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Chlorine (Cl2)
Methane (CH4)
Water (H2O)
Br2 is liquid at RTP. VDW forces are keeping the bromine molecules
together at room temperatures.
In some molecules, dipole is permanent. (Polar molecules)
Forces between two molecules having permanent dipoles
permanent dipole-dipole forces.
The attractive force between the S+ charge and the S- charge on a
neighboring molecule causes a weak attractive force between
molecules.
Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonded substances have high melting and boiling points.
water has a much higher enthalpy change of vaporization and
boiling point than expected due to hydrogen bonding.
Most solids are denser than their liquids because molecules are
more packed.
However, in ice, there is a 3D hydrogen-bonded network of water
molecules.
Produces a rigid lattice where each oxygen atom is surrounded by a
tetrahedron of hydrogen atoms, allows water molecules to be
slightly further apart than in liquid.
States of Matter
4.1 a) state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an
ideal gas
gases move randomly and rapidly
volume of molecules is negligible
no forces of attraction between molecules
all collisions are perfectly elastic.
Temperature of gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.
If a theoretical gas fits this description, it is an ideal gas.
However the gases we encounter are real gases.
4.1 b) explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and molecular
size:
(i) the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal behaviour
The volume a gas occupies depends on: its pressure in pascals (Pa)
and its temperature (K)
Gases behave more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and
lower pressure, as potential energy due to intermolecular forces
becomes less significant compared with the particles kinetic energy.
An ideal gas will have a volume that varies in proportion to its
temperature and exactly in inverse proportion to its pressure.
(ii) the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low
temperatures
There is not zero attraction between molecules
The volumes of molecules are not negligible.
These differences are easy to notice at high pressures and low
temps.
At high pressures and low temps, the molecules are close together,
without negligible volume, with forces between them.
4.1 c) state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations,
including the determination of Mr
General gas equation: pV=nRT
P= pressure (Pa), V=volume of gas in cubic metres (cm3), n=moles,
R=8.31 JK-1mol-1, T= temperature change (K)
We can find Mr using the general gas equation, because n=m/M
4.2 a) describe, using a kinetic-molecular model, the liquid state, melting,
vaporisation, vapour pressure.
Behaviour of liquids
When a solid is heated, energy transferred to the solid makes the
particles vibrate more frequently.
Forces of attraction between particles weaken.
Solid changes to a liquid if temp is high enough.
When liquid is cooled, kinetic energy is lost, so increase forces of
attraction.
They stop sliding past each other when temperature is too low, form
solid.
Vaporization
When we heat a liquid, the energy transferred to liquid makes the
particles move faster
Greater forces of attraction between particles weaken.
Particles with most energy escape first as a gas.
Liquid boils at boiling point.
Enthalpy change of vaporization: the energy change required to
change one mole of a liquid to one mole of a gas.
When water vapour cools, particles lose kinetic energy and it
liquefies.
This is condensation.
4.3 a) describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid
which is:
(i) ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide
Ionic lattice have 3D arrangement of alternating positive and
negative ions.
They are hard, brittle, have high mp and bp, are soluble in water
and conduct electricity in solution or when molten.
(ii) simple molecular, as in iodine and the fullerene allotropes of carbon
(C60 and nanotubes only)
Form crystals due to regular packing of molecules in a lattice
structure.
Distance between nuclei of neighboring iodine molecules is greater
than the distance between the nuclei within the iodine molecule
because forces between molecules are weak VDW forces.
Fullerenes: contain rings of carbon arranged in hexagons and
contain many rings of carbon in pentagons.
(iii) giant molecular, as in silicon(IV) oxide and the graphite, diamond and
graphene allotropes of carbon
Silicon (IV) oxide: each silicon atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms.
Each oxygen atom bonded to 2 silicon atoms.
Graphene: single isolated layer of graphite. Can be distorted. Most
chemically reactive form of carbon. Very strong.
Graphite: carbon atoms arranged in planar layers. Have a cloud of
delocalized electrons above and below the plane of the carbon
rings.
Diamond: each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms. Have giant crystalline structure.
(v) metallic, as in copper
Arranged in metallic lattice
Have high electrostatic forces between cations and sea of electrons
Are ductile, malleable, etc because layers can slide over each other
and electrostatic bonds hold them together.
Sea of electrons can carry heat and charge so is good conductor.
Enthalpy
5.1 a) explain that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy
changes, principally in the form of heat energy; the energy changes can
be exothermic (H is negative) or endothermic (H is positive)
When there is a chemical reaction, there is an energy change. May
be heat, light, sound, or electrical energy.
Exothermic reactions release energy to surroundings, temperature
of outside increases. (eg combustion of fuels, oxidation of
carbohydrates)
Endothermic reactions absorb energy from surroundings,
temperature of outside decreases. (eg decomposition of limestone,
photosynthesis)
5.1 b) explain and use the terms:
(i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with particular
reference to: formation, combustion, hydration, solution, neutralisation,
atomisation
All enthalpy changes occur under standard conditions.
Standard enthalpy of formation
When one mole of a compound is formed from its elements under
standard conditions and all reactants and products in their standard
states.
Formation of any element is zero.