Vine Biology and Function

Presented by Mary Retallack for

Recommended Reading

We will cover the following topics

Cell structure and function
Types of plant tissues (meristematic, dermal, photosynthetic,
cortex and vascular)

Grapevine Anatomy (roots, shoots, buds, leaves, flowering,

fruit development)

Photosynthesis, Translocation, Transpiration, Respiration

And how this relates to vineyard management!

Introductions
What would you like to find out more about today?

What is currently happening

in the vineyard?

Growth (Meristematic) tissue

Meristematic cells divide to make more cells, allowing the
vine to grow.
They occur in the buds, root tips and shoot tips.

Growth (Meristematic) tissue

The cambium layer of the vine stem is an example of a
secondary meristem because it enables organs to grow in
thickness. When it is cut (damaged) it produces callus
tissue.

Wood (inner) and Bark (outer) Cells

Wood contains two main cell types

Xylem cells, through which water and nutrients flow

Ray (parenchyma) cells, which store food (starch
and proteins)
Bark contains two different cell types
Phloem through which sugars and other nutrients
move from one part of the vine to another
Cork (phellum) cells which protect the vines inner
tissues.

Protection (dermal cells)

Outermost layer of cells (epidermis)
The bark of the vine protects the inner
cells from physical damage, pest invasion
and winter loss.
The epidermis of leaves and stems may
contain guard cells and hairs.

Photosynthetic Tissue
Chloroplasts are the sugar producing cells (mainly found in
leaves).
The chlorophyll in
these cells enables
the process of
photosynthesis to
occur.

Parenchyma (storage cells)

Living cells with large central
vacuoles (storage of
substances) and thin but
flexible cell walls
They form the cortex and pith
of stems, the cortex of roots,
the pulp of fruits and the
mesophyll of leaves
(containing chloroplasts).

Collenchyma (living outer most cells)

These cells form a complete
cylinder around the stem
Elongated cells with thicker
cell walls (cellulose)
providing strength and
flexibility to stems and
leaves

Sclerenchyma (support cells)

Similar to collenchyma cells
but have additional lignin
fibres in their cell walls
which add strength and
support to the plan body.
As these fibres mature and
die they leave a hard
skeleton of lignin fibres.

Vascular (conducting tissue) Xylem

Xylem Conveys water and dissolved
minerals upward from roots into the
shoot

Consisting of elongated cells called

tracheids and vessel elements along
with supporting fibres and
parenchyma cells.
The vessel walls contain perforations
connected to the next vessels in the
line (which facilitate the movement of
water and dissolved substances).

Vascular (conducting tissue) Phloem

Phloem is the food or sugar conducting
tissue located on the inside of the bark.
Vertical rows of sieve tubes along with
supporting fibres and parenchyma cells.
A sieve tube plates connect each sieve tube
and controls the direction and flow of
dissolved substrates.

The movement of this sugar is always away

from the production site to a sink or where
it is to be utilised.

Dormant Ramsay
cutting
Section showing the small, thin
walled cells of the cambium
The large sieve tube cells and the
thick-walled fibre cells of the
phloem and xylem,
The ray cells which in the xylem
contain starch grains and

The large water-conducting xylem

vessel cells.

Anatomy of Vitis vinifera cane (A) and root (B)

Although the internal structure of the
vascular cylinder (phloem, xylem and
pith) is similar in Vitis stems and
roots, the relations of the various
tissues in the vascular cylinder differ
considerably.

rh rhytidoma (dead bark); co dead cortex;

ca cambium; pe periderm; phf phloem fibres;
pefi perivascular fibres; ph phloem; x xylem; pi pith,
11 medullary ray; and px residues of the primary xylem

Anatomy of Vitis vinifera cane (A) and root (B)

perivascular fibres

The anatomy of one year old cane (A) can

easily be distinguished from that of one year
old root (B)

Its strikingly larger pith

pith
Medullary rays

bark

phloem

Its numerous and narrower medullary rays

Its narrower phloem section

The presence of perivascular fibres outside

each vascular bundle
The presence of a thick dead bark

rh rhytidoma (dead bark); co dead cortex;

ca cambium; pe periderm; phf phloem fibres;
pefi perivascular fibres; ph phloem; x xylem; pi pith,
11 medullary ray; and px residues of the primary xylem

Support and Vascular

tissue of a stem/cane

Support and Vascular tissue of root

Root distribution
and function
Main roots, lateral roots and
feeder roots.
Feeder roots are formed
regularly during the growing
season, short lived, and
provide the large absorption
surface needed to supply the
vine with its nutrients and
water.

Root distribution
and function
Each root has at its end a
yellow coloured region
less than 2.5 cm long
containing the absorption
zone below this is the
zone of elongation

growing point
root cap

Zone of
maturation

Zone of
elongation

Zone of cell
division

The Casparian strip controls water movement

into the vascular cylinder of the root

Root functions

Anchorage
Water and nutrient absorption
Dissolved nutrients in the soil solution are absorbed by the
roots and diffuse into the vascular tissue (xylem)
Uptake of these nutrients depends on their concentration and
mobility in the soil, the uptake rate of the particular grape
variety and the soil temperatures (optimum 25-30oC).
Role of mychorrizal fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal root system and

hyphae
Beneficial organisms that
colonize plant roots
Assist in the update of
nutrients (Phosphorous)
Improve drought
tolerance
Improve resistance to
certain fungal diseases

Root functions

Storage of reserves
In late summer and autumn, carbohydrates are transferred for
storage in the root system to provide food reserves for the
future seasons growth.
Hormone production
Hormone production (gibberellin and cytokinin) by the roots
influences growth and development of the shoots and clusters
of the grapevine.

Root Distribution
Most of the roots are
concentrated in the
top metre of the soil
directly under the
vine canopy.

Apical meristem

Shoots
A shoot is the succulent stem
bearing the leaves, tendrils and
flower clusters (inflorescences) all
of the information required to
grow a shoot is contained within a
bud.

Leaf Function
Leaves undergo a gradual transition from
importing photosynthetic products to export (at
approximately 30-50% of the maximal size). Full
leaf expansion may take between 30 to 40 days.
Photosynthetic products from grapevine leaves are exported to the developing
apex and clusters.
Following harvest/fruit removal, the majority of photosynthates are directed
towards and stored in the roots.

Leaf fall or senescence normally begins in late autumn when minerals are
translocated (remobilised) back into the canes and trunk.

Compound and prompt buds

Each compound bud contains three partially

developed shoots (primary, secondary and
tertiary latent buds) enclosed in small leaf like
structures called bracts which develops in the
leaf axil.

A lateral shoot (summer lateral) grows from a

prompt bud in the leaf axil.
The prompt bud will grow into a lateral shoot in the
same season that it completes its development. The
lateral shoot develops soon after the leaf at the same
node has expanded.

Grapevine reproductive development

A) A developing latent bud showing an
early stage of uncommitted
primordium production.
B) A later stage showing an
uncommitted primordium, a leafopposed primordium, that has
separated from the shoot apical
meristem.
C) A dormant latent bud with an
inflorescence primordium on the
flank of the shoot apex.
D) A dissected shoot tip with an
immature tendril showing two
branches.
E) The structures found in the axil of a
grape leaf.
F) The typical architecture of Vitis
Vinifera shoots originating from
latent buds (Gibbard et al, 2003 pg
594).

Formation of grapevine
flowers (3 stages) - Anlagen
Anlagen (uncommitted primordia)
May develop into inflorescence primordia,
tendril primordia or shoot primordia.

Hormones
Giberellin (GA) applied to inflorescence
primordia can convert them to tendril like
structures.
Cytokinin can be used to induce inflorescence
formation in place of tendrils.

Formation of grapevine flowers (3 stages)

- Inflorescence primordia
The formation of inflorescence primordia takes place if the
anlage undergoes repeated branching to develop many
rounded branch primordia.

Stages in inflorescence development, May 2006 (left) and August 2006 (right) (Heaslewood, PowerPoint Presentation)

Formation of grapevine
flowers (3 stages)
Flower formation
The final stage is
flower formation
when the
inflorescence
primordia
differentiate to
form the flowers.

A) Young floral stage showing sepal/calyx development and

petal primordia. B) Immature flowers with sepals covering the
developing petals. C) Mature flowers with fused petals forming
the cap. D) A longitudinal section of a grapevine flower prior to
flowering and capfall. E) A hermaphroditic grapevine flower just
after capfall. F) Young berries forming by the expansion of the
pistil after pollination (Gibbard et al, 2003, pg 595).

Grapevine growth stages

Bud burst occurs in early spring when the average daily
temperatures reach about 10oC.
A period of slow growth for several weeks is followed by the
grand period of growth when shoot growth is very rapid (eg 2
- 3 centimetres per day).
It is important to ensure you start the season with a full soil
profile. Check soil moisture monitoring equipment if winter
rainfall has been lower than average and apply sufficient water
early in the season to avoid vine stress.

Grapevine growth stages

Flowering is the next stage as the caps fall; this usually occurs about
eight weeks after bud burst.
Cold rainy weather at flowering may reduce cap fall and subsequent fruit set.

Transition from an ovary to a berry (Dry, PowerPoint

Presentation).

Pollen tube growth in the grapevine flowers of

Cabernet Sauvignon (Collins, 2004).

Poor set can be caused by a number of factors

To be able to manage fruit set in the vineyard, growers need to consider

what factors affect fruit set at a particular site/vineyard, for example
Varietal susceptibility

Excess/lack of vigour
High and low temperatures
Exposure to wind

Nutrient deficiencies
Water stress

Good carbohydrate reserves may

help to buffer against the impacts
of poor weather conditions
An adequate supply of
carbohydrates from photosynthesis
may be more important for
achieving good fruit set.

Poor set - Terminology

Coulure occurs when many flowers fail to develop into

berries and drop (shatter) from the cluster within 10 days
of opening.
Hen and Chicken is a condition where there are a high
proportion of chicken berries on a bunch.
Millerendage is a condition characterised by berries
arrested at different stages of development and of
different berry sizes on the same bunch.
They may include but are not limited to live green ovaries (LGOs),
chickens or a combination of both. Bunches affected by millerendage
tend to be loose.

Management options for overcoming Poor set

Some management options available to growers to manipulate fruit set include

Shoot-tipping (at the start of flowering)

Application of plant growth regulators (cycocel applied 3 weeks pre-flowering)
Protective measures (wind breaks, cover crops, trees, physical barriers)

Time of pruning (late pruning to shift flowering into a warmer period)

Avoidance of water stress
Nutrient applications (B, P, Zn and Mo can affect fruit set)

Carbohydrate availability

Seeded berry development follows three

clearly defined stages
Stage 1: Rapid Growth (40 to 60 days)
The seed increases in size.
There is a rapid increase in
berry size to cell division in the
first two weeks, and some
expansion
The berry remains hard, acid is
high and sugar levels almost
constant.
Muscat Gordon Blanco cell division and expansion

Seeded berry development follows three

clearly defined stages (plus engustment)
Stage 2: A lag stage of nil or slow growth (7 to 40 days)
The lag phase is a period when either less growth or no growth in volume
occurs. The boundary between stage 2 and 3 is often unclear.

Stage 3: Growth resumes & maturation begins (approx 35 to 55 days)

The onset of Stage 3 is signalled by veraison, the point of sudden change in
colour as green berries become yellow or red depending on the variety.
During this stage, the berry softens, acid levels decrease, sugar is
accumulated, varietal flavours and aromas develop.
The rapid increase in berry volume is due to cell enlargement.

Berry Development
Appearance of berries at 10 day intervals revealing
the two successive sigmoid growth curves of a grape
berry, named berry formation and berry ripening.
Three generalised x-axes are shown, days after
flowering, approximate juice Brix values during
ripening and developmental growth stages using the
modified E-L system.
The key growth stages and the approximate timing
of the accumulation of major solutes are shown.
Top sketch indicating the relative activity of phloem
and xylem transport into the berry.
At bottom, scale drawings of anatomical features in
the longitudinal sections of developing grape seeds
at days, 4, 14, 28, 42 and 98 days after flowering
(Coombe and Iland, 2004).

Berry Anatomy
The grape berries are made
up of skin, pulp, and seeds.
The skin of grape berries
acquires different colours at
differing stages in the
growth cycle.
Pigments in the outer layer
called anthocyanins are
responsible for this
colouring

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigment which is
capable of absorbing energy from sunlight.

Photosynthesis

Light energy is used along with

water and carbon dioxide to
produce sugars and starch which
can be used to power plant
growth.
6H2O + 6CO2 + light energy (in the presence
of chlorophyll) > C6H12O6+ 6O2
Six molecules of water plus six molecules of
carbon dioxide produce one molecule of
sugar plus six molecules of oxygen.

Photosynthesis

The upper and lower surfaces of

the leaf are covered by the
cuticle. This is resistant to the
diffusion of water and gases.
The epidermis is below the cuticle
and chloroplasts are located
below the upper epidermis.
The epidermis contains the
stomata which are small openings
in the leaf surface

What Affects the Rate of Photosynthesis

Light intensity, quality (wavelengths) and duration

A single leaf in direct sunlight will absorb about 90% of
the suns radiation.

Stomata open and close in relation to sunlight.

They begin to open soon after dawn and are fully open at PAR
of about 200Em-2S-1. In grapevines no photosynthesis occurs
at low light levels, below about 30Em-2S-1. Or about 1.5% of
full sunlight.
As light intensity increases so does photosynthesis until about
1/3 full sunlight is reached or 700 Em-2S-1 (light saturated).

What Affects the Rate of Photosynthesis

Temperature The optimum temperature for photosynthesis is generally

between 20 and 30C (and optimally at about 24C). Below 10C there is
virtually no photosynthesis and it declines rapidly above 35C. Vine DNA
denatures at about 50 C.
Leaf age The rate of photosynthesis increases rapidly in a young
grapevine leaf during the period of rapid leaf expansion.
When it is one third its full size it exports more food than it uses and begins to contribute
to vine growth.
When the leaf reaches its full size (about 30 to 40 days after unfolding) it is
photosynthesising at its peak.
The rate of photosynthesis then gradually declines until the leaf becomes senescent.

Seasonal movement of photosynthates

Shoot tipping at the start

of flowering may help to
improve fruit set

5th leaf
starts to
transport

What Affects the Rate of Photosynthesis

Water Status Water availability affects the opening and closing of the
stomata and thus the entry of carbon dioxide into the leaves.
The amount of water available for photosynthesis is determined by,

The rate of transpiration (the capacity of the vine to replace lost moisture),
Humidity (the lower the humidity or the higher the wind speed, the greater
the water loss),
Mineral availability (especially nitrogen, iron and magnesium) which are
required to maintain leaf colour (if leaf chlorosis occurs then the
photosynthetic capacity will be reduced),
Stomata aperture (the opening and closing of stomata).

Practical considerations
The level of light reaching the leaves beneath the outer layer of the vine
canopy is generally less than required for maximum photosynthesis.
When trellising grapevines, the grower should be aiming to maximise the number of
leaves exposed to direct sunlight.

Vines carrying a heavy crop are able to photosynthesise at a higher rate

than vines carrying low crops.
Beyond this limit, growth, fruit maturity and carbohydrate reserves are reduced.

Vines that are stressed and wilt usually need some time to recover their
normal photosynthetic rate.
This is probably because wilting causes some structural damage to the leaf cells.

Translocation
Translocation is the process by which chemical materials and
nutrients are moved in the vine.
Sugars can be exported to the shoot tip, the grape cluster, the root
system and/or other permanent parts like the trunk for storage (sinks).
Stored foods flow in the phloem from the leaves to other parts of the
vine.

Mineral salts, water, etc, absorbed by the roots, flow upwards in the
xylem.

General grapevine plumbing system

Water is lost to the
atmosphere via the
transpiration process

Water moves
through the vine
inside the xylem
vessels carrying
nutrients in
solution.

Water and nutrients move into

the vine via the roots

Sugars and mobile

nutrients move both up
and down the vine in the
living system of the
phloem

Nutrient movement in grapevines

All minerals entering the vine roots from the soil must be in a water solution
(some ions are absorbed more readily than others)
Mobile nutrients (redistributed from old leaves to
the growing tip and deficiency symptoms evident on old
leaves first) N, P, K, Mg, Mn

Immobile nutrients

(distributed in the xylem in

one direction only, to the growing tip and deficiency
symptoms are often evident on younger leaves first)

Ca, B, Fe,

Variably mobile S, Cu, Mo, Zn

Nitrates quickly move to the leaves

where they are converted into amino
acids by chloroplasts.

Magnesium, iron and nitrogen are

needed by the leaves to produce
chlorophyll.
A shortage of these minerals can
cause a yellowing (chlorosis) of the
leaves.

Transpiration
Water absorbed by the roots is drawn
into the leaves from where it
evaporates in a process known as
transpiration. Nearly all vine
processes are dependent on water.
Up to 98% of water escapes from the
leaves and the stem as water vapour
(natural cooling process).
About 1% is used via photosynthesis
and another 1% is needed to keep the
cells firm (turgid).

Factors affecting transpiration

Humidity; Transpiration decreases as the humidity surrounding the leaves
increases. Conversely, a rise in humidity will slow transpiration.
Temperature; A rise in leaf temperature will increase transpiration.

Light Intensity; The temperature of the leaf is increased as the light

intensity increases and this increases the rate of transpiration.
The light level determines whether the stomates are open or closed. They are open in
the light and closed in the dark. They may also close on very hot windy days.

Wind; The wind movement over the leaf takes with it the layer of water
vapour accumulated near the surface thus increasing transpiration.

Factors affecting transpiration

Water content; Transpiration is influenced by both the water content of
the soil and the rate at which roots can absorb water.
The loss of water from the leaves in transpiration increases the power of the
roots to absorb water (water intake will only occur if their are feeder roots
present).
If water is limited for a considerable time, the vine stops growing, the older
leaves yellow and drop and the fruit becomes susceptible to sunburn.

Inadequate soil aeration slows down the water absorption rate of the roots.
This results in slow root growth and if conditions persist, the roots
disintegrate.

Stomata: CO2 and Transpiration

CO2 enters the leaf through
the stomata
Closing stomata reduces
transpiration but also
reduces the uptake of CO2
The rate of photosynthesis
is dependent on the CO2
concentration within the
leaf
Water loss and carbon gain
are directly linked

Respiration
Involves the breakdown of sugars (formed during
photosynthesis) and starch to release energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Glucose + Oxygen (in the presence of many enzymes) is converted to

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
The released energy is used by the vine for growth/fruit development and
maintenance of the vine itself (shoots, leaves and roots)

Respiration enables
Synthesis of complex molecules
Growth and repair of cells
Active transport of materials across
cell membranes
Extra energy for specials cells to
function
Transport of materials in the phloem

Comparison between photosynthesis and

respiration
The process of photosynthesis and respiration may appear to be
the reverse of each other. They are not.
The series of enzymes used in each process is different and the order of
reactions is not the reverse of each other.
Photosynthesis and respiration occur at the same time and are
interdependent.
In photosynthesis, energy is stored and in respiration, energy is released.

Comparison between photosynthesis and

respiration
Photosynthesis

Respiration

Produces sugars from energy

Burns sugars for energy

Energy is stored

Energy is released

Occurs only in cells with chloroplasts

Occurs in most cells

Oxygen is produced

Oxygen is used

Water is used

Water is produced

Carbon dioxide is used

Carbon dioxide is produced

Requires light

Occurs in dark and light

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management vine stress
Visual indicators of water stress in vines
The physiological reaction of a vine to water stress will depend on the
timing and level of stress during the season.

If an exposed vine leaf feels cool to touch the vine is transpiring water
through the stomata (when vines are stressed, stomata partially or
completely close, so transpiration ceases and the leaf feels warm).
On a particularly hot day, the leaves may fold to avoid the sun, and tendrils
will appear to wilt.
Berries may become less firm and start to shrivel

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management vine stress
Degree of
Stress

Vine Vigour

Vine Appearance

None

Vine healthy and shoot

tips growing vigorously
(early in season)

Shoot tip leaves light, bright green.

Slight
Moderate

Shoot tip leaves light, bright green.

Slowing of vine vigour
and shortening of inter
node length.

to High
High
High to
Very High

Other leaves dull green. Tendrils not wilting at midday.

Vine canopy growth

ceased

Other leaves dull green. Tendrils wilting at midday.

Shoot growth stopped. All leaves (including shoot tip
leaves) dull light green. Tendrils and shoot tips drooping.
Leaves folding, with backs to sun on hot days. Exposed
basal leaves yellow. Shoot tips dead.
Leaves folded, light green with burnt margins, shoots
drooping. Exposed basal leaves missing. Tendrils dead and
some missing.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management vine water requirements
Growth
Stage
Budburst to
flowering
Flowering
Set to
veraison
Veraison to
harvest
Harvest to
dormancy

Water use requirement

Dry condition prior to budburst and up to flowering may result in short or stunted shoot growth and
fewer flowers on the inflorescences.
As vines go through flowering, pollination and setting, they are extremely sensitive to water stress and
set will be poor if vines are allowed to dry out during this critical phase of development.
After flowering has concluded the vine canopy continues to grow until its maximum development. It is
at this time that Regulated Deficit Irrigation practices may be employed to reduce berry cell division and
subsequent cell elongation.
Grapevines can endure some stress during this period however try to minimise water stress up until to
harvest to ensure even ripening conditions. If the leaves are stressed they wilt and older leaves may fall
to the ground exposing the fruit zone. Despite these outward appearances of moisture stress the
berries will continue to increase in sugar.
After harvest the amount of moisture required by the vine is considerably lower but maintaining
adequate moisture levels is critical for the vine to accumulate carbohydrate reserves into the maturing
canes. Try to maintain active leaf function without encouraging new shoot growth.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management heatwaves
What is your strategy for heat waves?
Allocate a certain percentage of your irrigation budget for extreme weather events.
Vines planted on sandy soils will dry out quickly. Risk of crop loss is high. Vines may shut
down resulting in delayed or uneven ripening.
To minimise water used during heatwaves, make sure vines have water before the hottest
part of the day. Water at night or early in the morning.
Be willing to sacrifice a small part of the block to get the majority through without
creating excess vigour.
Be prepared to act quickly. You may need to forego a post-harvest irrigation to save this
seasons crop.

% of grapevine water requirements throughout

the growing season (NSW Ag 2004)
40%
35%
35%

36%

30%
25%
20%
15%
14%
10%
9%
5%

6%

0%
Budburst to
flowering

Flowering to Fruit
set

Fruit set to
Veraison

Veraison to
Harvest

Harvest to Leaf
fall

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought Related
Issue
Lack of early
season soil
moisture

Impact on Vine Biology

Significant reduction in vine

vigour and fruit set is likely if
Soil profile not full vines are stressed at the start of
the growing season.
at the end of
Winter

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Monitor soil moisture during

winter months and in the lead up
to budburst.
Apply an early season irrigation to
ensure the soil profile is full from
budburst if required.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought Related Issue Impact on Vine Biology

Less water available

Less water in dams,

rivers, lakes and
aquifers and
allocations of
irrigation water may
be reduced

Reduced water availability may result in

vine stress early in the growing season
Careful timing and use of available
irrigation water is critical to vine health.
Do not grow a large canopy if you do not
have the water to ripen a large crop or
maintain the additional shoot area.
Match the shoot length to the fruit
volume to be ripened (while providing
sufficient leaf area to protect the fruit).

Vineyard Management
Considerations
Develop an irrigation budget and
determine if additional water needs
to be purchased (if available and cost
benefit warrants additional
purchase).
Monitor vine growth carefully
ensuring irrigation is applied at key
times without encouraging excessive
shoot length.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought
Related Issue

Salinity
Irrigating with
saline water
(or where soil
salinity is high).

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management Considerations

All irrigation water contains

dissolved salts at some
concentration, as water is
transpired by the vine these salts
are left behind in the soil.

Consider applying an additional leaching irrigation in winter

following a rainfall event (if possible) and apply (pulse) irrigation
applications during the growing season to regularly push the salts
outside the root zone.

If saline irrigation water is applied

this is another source of salt
entering the soil.

Depending on level of water

salinity and the build up of salts in
the root zone, this may reduce
vine vigour and adversely impact
on vine health and fruit quality.

Minimise the use of fertilisers which may add to the salt load
being added to the root zone (some nutrients may be needed to
encourage vine vigour and maintain vine health).
Mound undervine to provide a larger area for roots to explore
(above an existing water table) and apply mulch undervine to
minimise water loss.
If replanting your vineyard consider planting onto salt resistant
rootstocks.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought Related Issue Impact on Vine Biology

Wind

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Stomata will close frequently in windy

conditions. Winds of 11 to 14 km/hr are
sufficient to cause the closure of
stomates.

This will reduce the level of transpiration

Often more wind with
and will also limit the production of
greater evaporation
photosynthates. Prolonged exposure to
windy conditions may result in shorter
shoot length and an adverse impact on
vine health.

Install windbreaks; apply undervine

mulch to maintain soil moisture.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought Related Issue Impact on Vine Biology

Frost
Intensity of frost
events may be higher
due to dry soils,
leading to
consumption of water
for frost mitigation.

Frost events can cause severe damage to

emerging shoots and dormant buds if it is
cold enough.

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Frost mitigation strategies (moist soil

If the primary bud (or shoot) is damaged surface, vegetation slashed, frost
the secondary shoot may grow to takes fans, overhead sprinklers, use of tiny
its place (the fruitfulness is likely to be tags to monitor temperature).
lower). You may find buds burst from non
Post frost management strategy?
count positions and they will need to be
removed either shoot thinning during the
growing season or at pruning time.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Drought Related
Issue

Impact on Vine Biology

Carbohydrate
reserves

Avoid significant vine stress as this will reduce

Grapevines rely on stored
the vine photosynthesis (and carbohydrate
carbohydrate reserves early in the production).
season for root and shoot growth Maintain the functioning leaf area post-harvest
(until leaves are 1/3 full size and
so the vines can produce and store
can contribute to the vines energy carbohydrate reserves (this is particularly
requirements).
important for higher yielding varieties). Apply

Vines stored
carbohydrate
(sugars and starch)
reserves are lower

Low vine carbohydrate reserves

will impact on vine vigour and
capacity to grow fruit.

Vineyard Management Considerations

sufficient water and fertiliser early in the

season to assist the vines in replenishing
carbohydrate reserves early in the growing
season

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Impact on Vine Biology

The majority of vine roots are concentrated in the

top metre of soil directly under the vine canopy.

Poor root
distribution

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Install drippers with closer emitter

Wide dripper spacings may create silos of
spacings or install additional
alternating wet and dry areas along the undervine drippers to maintain a wetted
area. This may result in the root area being
strip undervine.
naturally pruned due to the dry conditions.
This will encourage greater root
Vine roots produce a plant hormone called
exploration (mulch to retain water
abscisic acid (ABA) in response to stress. This
for longer).
signals for the rest of the vine to shut down until
conditions improve.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Vine Issues
(related to drought
conditions)
Short shoots
Shoot growth may be
less with fewer
functional leaves to
ripen the crop.

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management
Considerations

The potential for an

unbalanced (over cropped)
vine resulting in longer term
vine health issues and poor
fruit quality.

Apply irrigation to grow

sufficient shoot area to
ripen crop.
If the shoot length (or leaf
function) is reduced then
reduce the crop load
accordingly.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Impact on Vine Biology

Flowering
conditions
changed

Flowering may occur earlier in a drought

year than in a normal year. Frost, dry and
windy conditions during flowering are not
conducive for optimal set. High and/or
prolonged low temperatures can also
reduce set.

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Ensure vines are not moisture

stressed up to and during
flowering.
Be ready to apply pre-flowering
nutritional sprays at optimal
timing (Boron, Zinc etc).

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management drought conditions
Vine Issues
(related to drought
conditions)

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management Considerations

Ensure vines are not stressed to the point of

Basal leaf defoliation will reduce basal leaf loss.
the photosynthetic capacity of
Vine canopy stress
the vines (if the basal leaves are If hot weather (a heat wave) is forecast start
irrigating several days prior (preferably at night)
Stress may result in still functioning).
to reduce the level of vine stress experienced.
significant basal leaf
Lack of fruit protection may
loss, increasing the
result in uneven ripening, lower Maintain irrigation application throughout hot
risk of sunburn of
fruit quality (sunburn, phenolics weather (keep an eye on soil moisture
the fruit.
monitoring results or use a dig stick to
characters, berry shrivel) and
determine how deep the irrigation is going
lower yield.
down the profile).

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management general considerations
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Impact on Vine Biology

Match vines (variety and clone) to the site

Vineyard
to realise their full potential (soil,
development
topography, aspect).
Site potential,
Some vineyard sites are particularly windy
Row direction
and vines will struggle to grow well. Soil
(wind)
type may also be limiting.

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Carry out a thorough site

assessment prior to planting.
Plant vines parallel to the
prevailing wind and/or install
(or plant) a suitable windbreak
to protect the vines.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management general considerations
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Root
distribution
and health

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management Considerations

Root distribution and health will be

reduced in dry conditions, shallow
root zones, nematodes, waterlogged
environments (lack of aeration),
impervious soil layers etc.

Manage the rooting environment so it

is conducive to optimal root growth
(encourage roots to explore the soil
profile available to them, deep rip hard
pans, apply mulch to maintain soil
moisture and reduce surface
heat/reflection).

This will adversely impact on vine

health.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management general considerations
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Impact on Vine Biology

Vines appear to have one main peak of
root growth coinciding 4 to 6 weeks after
budburst (near flowering).

Nutrient
application
Application of
fertiliser

A second flush of root growth may occur

post-harvest but not to the same extent as
earlier in the growing season.

If fertilisers are mobile in the soil and

applied prior to the development of feeder
roots they may be leached through the
profile prior to the vines taking them up
(nitrogen).

Vineyard Management Considerations

Consider the best way to apply fertiliser. Macro

nutrients are needed in larger quantities (broadcast or
fertigate time with irrigation application) and
micronutrients are needed in smaller quantities (foliar
application).
Some nutrients are highly mobile and some are less
immobile this will affect the method of application.
Micro nutrients are best applied to the vine canopy.
Some foliar nutrients need to be applied at key times
ie during spring and/or pre-flowering.

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management general considerations
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

High
temperatures

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management
Considerations

Elevated tissue temperatures due to warming by sunlight are most

obvious on sunny and calm days. For example grape berries exposed
to bright sunlight on clam days can be warmed up to 15C above the
air temperature. Wind cools because it removes some of the stored
heat from the surface of the berry.

Vines with sufficient leaf area

to provide protection, a deep
root system tend to cope with
heat better than weak vines
with poor vigour.

Ensure sufficient irrigation is

In contrast grapevine leaves do not warm as much as berries as they
applied leading up to an
are cooled by transpiration.
during periods of high
Ambient leaf temperatures above about 50C are hot enough to temperatures.
denature the leaf DNA causing irreversible damage to the leaf Recovery from heat stress is
resulting in death and defoliation. Photosynthesis inhibition is usually rapid (2 to 5 days) if tissue
seen about 10C lower than the lethal temperature.
damage is avoided

Relating grapevine biology to vineyard

management general considerations
Vine Issues
(related to
drought
conditions)

Post harvest
care
Getting ready
for the next
growing
season

Impact on Vine Biology

Vineyard Management Considerations

Vines will export nutrients with

Maintain water application until leaf senescence (while there are
the fruit produced.
functioning leaves the vine will be transpiring and producing
It is important to maintain vine carbohydrates).
health and build up the vines
Apply post harvest fertiliser if functional leaves are present to replace
carbohydrate reserves prior to
nutrients removed at harvest. Post harvest uptake of nitrogen and
senescence.
phosphorous is important and to a lesser extent potassium,
Vines will continue to function magnesium and calcium.
normally while actively
Ensure you do not encourage new shoot growth at this time of year.
functioning leaves are present.
You will lose the opportunity to build the vines carbohydrate reserves
A second (smaller) flush of root
if the growing season is cut short unexpectedly ie due to frost or
growth may occur after
extreme stress (defoliation).
harvest.

Acknowledgements

The Advanced Viticulture series has developed on behalf of:

Funding for the Advanced Viticulture series has been provided by: