcreativityasthesubjectofproperstudybeganseriouslytoemergeinthelate19thcenturywiththe
increasedinterestinindividualdifferencesinspiredbythearrivalofDarwinism.Inparticular,theyrefertotheworkof
FrancisGalton,whothroughhiseugenicistoutlooktookakeeninterestintheheritabilityofintelligence,withcreativitytakenasanaspectofgenius.[8]
Inthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,leadingmathematiciansandscientistssuchasHermannvonHelmholtz(1896)andHenriPoincar(1908)
begantoreflectonandpubliclydiscusstheircreativeprocesses.
Twentiethcenturytothepresentday
TheinsightsofPoincarandvonHelmholtzwerebuiltoninearlyaccountsofthecreativeprocessbypioneeringtheoristssuchasGrahamWallas[20]
andMaxWertheimer.InhisworkArtofThought,publishedin1926,Wallaspresentedoneofthefirstmodelsofthecreativeprocess.IntheWallasstage
model,creativeinsightsandilluminationsmaybeexplainedbyaprocessconsistingof5stages:
(i)preparation(preparatoryworkonaproblemthatfocusestheindividual'smindontheproblemandexplorestheproblem'sdimensions),
(ii)incubation(wheretheproblemisinternalizedintotheunconsciousmindandnothingappearsexternallytobehappening),
(iii)intimation(thecreativepersongetsa"feeling"thatasolutionisonitsway),
(iv)illuminationorinsight(wherethecreativeideaburstsforthfromitspreconsciousprocessingintoconsciousawareness)
(v)verification(wheretheideaisconsciouslyverified,elaborated,andthenapplied).
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Wallas'modelisoftentreatedasfourstages,with"intimation"seenasasubstage.
Wallasconsideredcreativitytobealegacyoftheevolutionaryprocess,whichallowedhumanstoquicklyadapttorapidlychangingenvironments.
Simonton[21]providesanupdatedperspectiveonthisviewinhisbook,Originsofgenius:Darwinianperspectivesoncreativity.
In1927,AlfredNorthWhiteheadgavetheGiffordLecturesattheUniversityofEdinburgh,laterpublishedasProcessandReality.[22]Heiscredited
withhavingcoinedtheterm"creativity"toserveastheultimatecategoryofhismetaphysicalscheme:"Whiteheadactuallycoinedthetermourterm,
stillthepreferredcurrencyofexchangeamongliterature,science,andthearts...atermthatquicklybecamesopopular,soomnipresent,thatits
inventionwithinlivingmemory,andbyAlfredNorthWhiteheadofallpeople,quicklybecameoccluded".[23]
Theformalpsychometricmeasurementofcreativity,fromthestandpointoforthodoxpsychologicalliterature,isusuallyconsideredtohavebegunwith
J.P.Guilford's1950addresstotheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,whichhelpedpopularizethetopic[24]andfocusattentiononascientific
approachtoconceptualizingcreativity.(ItshouldbenotedthattheLondonSchoolofPsychologyhadinstigatedpsychometricstudiesofcreativityas
earlyas1927withtheworkofH.L.HargreavesintotheFacultyofImagination,[25]butitdidnothavethesameimpact.)Statisticalanalysisledtothe
recognitionofcreativity(asmeasured)asaseparateaspectofhumancognitiontoIQtypeintelligence,intowhichithadpreviouslybeensubsumed.
Guilford'sworksuggestedthataboveathresholdlevelofIQ,therelationshipbetweencreativityandclassicallymeasuredintelligencebrokedown.[26]
"FourC"model
JamesC.KaufmanandBeghettointroduceda"fourC"modelofcreativityminic("transformativelearning"involving"personallymeaningful
interpretationsofexperiences,actions,andinsights"),littlec(everydayproblemsolvingandcreativeexpression),ProC(exhibitedbypeoplewhoare
professionallyorvocationallycreativethoughnotnecessarilyeminent)andBigC(creativityconsideredgreatinthegivenfield).Thismodelwas
intendedtohelpaccommodatemodelsandtheoriesofcreativitythatstressedcompetenceasanessentialcomponentandthehistoricaltransformationof
acreativedomainasthehighestmarkofcreativity.Italso,theauthorsargued,madeausefulframeworkforanalyzingcreativeprocessesin
individuals.[27]
Thecontrastofterms"BigC"and"Littlec"hasbeenwidelyused.Kozbelt,BeghettoandRuncousealittlec/BigCmodeltoreviewmajortheoriesof
creativity.[26]MargaretBodendistinguishesbetweenhcreativity(historical)andpcreativity(personal).[28]
Robinson[29]andAnnaCraft[30]havefocusedoncreativityinageneralpopulation,particularlywithrespecttoeducation.Craftmakesasimilar
distinctionbetween"high"and"littlec"creativity.[30]andcitesKenRobinsonasreferringto"high"and"democratic"creativity.Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi[31]hasdefinedcreativityintermsofthoseindividualsjudgedtohavemadesignificantcreative,perhapsdomainchanging
contributions.Simontonhasanalysedthecareertrajectoriesofeminentcreativepeopleinordertomappatternsandpredictorsofcreative
productivity.[32]
Theoriesofcreativeprocesses
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Therehasbeenmuchempiricalstudyinpsychologyandcognitivescienceoftheprocessesthroughwhichcreativityoccurs.Interpretationoftheresults
ofthesestudieshasledtoseveralpossibleexplanationsofthesourcesandmethodsofcreativity.
Incubation
Incubationisatemporarybreakfromcreativeproblemsolvingthatcanresultininsight.[33]Therehasbeensomeempiricalresearchlookingatwhether,
astheconceptof"incubation"inWallas'modelimplies,aperiodofinterruptionorrestfromaproblemmayaidcreativeproblemsolving.Ward[34]lists
varioushypothesesthathavebeenadvancedtoexplainwhyincubationmayaidcreativeproblemsolving,andnoteshowsomeempiricalevidenceis
consistentwiththehypothesisthatincubationaidscreativeproblemsolvinginthatitenables"forgetting"ofmisleadingclues.Absenceofincubation
mayleadtheproblemsolvertobecomefixatedoninappropriatestrategiesofsolvingtheproblem.[35]Thisworkdisputestheearlierhypothesisthat
creativesolutionstoproblemsarisemysteriouslyfromtheunconsciousmindwhiletheconsciousmindisoccupiedonothertasks.[36]Thisearlier
hypothesisisdiscussedinCsikszentmihalyi'sfivephasemodelofthecreativeprocesswhichdescribesincubationasatimethatyourunconscioustakes
over.Thisallowsforuniqueconnectionstobemadewithoutyourconsciousnesstryingtomakelogicalorderoutoftheproblem.[37]
Convergentanddivergentthinking
J.P.Guilford[38]drewadistinctionbetweenconvergentanddivergentproduction(commonlyrenamedconvergentanddivergentthinking).Convergent
thinkinginvolvesaimingforasingle,correctsolutiontoaproblem,whereasdivergentthinkinginvolvescreativegenerationofmultipleanswerstoaset
problem.Divergentthinkingissometimesusedasasynonymforcreativityinpsychologyliterature.Otherresearchershaveoccasionallyusedtheterms
flexiblethinkingorfluidintelligence,whichareroughlysimilarto(butnotsynonymouswith)creativity.
Creativecognitionapproach
In1992,Finkeetal.proposedthe"Geneplore"model,inwhichcreativitytakesplaceintwophases:agenerativephase,whereanindividualconstructs
mentalrepresentationscalledpreinventivestructures,andanexploratoryphasewherethosestructuresareusedtocomeupwithcreativeideas.Some
evidenceshowsthatwhenpeopleusetheirimaginationtodevelopnewideas,thoseideasareheavilystructuredinpredictablewaysbythepropertiesof
existingcategoriesandconcepts.[39]Weisberg[40]argued,bycontrast,thatcreativityonlyinvolvesordinarycognitiveprocessesyieldingextraordinary
results.
TheExplicitImplicitInteraction(EII)theory
HelieandSun[41]recentlyproposedaunifiedframeworkforunderstandingcreativityinproblemsolving,namelytheExplicitImplicitInteraction(EII)
theoryofcreativity.Thisnewtheoryconstitutesanattemptatprovidingamoreunifiedexplanationofrelevantphenomena(inpartby
reinterpreting/integratingvariousfragmentaryexistingtheoriesofincubationandinsight).
TheEIItheoryreliesmainlyonfivebasicprinciples,namely:
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1.Thecoexistenceofandthedifferencebetweenexplicitandimplicitknowledge
2.Thesimultaneousinvolvementofimplicitandexplicitprocessesinmosttasks
3.Theredundantrepresentationofexplicitandimplicitknowledge
4.Theintegrationoftheresultsofexplicitandimplicitprocessing
5.Theiterative(andpossiblybidirectional)processing.
AcomputationalimplementationofthetheorywasdevelopedbasedontheCLARIONcognitivearchitectureandusedtosimulaterelevanthumandata.
Thisworkrepresentsaninitialstepinthedevelopmentofprocessbasedtheoriesofcreativityencompassingincubation,insight,andvariousother
relatedphenomena.
Conceptualblending
InTheActofCreation,ArthurKoestlerintroducedtheconceptofbisociationthatcreativityarisesasaresultoftheintersectionoftwoquitedifferent
framesofreference.[42]Thisideawaslaterdevelopedintoconceptualblending.Inthe'90s,variousapproachesincognitivesciencethatdealtwith
metaphor,analogy,andstructuremappinghavebeenconverging,andanewintegrativeapproachtothestudyofcreativityinscience,artandhumorhas
emergedunderthelabelconceptualblending.
Honingtheory
Honingtheory,developedprincipallybypsychologistLianeGabora,positsthatcreativityarisesduetotheselforganizing,selfmendingnatureofa
worldview.Thecreativeprocessisawayinwhichtheindividualhones(andrehones)anintegratedworldview.Honingtheoryplacesemphasisnotonly
ontheexternallyvisiblecreativeoutcomebutalsotheinternalcognitiverestructuringandrepairoftheworldviewbroughtaboutbythecreativeprocess.
Whenfacedwithacreativelydemandingtask,thereisaninteractionbetweentheconceptionofthetaskandtheworldview.Theconceptionofthetask
changesthroughinteractionwiththeworldview,andtheworldviewchangesthroughinteractionwiththetask.Thisinteractionisreiterateduntilthetask
iscomplete,atwhichpointnotonlyisthetaskconceivedofdifferently,buttheworldviewissubtlyordrasticallytransformedasitfollowsthenatural
tendencyofaworldviewtoattempttoresolvedissonanceandseekinternalconsistencyamongstitscomponents,whethertheybeideas,attitudes,orbits
ofknowledge.
Acentralfeatureofhoningtheoryisthenotionofapotentialitystate.[43]Honingtheorypositsthatcreativethoughtproceedsnotbysearchingthrough
andrandomlymutatingpredefinedpossibilities,butbydrawinguponassociationsthatexistduetooverlapinthedistributedneuralcellassembliesthat
participateintheencodingofexperiencesinmemory.Midwaythroughthecreativeprocessonemayhavemadeassociationsbetweenthecurrenttask
andpreviousexperiences,butnotyetdisambiguatedwhichaspectsofthosepreviousexperiencesarerelevanttothecurrenttask.Thusthecreativeidea
mayfeelhalfbaked.Itisatthatpointthatitcanbesaidtobeinapotentialitystate,becausehowitwillactualizedependsonthedifferentinternallyor
externallygeneratedcontextsitinteractswith.
Honingtheoryisheldtoexplaincertainphenomenanotdealtwithbyothertheoriesofcreativity,forexample,howdifferentworksbythesamecreator
areobservedinstudiestoexhibitarecognizablestyleor'voice'eventhroughindifferentcreativeoutlets.Thisisnotpredictedbytheoriesofcreativity
thatemphasizechanceprocessesortheaccumulationofexpertise,butitispredictedbyhoningtheory,accordingtowhichpersonalstylereflectsthe
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creator'suniquelystructuredworldview.Anotherexampleisintheenvironmentalstimulusforcreativity.Creativityiscommonlyconsideredtobe
fosteredbyasupportive,nurturing,trustworthyenvironmentconducivetoselfactualization.However,researchshowsthatcreativityisalsoassociated
withchildhoodadversity,whichwouldstimulatehoning.
Everydayimaginativethought
Ineverydaythought,peopleoftenspontaneouslyimaginealternativestorealitywhentheythink"ifonly...".[44]Theircounterfactualthinkingisviewed
asanexampleofeverydaycreativeprocesses.[45]Ithasbeenproposedthatthecreationofcounterfactualalternativestorealitydependsonsimilar
cognitiveprocessestorationalthought.[46]
Assessingindividualcreativeability
Creativityquotient
Severalattemptshavebeenmadetodevelopacreativityquotientofanindividualsimilartotheintelligencequotient(IQ)however,thesehavebeen
unsuccessful.[47]
Psychometricapproach
J.P.Guilford'sgroup,[38]whichpioneeredthemodernpsychometricstudyofcreativity,constructedseveralteststomeasurecreativityin1967:
PlotTitles,whereparticipantsaregiventheplotofastoryandaskedtowriteoriginaltitles.
QuickResponsesisawordassociationtestscoredforuncommonness.
FigureConcepts,whereparticipantsweregivensimpledrawingsofobjectsandindividualsandaskedtofindqualitiesorfeaturesthatare
commonbytwoormoredrawingsthesewerescoredforuncommonness.
UnusualUsesisfindingunusualusesforcommoneverydayobjectssuchasbricks.
RemoteAssociations,whereparticipantsareaskedtofindawordbetweentwogivenwords(e.g.Hand_____Call)
RemoteConsequences,whereparticipantsareaskedtogeneratealistofconsequencesofunexpectedevents(e.g.lossofgravity)
BuildingonGuilford'swork,Torrance[48]developedtheTorranceTestsofCreativeThinkingin1966.[49]Theyinvolvedsimpletestsofdivergent
thinkingandotherproblemsolvingskills,whichwerescoredon:
FluencyThetotalnumberofinterpretable,meaningful,andrelevantideasgeneratedinresponsetothestimulus.
OriginalityThestatisticalrarityoftheresponsesamongthetestsubjects.
ElaborationTheamountofdetailintheresponses.
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TheCreativityAchievementQuestionnaire,aselfreporttestthatmeasurescreativeachievementacross10domains,wasdescribedin2005andshown
tobereliableandvalidwhencomparedtoothermeasuresofcreativityandtoindependentevaluationofcreativeoutput.[50]
Suchtests,sometimescalledDivergentThinking(DT)testshavebeenbothsupported[51]andcriticized.[52]
Considerableprogresshasbeenmadeinautomatedscoringofdivergentthinkingtestsusingsemanticapproach.Whencomparedtohumanraters,NLP
techniqueswereshowntobereliableandvalidinscoringtheoriginality(whencomparedtohumanraters).[53][54]Thereportedcomputerprogramswere
abletoachieveacorrelationof0.60and0.72respectivelytohumangraders.
Semanticnetworkswerealsousedtodeviseoriginalityscoresthatyieldedsignificantcorrelationswithsociopersonalmeasures.[55]Mostrecently,an
NSFfunded[56]teamofresearchersledbyJamesC.KaufmanandMarkA.Runco[57]combinedexpertiseincreativityresearch,naturallanguage
processing,computationallinguistics,andstatisticaldataanalysistodeviseascalablesystemforcomputerizedautomatedtesting(SparcItCreativity
IndexTestingsystem).ThissystemenabledautomatedscoringofDTteststhatisreliable,objective,andscalable,thusaddressingmostoftheissuesof
DTteststhathadbeenfoundandreported.[52]Theresultantcomputersystemwasabletoachieveacorrelationof0.73tohumangraders.[58]
Socialpersonalityapproach
Someresearchershavetakenasocialpersonalityapproachtothemeasurementofcreativity.Inthesestudies,personalitytraitssuchasindependenceof
judgement,selfconfidence,attractiontocomplexity,aestheticorientation,andrisktakingareusedasmeasuresofthecreativityofindividuals.[24]A
metaanalysisbyGregoryFeistshowedthatcreativepeopletendtobe"moreopentonewexperiences,lessconventionalandlessconscientious,more
selfconfident,selfaccepting,driven,ambitious,dominant,hostile,andimpulsive."Openness,conscientiousness,selfacceptance,hostility,and
impulsivityhadthestrongesteffectsofthetraitslisted.[59]WithintheframeworkoftheBigFivemodelofpersonality,someconsistenttraitshave
emerged.[60]Opennesstoexperiencehasbeenshowntobeconsistentlyrelatedtoawholehostofdifferentassessmentsofcreativity.[61]Amongthe
otherBigFivetraits,researchhasdemonstratedsubtledifferencesbetweendifferentdomainsofcreativity.Comparedtononartists,artiststendtohave
higherlevelsofopennesstoexperienceandlowerlevelsofconscientiousness,whilescientistsaremoreopentoexperience,conscientious,andhigherin
theconfidencedominancefacetsofextraversioncomparedtononscientists.[59]
Creativityandintelligence
Thepotentialrelationshipbetweencreativityandintelligencehasbeenofinterestsincethelate1900s,whenamultitudeofinfluentialstudiesfrom
Getzels&Jackson,[62]Barron,[63]Wallach&Kogan,[64]andGuilford[65]focusednotonlyoncreativity,butalsoonintelligence.Thisjointfocus
highlightsboththetheoreticalandpracticalimportanceoftherelationship:researchersareinterestednotonlyiftheconstructsarerelated,butalsohow
andwhy.[66]
Therearemultipletheoriesaccountingfortheirrelationship,withthe3maintheoriesasfollows:
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ThresholdTheoryIntelligenceisanecessary,butnotsufficientconditionforcreativity.Thereisamoderatepositiverelationshipbetween
creativityandintelligenceuntilIQ~120.[63][65]
CertificationTheoryCreativityisnotintrinsicallyrelatedtointelligence.Instead,individualsarerequiredtomeettherequisitelevelintelligence
inordertogainacertainlevelofeducation/work,whichtheninturnofferstheopportunitytobecreative.Displaysofcreativityaremoderatedby
intelligence.[67]
InterferenceTheoryExtremelyhighintelligencemightinterferewithcreativeability.[68]
SternbergandOHara[69]proposedaframeworkof5possiblerelationshipsbetweencreativityandintelligence:
1.Creativityisasubsetofintelligence
2.Intelligenceisasubsetofcreativity
3.Creativityandintelligenceareoverlappingconstructs
4.Creativityandintelligencearepartofthesameconstruct(coincidentsets)
5.Creativityandintelligencearedistinctconstructs(disjointsets)
Creativityasasubsetofintelligence
Anumberofresearchersincludecreativity,eitherexplicitlyorimplicitly,asakeycomponentofintelligence.
Examplesoftheoriesthatincludecreativityasasubsetofintelligence
GardnersTheoryofmultipleintelligences(MIT)[70]implicitlyincludescreativityasasubsetofMIT.Todemonstratethis,Gardnercited
examplesofdifferentfamouscreators,eachofwhomdifferedintheirtypesofintelligencese.g.Picasso(spatialintelligence)Freud
(intrapersonal)Einstein(logicalmathematical)andGandhi(interpersonal).
SternbergsTheoryofSuccessfulintelligence[68][69][71](seeTriarchictheoryofintelligence)includescreativityasamaincomponent,and
comprises3subtheories:Componential(Analytic),Contextual(Practical),andExperiential(Creative).Experientialsubtheorytheabilityto
usepreexistingknowledgeandskillstosolvenewandnovelproblemsisdirectlyrelatedtocreativity.
TheCattellHornCarrolltheoryincludescreativityasasubsetofintelligence.Specifically,itisassociatedwiththebroadgroupfactoroflong
termstorageandretrieval(Glr).Glrnarrowabilitiesrelatingtocreativityinclude:[72]ideationalfluency,associationalfluency,and
originality/creativity.Silviaetal.[73]conductedastudytolookattherelationshipbetweendivergentthinkingandverbalfluencytests,and
reportedthatbothfluencyandoriginalityindivergentthinkingweresignificantlyaffectedbythebroadlevelGlrfactor.Martindale[74]extended
theCHCtheoryinthesensethatitwasproposedthatthoseindividualswhoarecreativearealsoselectiveintheirprocessingspeedMartindale
arguesthatinthecreativeprocess,largeramountsofinformationareprocessedmoreslowlyintheearlystages,andastheindividualbeginsto
understandtheproblem,theprocessingspeedisincreased.
TheDualProcessTheoryofIntelligence[75]positsatwofactor/typemodelofintelligence.Type1isaconsciousprocess,andconcernsgoal
directedthoughts,whichareexplainedbyg.Type2isanunconsciousprocess,andconcernsspontaneouscognition,whichencompasses
daydreamingandimplicitlearningability.KaufmanarguesthatcreativityoccursasaresultofType1andType2processesworkingtogetherin
combination.Theuseofeachtypeinthecreativeprocesscanbeusedtovaryingdegrees.
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Intelligenceasasubsetofcreativity
Inthisrelationshipmodel,intelligenceisakeycomponentinthedevelopmentofcreativity.
Theoriesofcreativitythatincludeintelligenceasasubsetofcreativity
Sternberg&LubartsInvestmentTheory.[76][77]Usingthemetaphorofastockmarket,theydemonstratethatcreativethinkersarelikegood
investorstheybuylowandsellhigh(intheirideas).Likeunder/lowvaluedstock,creativeindividualsgenerateuniqueideasthatareinitially
rejectedbyotherpeople.Thecreativeindividualhastopersevere,andconvincetheothersoftheideasvalue.Afterconvincingtheothers,andthus
increasingtheideasvalue,thecreativeindividualsellshighbyleavingtheideawiththeotherpeople,andmovesontogeneratinganotheridea.
Accordingtothistheory,sixdistinct,butrelatedelementscontributetosuccessfulcreativity:intelligence,knowledge,thinkingstyles,personality,
motivation,andenvironment.Intelligenceisjustoneofthesixfactorsthatcaneithersolely,orinconjunctionwiththeotherfivefactors,generate
creativethoughts.
AmabilesComponentialModelofCreativity.[78][79]Inthismodel,thereare3withinindividualcomponentsneededforcreativitydomain
relevantskills,creativityrelevantprocesses,andtaskmotivationand1componentexternaltotheindividual:theirsurroundingsocial
environment.Creativityrequiresaconfluenceofallcomponents.Highcreativitywillresultwhenanindividualis:intrinsicallymotivated,
possessesbothahighlevelofdomainrelevantskillsandhashighskillsincreativethinking,andisworkinginahighlycreativeenvironment.
AmusementParkTheoreticalModel.[80]Inthis4steptheory,bothdomainspecificandgeneralistviewsareintegratedintoamodelofcreativity.
Theresearchersmakeuseofthemetaphoroftheamusementparktodemonstratethatwithineachofthesecreativelevels,intelligenceplaysakey
role:
Togetintotheamusementpark,thereareinitialrequirements(e.g.,time/transporttogotothepark).Initialrequirements(likeintelligence)
arenecessary,butnotsufficientforcreativity.Theyaremorelikeprerequisitesforcreativity,andifanindividualdoesnotpossessthebasic
leveloftheinitialrequirement(intelligence),thentheywillnotbeabletogeneratecreativethoughts/behaviour.
Secondlyarethesubcomponentsgeneralthematicareasthatincreaseinspecificity.Likechoosingwhichtypeofamusementparkto
visit(e.g.azooorawaterpark),theseareasrelatetotheareasinwhichsomeonecouldbecreative(e.g.poetry).
Thirdly,therearespecificdomains.Afterchoosingthetypeofparktovisite.g.waterpark,youthenhavetochoosewhichspecificparkto
goto.Withinthepoetrydomain,therearemanydifferenttypes(e.g.freeverse,riddles,sonnet,etc.)thathavetobeselectedfrom.
Lastly,therearemicrodomains.Thesearethespecifictasksthatresidewithineachdomaine.g.individuallinesinafreeversepoem/
individualridesatthewaterpark.
Creativityandintelligenceasoverlappingyetdistinctconstructs
Thispossiblerelationshipconcernscreativityandintelligenceasdistinct,butintersectingconstructs.
TheoriesthatincludeCreativityandIntelligenceasOverlappingYetDistinctConstructs
RenzullisThreeRingConceptionofGiftedness.[81]Inthisconceptualisation,giftednessoccursasaresultfromtheoverlapofaboveaverage
intellectualability,creativity,andtaskcommitment.Underthisview,creativityandintelligencearedistinctconstructs,buttheydooverlapunder
thecorrectconditions.
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PASStheoryofintelligence.Inthistheory,theplanningcomponentrelatingtotheabilitytosolveproblems,makedecisionsandtakeaction
stronglyoverlapswiththeconceptofcreativity.[82]
ThresholdTheory(TT).Anumberofpreviousresearchfindingshavesuggestedthatathresholdexistsintherelationshipbetweencreativityand
intelligencebothconstructsaremoderatelypositivelycorrelateduptoanIQof~120.AbovethisthresholdofanIQof120,ifthereisa
relationshipatall,itissmallandweak.[62][63][83]TTpositsthatamoderatelevelofintelligenceisnecessaryforcreativity.
InsupportoftheTT,Barron[63][84]reportedfindinganonsignificantcorrelationbetweencreativityandintelligenceinagiftedsampleandasignificant
correlationinanongiftedsample.Yamamoto[85]inasampleofsecondaryschoolchildren,reportedasignificantcorrelationbetweencreativityand
intelligenceofr=.3,andreportednosignificantcorrelationwhenthesampleconsistedofgiftedchildren.FuchsBeauchampetal.[86]inasampleof
preschoolersfoundthatcreativityandintelligencecorrelatedfromr=.19tor=.49inthegroupofchildrenwhohadanIQbelowthethresholdandin
thegroupabovethethreshold,thecorrelationswerer=<.12.Choetal.[87]reportedacorrelationof.40betweencreativityandintelligenceinthe
averageIQgroupofasampleofadolescentsandadultsandacorrelationofclosetor=.0forthehighIQgroup.Jauketal.[88]foundsupportforthe
TT,butonlyformeasuresofcreativepotentialnotcreativeperformance.
MuchmoderndayresearchreportsfindingsagainstTT.Waietal.[89]inastudyusingdatafromthelongitudinalStudyofMathematicallyPrecocious
YouthacohortofelitestudentsfromearlyadolescenceintoadulthoodfoundthatdifferencesinSATscoresatage13werepredictiveofcreative
reallifeoutcomes20yearslater.Kims[90]metaanalysisof21studiesdidnotfindanysupportingevidenceforTT,andinsteadnegligiblecorrelations
werereportedbetweenintelligence,creativity,anddivergentthinkingbothbelowandaboveIQ'sof120.Preckeletal.,[91]investigatingfluidintelligence
andcreativity,reportedsmallcorrelationsofr=.3tor=.4acrossalllevelsofcognitiveability.
Creativityandintelligenceascoincidentsets
Underthisview,researcherspositthattherearenodifferencesinthemechanismsunderlyingcreativityinthoseusedinnormalproblemsolvingandin
normalproblemsolving,thereisnoneedforcreativity.Thus,creativityandIntelligence(problemsolving)arethesamething.Perkins[92]referredtothis
asthenothingspecialview.
Weisberg&Alba[93]examinedproblemsolvingbyhavingparticipantscompletethe9dotproblem(seeThinkingoutsidethebox#Ninedotspuzzle)
wheretheparticipantsareaskedtoconnectall9dotsinthe3rowsof3dotsusing4straightlinesorless,withoutliftingtheirpenortracingthesame
linetwice.Theproblemcanonlybesolvedifthelinesgooutsidetheboundariesofthesquareofdots.Resultsdemonstratedthatevenwhenparticipants
weregiventhisinsight,theystillfounditdifficulttosolvetheproblem,thusshowingthattosuccessfullycompletethetaskitisnotjustinsight(or
creativity)thatisrequired.
Creativityandintelligenceasdisjointsets
Inthisview,creativityandintelligencearecompletelydifferent,unrelatedconstructs.
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GetzelsandJackson[62]administered5creativitymeasurestoagroupof449childrenfromgrades612,andcomparedthesetestfindingstoresultsfrom
previouslyadministered(bytheschool)IQtests.TheyfoundthatthecorrelationbetweenthecreativitymeasuresandIQwasr=.26.Thehighcreativity
groupscoredinthetop20%oftheoverallcreativitymeasures,butwerenotincludedinthetop20%ofIQscorers.Thehighintelligencegroupscored
theopposite:theyscoredinthetop20%forIQ,butwereoutsidethetop20%scorersforcreativity,thusshowingthatcreativityandintelligenceare
distinctandunrelated.
However,thisworkhasbeenheavilycriticised.WallachandKogan[64]highlightedthatthecreativitymeasureswerenotonlyweaklyrelatedtoone
another(totheextentthattheywerenomorerelatedtooneanotherthantheywerewithIQ),buttheyseemedtoalsodrawuponnoncreativeskills.
McNemar[94]notedthatthereweremajormeasurementissues,inthattheIQscoreswereamixturefrom3differentIQtests.
WallachandKogan[64]administered5measuresofcreativity,eachofwhichresultedinascorefororiginalityandfluencyand10measuresofgeneral
intelligenceto1515thgradechildren.Thesetestswereuntimed,andgiveninagamelikemanner(aimingtofacilitatecreativity).Intercorrelations
betweencreativitytestswereonaverager=.41.Intercorrelationsbetweenintelligencemeasureswereonaverager=.51witheachother.Creativity
testsandintelligencemeasurescorrelatedr=.09.
Neuroscience
Theneuroscienceofcreativitylooksattheoperationofthebrainduringcreativebehaviour.Ithasbeenaddressed[95]inthearticle"CreativeInnovation:
PossibleBrainMechanisms."Theauthorswritethat"creativeinnovationmightrequirecoactivationandcommunicationbetweenregionsofthebrain
thatordinarilyarenotstronglyconnected."Highlycreativepeoplewhoexcelatcreativeinnovationtendtodifferfromothersinthreeways:
theyhaveahighlevelofspecializedknowledge,
theyarecapableofdivergentthinkingmediatedbythefrontallobe.
andtheyareabletomodulateneurotransmitterssuchasnorepinephrineintheirfrontallobe.
Thus,thefrontallobeappearstobethepartofthecortexthatismostimportantforcreativity.
Thisarticlealsoexploredthelinksbetweencreativityandsleep,moodandaddictiondisorders,anddepression.
In2005,AliceFlahertypresentedathreefactormodelofthecreativedrive.Drawingfromevidenceinbrainimaging,drugstudiesandlesionanalysis,
shedescribedthecreativedriveasresultingfromaninteractionofthefrontallobes,thetemporallobes,anddopaminefromthelimbicsystem.The
frontallobescanbeseenasresponsibleforideageneration,andthetemporallobesforideaeditingandevaluation.Abnormalitiesinthefrontallobe
(suchasdepressionoranxiety)generallydecreasecreativity,whileabnormalitiesinthetemporallobeoftenincreasecreativity.Highactivityinthe
temporallobetypicallyinhibitsactivityinthefrontallobe,andviceversa.Highdopaminelevelsincreasegeneralarousalandgoaldirectedbehaviors
andreducelatentinhibition,andallthreeeffectsincreasethedrivetogenerateideas.[96]A2015studyoncreativityfoundthatitinvolvestheinteraction
ofmultipleneuralnetworks,includingthethosethatsupportassociativethinking,alongwithotherdefaultmodenetworkfunctions.[97]
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Workingmemoryandthecerebellum
Vandervert[98]describedhowthebrain'sfrontallobesandthecognitivefunctionsofthecerebellumcollaboratetoproducecreativityandinnovation.
Vandervert'sexplanationrestsonconsiderableevidencethatallprocessesofworkingmemory(responsibleforprocessingallthought[99])areadaptively
modeledforincreasedefficiencybythecerebellum.[100]Thecerebellum(consistingof100billionneurons,whichismorethantheentiretyoftherestof
thebrain[101])isalsowidelyknowntoadaptivelymodelallbodilymovementforefficiency.Thecerebellum'sadaptivemodelsofworkingmemory
processingarethenfedbacktoespeciallyfrontallobeworkingmemorycontrolprocesses[102]wherecreativeandinnovativethoughtsarise.[103]
(Apparently,creativeinsightorthe"aha"experienceisthentriggeredinthetemporallobe.[104])
AccordingtoVandervert,thedetailsofcreativeadaptationbeginin"forward"cerebellarmodelswhichareanticipatory/exploratorycontrolsfor
movementandthought.ThesecerebellarprocessingandcontrolarchitectureshavebeentermedHierarchicalModularSelectionandIdentificationfor
Control(HMOSAIC).[105]New,hierarchicallyarrangedlevelsofthecerebellarcontrolarchitecture(HMOSAIC)developasmentalmullinginworking
memoryisextendedovertime.Thesenewlevelsofthecontrolarchitecturearefedforwardtothefrontallobes.Sincethecerebellumadaptivelymodels
allmovementandalllevelsofthoughtandemotion,[106]Vandervert'sapproachhelpsexplaincreativityandinnovationinsports,art,music,thedesignof
videogames,technology,mathematics,thechildprodigy,andthoughtingeneral.
Essentially,Vanderverthasarguedthatwhenapersonisconfrontedwithachallengingnewsituation,visualspatialworkingmemoryandspeechrelated
workingmemoryaredecomposedandrecomposed(fractionated)bythecerebellumandthenblendedinthecerebralcortexinanattempttodealwith
thenewsituation.Withrepeatedattemptstodealwithchallengingsituations,thecerebrocerebellarblendingprocesscontinuestooptimizethe
efficiencyofhowworkingmemorydealswiththesituationorproblem.[107]Mostrecently,hehasarguedthatthisisthesameprocess(onlyinvolving
visualspatialworkingmemoryandprelanguagevocalization)thatledtotheevolutionoflanguageinhumans.[108]VandervertandVandervertWeathers
havepointedoutthatthisblendingprocess,becauseitcontinuouslyoptimizesefficiencies,constantlyimprovesprototypingattemptstowardthe
inventionorinnovationofnewideas,music,art,ortechnology.[109]Prototyping,theyargue,notonlyproducesnewproducts,ittrainsthecerebro
cerebellarpathwaysinvolvedtobecomemoreefficientatprototypingitself.Further,VandervertandVandervertWeathersbelievethatthisrepetitive
"mentalprototyping"ormentalrehearsalinvolvingthecerebellumandthecerebralcortexexplainsthesuccessoftheselfdriven,individualized
patterningofrepetitionsinitiatedbytheteachingmethodsoftheKhanAcademy.ThemodelproposedbyVanderverthas,however,receivedincisive
critiquefromseveralauthors.[110][111]
REMsleep
Creativityinvolvestheformingofassociativeelementsintonewcombinationsthatareusefulormeetsomerequirement.Sleepaidsthisprocess.[112]
REMratherthanNREMsleepappearstoberesponsible.[113][114]Thishasbeensuggestedtobeduetochangesincholinergicandnoradrenergic
neuromodulationthatoccursduringREMsleep.[113]Duringthisperiodofsleep,highlevelsofacetylcholineinthehippocampussuppressfeedback
fromthehippocampustotheneocortex,andlowerlevelsofacetylcholineandnorepinephrineintheneocortexencouragethespreadofassociational
activitywithinneocorticalareaswithoutcontrolfromthehippocampus.[115]Thisisincontrasttowakingconsciousness,wherehigherlevelsof
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norepinephrineandacetylcholineinhibitrecurrentconnectionsintheneocortex.ItisproposedthatREMsleepaddscreativitybyallowing"neocortical
structurestoreorganizeassociativehierarchies,inwhichinformationfromthehippocampuswouldbereinterpretedinrelationtoprevioussemantic
representationsornodes."[113]
Affect
Sometheoriessuggestthatcreativitymaybeparticularlysusceptibletoaffectiveinfluence.Asnotedinvotingbehavior,theterm"affect"inthiscontext
canrefertolikingordislikingkeyaspectsofthesubjectinquestion.Thisworklargelyfollowsfromfindingsinpsychologyregardingthewaysinwhich
affectivestatesareinvolvedinhumanjudgmentanddecisionmaking.[116]
Positiveaffectrelations
AccordingtoAliceIsen,positiveaffecthasthreeprimaryeffectsoncognitiveactivity:
1.Positiveaffectmakesadditionalcognitivematerialavailableforprocessing,increasingthenumberofcognitiveelementsavailableforassociation
2.Positiveaffectleadstodefocusedattentionandamorecomplexcognitivecontext,increasingthebreadthofthoseelementsthataretreatedas
relevanttotheproblem
3.Positiveaffectincreasescognitiveflexibility,increasingtheprobabilitythatdiversecognitiveelementswillinfactbecomeassociated.Together,
theseprocessesleadpositiveaffecttohaveapositiveinfluenceoncreativity.
BarbaraFredricksoninherbroadenandbuildmodelsuggeststhatpositiveemotionssuchasjoyandlovebroadenaperson'savailablerepertoireof
cognitionsandactions,thusenhancingcreativity.
Accordingtotheseresearchers,positiveemotionsincreasethenumberofcognitiveelementsavailableforassociation(attentionscope)andthenumber
ofelementsthatarerelevanttotheproblem(cognitivescope).
Variousmetaanalyses,suchasBaasetal.(2008)of66studiesaboutcreativityandaffectsupportthelinkbetweencreativityandpositiveaffect.[117][118]
Creativityandartificialintelligence
JrgenSchmidhuber'sformaltheoryofcreativity[119][120]postulatesthatcreativity,curiosity,andinterestingnessarebyproductsofasimple
computationalprincipleformeasuringandoptimizinglearningprogress.Consideranagentabletomanipulateitsenvironmentandthusitsownsensory
inputs.Theagentcanuseablackboxoptimizationmethodsuchasreinforcementlearningtolearn(throughinformedtrialanderror)sequencesof
actionsthatmaximizetheexpectedsumofitsfuturerewardsignals.Thereareextrinsicrewardsignalsforachievingexternallygivengoals,suchas
findingfoodwhenhungry.ButSchmidhuber'sobjectivefunctiontobemaximizedalsoincludesanadditional,intrinsictermtomodel"woweffects."
Thisnonstandardtermmotivatespurelycreativebehavioroftheagentevenwhentherearenoexternalgoals.Awoweffectisformallydefinedas
follows.Astheagentiscreatingandpredictingandencodingthecontinuallygrowinghistoryofactionsandsensoryinputs,itkeepsimprovingthe
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predictororencoder,whichcanbeimplementedasanartificialneuralnetworkorsomeothermachinelearningdevicethatcanexploitregularitiesinthe
datatoimproveitsperformanceovertime.Theimprovementscanbemeasuredprecisely,bycomputingthedifferenceincomputationalcosts(storage
size,numberofrequiredsynapses,errors,time)neededtoencodenewobservationsbeforeandafterlearning.Thisdifferencedependsontheencoder's
presentsubjectiveknowledge,whichchangesovertime,butthetheoryformallytakesthisintoaccount.Thecostdifferencemeasuresthestrengthofthe
present"woweffect"duetosuddenimprovementsindatacompressionorcomputationalspeed.Itbecomesanintrinsicrewardsignalfortheaction
selector.Theobjectivefunctionthusmotivatestheactionoptimizertocreateactionsequencescausingmorewoweffects.Irregular,randomdata(or
noise)donotpermitanywoweffectsorlearningprogress,andthusare"boring"bynature(providingnoreward).Alreadyknownandpredictable
regularitiesalsoareboring.Temporarilyinterestingareonlytheinitiallyunknown,novel,regularpatternsinbothactionsandobservations.This
motivatestheagenttoperformcontinual,openended,active,creativeexploration.
AccordingtoSchmidhuber,hisobjectivefunctionexplainstheactivitiesofscientists,artists,andcomedians.[121][122]Forexample,physicistsare
motivatedtocreateexperimentsleadingtoobservationsobeyingpreviouslyunpublishedphysicallawspermittingbetterdatacompression.Likewise,
composersreceiveintrinsicrewardforcreatingnonarbitrarymelodieswithunexpectedbutregularharmoniesthatpermitwoweffectsthroughdata
compressionimprovements.Similarly,acomediangetsintrinsicrewardfor"inventinganoveljokewithanunexpectedpunchline,relatedtothe
beginningofthestoryinaninitiallyunexpectedbutquicklylearnablewaythatalsoallowsforbettercompressionoftheperceiveddata."[123]
Schmidhuberarguesthatongoingcomputerhardwareadvanceswillgreatlyscaleuprudimentaryartificialscientistsandartistsbasedonsimple
implementationsofthebasicprinciplesince1990.[124]Heusedthetheorytocreatelowcomplexityart[125]andanattractivehumanface.[126]
Mentalhealth
AstudybypsychologistJ.PhilippeRushtonfoundcreativitytocorrelatewithintelligenceandpsychoticism.[127]Anotherstudyfoundcreativitytobe
greaterinschizotypalthanineithernormalorschizophrenicindividuals.Whiledivergentthinkingwasassociatedwithbilateralactivationofthe
prefrontalcortex,schizotypalindividualswerefoundtohavemuchgreateractivationoftheirrightprefrontalcortex.[128]Thisstudyhypothesizesthat
suchindividualsarebetterataccessingbothhemispheres,allowingthemtomakenovelassociationsatafasterrate.Inagreementwiththishypothesis,
ambidexterityisalsoassociatedwithschizotypalandschizophrenicindividuals.ThreerecentstudiesbyMarkBateyandAdrianFurnhamhave
demonstratedtherelationshipsbetweenschizotypal[129][130]andhypomanicpersonality[131]andseveraldifferentmeasuresofcreativity.
Particularlystronglinkshavebeenidentifiedbetweencreativityandmooddisorders,particularlymanicdepressivedisorder(a.k.a.bipolardisorder)and
depressivedisorder(a.k.a.unipolardisorder).InTouchedwithFire:ManicDepressiveIllnessandtheArtisticTemperament,KayRedfieldJamison
summarizesstudiesofmooddisorderratesinwriters,poets,andartists.Shealsoexploresresearchthatidentifiesmooddisordersinsuchfamous
writersandartistsasErnestHemingway(whoshothimselfafterelectroconvulsivetreatment),VirginiaWoolf(whodrownedherselfwhenshefelta
depressiveepisodecomingon),composerRobertSchumann(whodiedinamentalinstitution),andeventhefamedvisualartistMichelangelo.
Astudylookingat300,000personswithschizophrenia,bipolardisorder,orunipolardepression,andtheirrelatives,foundoverrepresentationincreative
professionsforthosewithbipolardisorderaswellasforundiagnosedsiblingsofthosewithschizophreniaorbipolardisorder.Therewasnooverall
overrepresentation,butoverrepresentationforartisticoccupations,amongthosediagnosedwithschizophrenia.Therewasnoassociationforthosewith
unipolardepressionortheirrelatives.[132]
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Anotherstudyinvolvingmorethanonemillionpeople,conductedbySwedishresearchersattheKarolinskaInstitute,reportedanumberofcorrelations
betweencreativeoccupationsandmentalillnesses.Writershadahigherriskofanxietyandbipolardisorders,schizophrenia,unipolardepression,and
substanceabuse,andwerealmosttwiceaslikelyasthegeneralpopulationtokillthemselves.Dancersandphotographerswerealsomorelikelytohave
bipolardisorder.[133]
However,asagroup,thoseinthecreativeprofessionswerenomorelikelytosufferfrompsychiatricdisordersthanotherpeople,althoughtheywere
morelikelytohaveacloserelativewithadisorder,includinganorexiaand,tosomeextent,autism,theJournalofPsychiatricResearchreports.[133]
AccordingtopsychologistRobertEpstein,PhD,creativitycanbeobstructedthroughstress.[134]
Creativityandpersonality
Creativitycanbeexpressedinanumberofdifferentforms,dependingonuniquepeopleandenvironments.Anumberofdifferenttheoristshave
suggestedmodelsofthecreativeperson.Onemodelsuggeststhattherearekindstoproducegrowth,innovation,speed,etc.Thesearereferredtoasthe
four"CreativityProfiles"thatcanhelpachievesuchgoals.[135]
(i)Incubate(LongtermDevelopment)
(ii)Imagine(BreakthroughIdeas)
(iii)Improve(IncrementalAdjustments)
(iv)Invest(ShorttermGoals)
ResearchbyDrMarkBateyofthePsychometricsatWorkResearchGroupatManchesterBusinessSchoolhassuggestedthatthecreativeprofilecanbe
explainedbyfourprimarycreativitytraitswithnarrowfacetswithineach
(i)"IdeaGeneration"(Fluency,Originality,IncubationandIllumination)
(ii)"Personality"(CuriosityandToleranceforAmbiguity)
(iii)"Motivation"(Intrinsic,ExtrinsicandAchievement)
(iv)"Confidence"(Producing,SharingandImplementing)
Thismodelwasdevelopedinasampleof1000workingadultsusingthestatisticaltechniquesofExploratoryFactorAnalysisfollowedbyConfirmatory
FactorAnalysisbyStructuralEquationModelling.[136]
Animportantaspectofthecreativityprofilingapproachistoaccountforthetensionbetweenpredictingthecreativeprofileofanindividual,as
characterisedbythepsychometricapproach,andtheevidencethatteamcreativityisfoundedondiversityanddifference.[137]
Onecharacteristicofcreativepeople,asmeasuredbysomepsychologists,iswhatiscalleddivergentproduction.divergentproductionistheabilityofa
persontogenerateadiverseassortment,yetanappropriateamountofresponsestoagivensituation.[138]Onewayofmeasuringdivergentproductionis
byadministeringtheTorranceTestsofCreativeThinking.[139]TheTorranceTestsofCreativeThinkingassessesthediversity,quantity,and
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appropriatenessofparticipantsresponsestoavarietyofopenendedquestions.
Otherresearchersofcreativityseethedifferenceincreativepeopleasacognitiveprocessofdedicationtoproblemsolvinganddevelopingexpertisein
thefieldoftheircreativeexpression.Hardworkingpeoplestudytheworkofpeoplebeforethemandwithintheircurrentarea,becomeexpertsintheir
fields,andthenhavetheabilitytoaddtoandbuilduponpreviousinformationininnovativeandcreativeways.Inastudyofprojectsbydesignstudents,
studentswhohadmoreknowledgeontheirsubjectonaveragehadgreatercreativitywithintheirprojects.[140]
Theaspectofmotivationwithinaperson'spersonalitymaypredictcreativitylevelsintheperson.Motivationstemsfromtwodifferentsources,intrinsic
andextrinsicmotivation.Intrinsicmotivationisaninternaldrivewithinapersontoparticipateorinvestasaresultofpersonalinterest,desires,hopes,
goals,etc.Extrinsicmotivationisadrivefromoutsideofapersonandmighttaketheformofpayment,rewards,fame,approvalfromothers,etc.
Althoughextrinsicmotivationandintrinsicmotivationcanbothincreasecreativityincertaincases,strictlyextrinsicmotivationoftenimpedescreativity
inpeople.[141]
Fromapersonalitytraitsperspective,thereareanumberoftraitsthatareassociatedwithcreativityinpeople.[142]Creativepeopletendtobemoreopen
tonewexperiences,aremoreselfconfident,aremoreambitious,selfaccepting,impulsive,driven,dominant,andhostile,comparedtopeoplewithless
creativity.
Fromanevolutionaryperspective,creativitymaybearesultoftheoutcomeofyearsofgeneratingideas.Asideasarecontinuouslygenerated,theneed
toevolveproducesaneedfornewideasanddevelopments.Asaresult,peoplehavebeencreatinganddevelopingnew,innovative,andcreativeideasto
buildourprogressasasociety.[143]
Instudyingexceptionallycreativepeopleinhistory,somecommontraitsinlifestyleandenvironmentareoftenfound.Creativepeopleinhistoryusually
hadsupportiveparents,butrigidandnonnurturing.Mosthadaninterestintheirfieldatanearlyage,andmosthadahighlysupportiveandskilled
mentorintheirfieldofinterest.Oftenthefieldtheychosewasrelativelyuncharted,allowingfortheircreativitytobeexpressedmoreinafieldwithless
previousinformation.Mostexceptionallycreativepeopledevotedalmostalloftheirtimeandenergyintotheircraft,andafteraboutadecadehada
creativebreakthroughoffame.Theirlivesweremarkedwithextremededicationandacycleofhardworkandbreakthroughsasaresultoftheir
determination.[144]
Anothertheoryofcreativepeopleistheinvestmenttheoryofcreativity.Thisapproachsuggestthattherearemanyindividualandenvironmentalfactors
thatmustexistinprecisewaysforextremelyhighlevelsofcreativityopposedtoaveragelevelsofcreativity.Intheinvestmentsense,apersonwiththeir
particularcharacteristicsintheirparticularenvironmentmayseeanopportunitytodevotetheirtimeandenergyintosomethingthathasbeenoverlooked
byothers.Thecreativepersondevelopsanundervaluedorunderrecognisedideatothepointthatitisestablishedasanewandcreativeidea.Justlikein
thefinancialworld,someinvestmentsareworththebuyin,whileothersarelessproductiveanddonotbuildtotheextentthattheinvestorexpected.
Thisinvestmenttheoryofcreativityviewscreativityinauniqueperspectivecomparedtoothers,byassertingthatcreativitymightrelytosomeextenton
therightinvestmentofeffortbeingaddedtoafieldattherighttimeintherightway.[145]
Creativityacrosscultures
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Creativityisvieweddifferentlyindifferentcountries.[146]Forexample,crossculturalresearchcentredonHongKongfoundthatWesternersview
creativitymoreintermsoftheindividualattributesofacreativeperson,suchastheiraesthetictaste,whileChinesepeopleviewcreativitymoreinterms
ofthesocialinfluenceofcreativepeoplee.g.whattheycancontributetosociety.[147]Mpofuetal.surveyed28Africanlanguagesandfoundthat27had
nowordwhichdirectlytranslatedto'creativity'(theexceptionbeingArabic).[148]Theprincipleoflinguisticrelativity,i.e.thatlanguagecanaffect
thought,suggeststhatthelackofanequivalentwordfor'creativity'mayaffecttheviewsofcreativityamongspeakersofsuchlanguages.However,
moreresearchwouldbeneededtoestablishthis,andthereiscertainlynosuggestionthatthislinguisticdifferencemakespeopleanyless(ormore)
creativeAfricahasarichheritageofcreativepursuitssuchasmusic,art,andstorytelling.Nevertheless,itistruethattherehasbeenverylittleresearch
oncreativityinAfrica,[149]andtherehasalsobeenverylittleresearchoncreativityinLatinAmerica.[150]Creativityhasbeenmorethoroughly
researchedinthenorthernhemisphere,buthereagainthereareculturaldifferences,evenbetweencountriesorgroupsofcountriesincloseproximity.
Forexample,inScandinaviancountries,creativityisseenasanindividualattitudewhichhelpsincopingwithlife'schallenges,[151]whileinGermany,
creativityisseenmoreasaprocessthatcanbeappliedtohelpsolveproblems.[152]
Inorganizations
Ithasbeenthetopicofvariousresearchstudiestoestablishthatorganizationaleffectivenessdependsonthe
creativityoftheworkforcetoalargeextent.Foranygivenorganization,measuresofeffectivenessvary,
dependinguponitsmission,environmentalcontext,natureofwork,theproductorserviceitproduces,and
customerdemands.Thus,thefirststepinevaluatingorganizationaleffectivenessistounderstandthe
organizationitselfhowitfunctions,howitisstructured,andwhatitemphasizes.
Amabile[153]arguedthattoenhancecreativityinbusiness,threecomponentswereneeded:
Expertise(technical,proceduralandintellectualknowledge),
Creativethinkingskills(howflexiblyandimaginativelypeopleapproachproblems),
andMotivation(especiallyintrinsicmotivation).
Therearetwotypesofmotivation:
extrinsicmotivationexternalfactors,forexamplethreatsofbeingfiredormoneyasareward,
intrinsicmotivationcomesfrominsideanindividual,satisfaction,enjoymentofwork,etc.
Trainingmeetinginanecodesign
stainlesssteelcompanyinBrazil.The
leadersamongotherthingswishto
cheerandencouragetheworkersin
ordertoachieveahigherlevelof
creativity.
Sixmanagerialpracticestoencouragemotivationare:
Challengematchingpeoplewiththerightassignments
Freedomgivingpeopleautonomychoosingmeanstoachievegoals
Resourcessuchastime,money,space,etc.Theremustbebalancefitamongresourcesandpeople
Workgroupfeaturesdiverse,supportiveteams,wherememberssharetheexcitement,willingnesstohelp,andrecognizeeachother'stalents
Supervisoryencouragementrecognitions,cheering,praising
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Organizationalsupportvalueemphasis,informationsharing,collaboration.
Nonaka,whoexaminedseveralsuccessfulJapanesecompanies,similarlysawcreativityandknowledgecreationasbeingimportanttothesuccessof
organizations.[154]Inparticular,heemphasizedtherolethattacitknowledgehastoplayinthecreativeprocess.
Inbusiness,originalityisnotenough.Theideamustalsobeappropriateusefulandactionable.[155][156]Creativecompetitiveintelligenceisanew
solutiontosolvethisproblem.AccordingtoReijoSiltalaitlinkscreativitytoinnovationprocessandcompetitiveintelligencetocreativeworkers.
Creativitycanbeencouragedinpeopleandprofessionalsandintheworkplace.Itisessentialforinnovation,andisafactoraffectingeconomicgrowth
andbusinesses.In2013,thesociologistSilviaLealMartn,usingtheInnova3DXmethod,suggestedmeasuringthevariousparametersthatencourage
creativityandinnovation:corporateculture,workenvironment,leadershipandmanagement,creativity,selfesteemandoptimism,locusofcontroland
learningorientation,motivation,andfear.[157]
Economicviewsofcreativity
Economicapproachestocreativityhavefocussedonthreeaspectstheimpactofcreativityoneconomicgrowth,methodsofmodellingmarketsfor
creativity,andthemaximisationofeconomiccreativity(innovation).
Intheearly20thcentury,JosephSchumpeterintroducedtheeconomictheoryofcreativedestruction,todescribethewayinwhicholdwaysofdoing
thingsareendogenouslydestroyedandreplacedbythenew.Someeconomists(suchasPaulRomer)viewcreativityasanimportantelementinthe
recombinationofelementstoproducenewtechnologiesandproductsand,consequently,economicgrowth.Creativityleadstocapital,andcreative
productsareprotectedbyintellectualpropertylaws.
MarkA.RuncoandDanielRubensonhavetriedtodescribea"psychoeconomic"modelofcreativity.[158]Insuchamodel,creativityistheproductof
endowmentsandactiveinvestmentsincreativitythecostsandbenefitsofbringingcreativeactivitytomarketdeterminethesupplyofcreativity.Such
anapproachhasbeencriticisedforitsviewofcreativityconsumptionasalwayshavingpositiveutility,andforthewayitanalysesthevalueoffuture
innovations.[159]
Thecreativeclassisseenbysometobeanimportantdriverofmoderneconomies.Inhis2002book,TheRiseoftheCreativeClass,economistRichard
Floridapopularizedthenotionthatregionswith"3T'sofeconomicdevelopment:Technology,TalentandTolerance"alsohavehighconcentrationsof
creativeprofessionalsandtendtohaveahigherlevelofeconomicdevelopment.
Fosteringcreativity
DanielPink,inhis2005bookAWholeNewMind,repeatingargumentsposedthroughoutthe20thcentury,arguesthatweareenteringanewagewhere
creativityisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Inthisconceptualage,wewillneedtofosterandencouragerightdirectedthinking(representing
creativityandemotion)overleftdirectedthinking(representinglogical,analyticalthought).However,thissimplificationof'right'versus'left'brain
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thinkingisnotsupportedbytheresearchdata.[160]
Nickerson[161]providesasummaryofthevariouscreativitytechniquesthathavebeenproposed.Theseincludeapproachesthathavebeendevelopedby
bothacademiaandindustry:
1.Establishingpurposeandintention
2.Buildingbasicskills
3.Encouragingacquisitionsofdomainspecificknowledge
4.Stimulatingandrewardingcuriosityandexploration
5.Buildingmotivation,especiallyinternalmotivation
6.Encouragingconfidenceandawillingnesstotakerisks
7.Focusingonmasteryandselfcompetition
8.Promotingsupportablebeliefsaboutcreativity
9.Providingopportunitiesforchoiceanddiscovery
10.Developingselfmanagement(metacognitiveskills)
11.Teachingtechniquesandstrategiesforfacilitatingcreativeperformance
12.Providingbalance
Someseetheconventionalsystemofschoolingas"stifling"ofcreativityandattempt(particularlyinthepreschool/kindergartenandearlyschoolyears)
toprovideacreativityfriendly,rich,imaginationfosteringenvironmentforyoungchildren.[161][162][163]Researchershaveseenthisasimportantbecause
technologyisadvancingoursocietyatanunprecedentedrateandcreativeproblemsolvingwillbeneededtocopewiththesechallengesasthey
arise.[163]Inadditiontohelpingwithproblemsolving,creativityalsohelpsstudentsidentifyproblemswhereothershavefailedtodoso.[161][162][164]See
theWaldorfSchoolasanexampleofaneducationprogramthatpromotescreativethought.
Promotingintrinsicmotivationandproblemsolvingaretwoareaswhereeducatorscanfostercreativityinstudents.Studentsaremorecreativewhen
theyseeataskasintrinsicallymotivating,valuedforitsownsake.[162][163][165][166]Topromotecreativethinking,educatorsneedtoidentifywhat
motivatestheirstudentsandstructureteachingaroundit.Providingstudentswithachoiceofactivitiestocompleteallowsthemtobecomemore
intrinsicallymotivatedandthereforecreativeincompletingthetasks.[161][167]
Teachingstudentstosolveproblemsthatdonothavewelldefinedanswersisanotherwaytofostertheircreativity.Thisisaccomplishedbyallowing
studentstoexploreproblemsandredefinethem,possiblydrawingonknowledgethatatfirstmayseemunrelatedtotheprobleminordertosolve
it.[161][162][163][165]
Severaldifferentresearchershaveproposedmethodsofincreasingthecreativityofanindividual.Suchideasrangefromthepsychologicalcognitive,
suchasOsbornParnesCreativeProblemSolvingProcess,Synectics,sciencebasedcreativethinking,PurdueCreativeThinkingProgram,andEdward
deBono'slateralthinkingtothehighlystructured,suchasTRIZ(theTheoryofInventiveProblemSolving)anditsvariantAlgorithmofInventive
ProblemSolving(developedbytheRussianscientistGenrichAltshuller),andComputerAidedmorphologicalanalysis.
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Creativityhasalsobeenidentifiedasoneofthekey21stcenturyskillsandasoneoftheFourCsof21stcenturylearningbyeducationalleadersand
theoristsintheUnitedStates.
Listofacademicjournalsaddressingcreativity
CreativityResearchJournal
Creativity.TheoriesResearch
Applications
InternationalJournalofCreative
Computing
InternationalJournalofCreativityand
InternationalJournalofCreativityand
ProblemSolving
JournalofCreativeBehavior
PsychologyofAesthetics,Creativity,and
theArts
ThinkingSkillsandCreativity
ThinkingSkillsandCreativity
Greatness
Heroictheoryofinventionandscientific
development
Innovation
Invention(suchas"artisticinvention"in
thevisualarts)
Lateralthinking
Learnedindustriousness
Learnedindustriousness
Malevolentcreativity
Multiplediscovery
Musictherapy
Musicalimprovisation
WhyManCreates(film)
Seealso
Adaptiveperformance
Brainstorming
Computationalcreativity
Confabulation(neuralnetworks)
Escape,atechnologyandapproachthat
looksspecificallyattheassessmentof
creativityandcollaboration.
Greatness
Notes
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Chungyuan,Chang(1970).CreativityandTaoism,AStudyofChinesePhilosophy,Art,andPoetry.NewYork:HarperTorchbooks.ISBN006
1319686.
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Robinson,Andrew(2010).SuddenGenius?:TheGradualPathtoCreativeBreakthroughs.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN978019
9569953.Laysummary(24November2010).
TheRootsofHumanGeniusAreDeeperThanExpected(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=creativityrootshumangeniusdeeper
thanexpected)(March10,2013)ScientificAmerican
IsaacAsimov(20141020)onCultivatingCreativity(http://www.technologyreview.com/view/531911/isaacasimovmullshowdopeoplegetne
wideas/)
JohnCleese(20140808)onFosteringCreativity(http://www.fastcocreate.com/1680999/4lessonsincreativityfromjohncleese)
Externallinks
Videos
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