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Some concepts from Chapter 16 are briefly described here just to help the students. Therefore,
the following study material is expected to be useful but not exhaustive. For detailed study, the students
are advised to attend the lecture/tutorial classes regularly, and consult the text book (Thomas Calculus,
12th edition) prescribed in the hand out of the course. Report the typos in the document, if any, through
e-mail (suresh.kumar@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in). Suggestions are also welcome.
Appeal: Please do not print this document. Develop a habit of reading soft copy of the notes.
Contents
Line Integral of a scalar field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Parametrization of a surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
Smooth surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
13
14
16
Orientable surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Partition the curve C into k subarcs with lengths sk (k = 1, 2, ..., n) such that sk 0 as n .
Let (xk , yk , zk ) be a point on the kth subarc. Then the limit
lim
n
X
f (xk , yk , zk )sk ,
k=1
if exists, defines the line integral of f (x, y, z) along the curve C, and is written as
Z
n
X
f (x, y, z)ds =
f (xk , yk , zk )sk .
k=1
If the curve C is parametrized by x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t), and its end points A and B correspond
to the parameter values t = a and t = b, respectively, then
Z
Z B
Z b
ds
f (x, y, z)ds =
f (x, y, z)ds =
f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) dt,
dt
C
A
a
p
where ds
x0 (t)2 + y 0 (t)2 + z 0 (t)2 .
dt =
Ex. Integrate f (x, y, z) = x 3y 2 + z over the line segment C joining the origin to the point (1, 1, 1).
Sol. A simple parametrization of the given path C reads as
0 t 1.
r (t) = ti + tj + tk,
ds d
r
=
=
1
+
1
+
1
=
3.
dt
dt
It follows that
Z
Z
f (x, y, z)ds =
C
ds
f (t, t, t) dt =
dt
Z
0
(t 3t2 + t) 3dt = 0.
field F (x, y, z). Then line integral of F (x, y, z) along the curve C is defined as the line integral of its
r
F .T ds =
F.
ds =
F .d
r,
ds
C
C
C
where
r = xi + yj + z k is position vector of any point (x, y, z) on the curve C.
F .T ds =
F .d r =
F.
dt.
dt
t1
C
C
In the following, we mention some physical applications of line integral.
Work Done
If a particle moves along a smooth curve C from A to B under the action of force filed F (x, y, z), then
the work done in moving the particle from A to B along C is given by
Z
Z
Z B
W =
F .T ds =
F .d r =
F .d
r.
C
Ex. Find the work done by the force field F = xi + yj + z k in moving an object along the curve C
0 t 1.
parametrized by
r (t) = cos(t)i + t2 j + sin(t)k,
Sol. The work done is the line integral
Z 1
Z 1
d
r
1
dt =
2t3 dt = .
F.
dt
2
0
0
If F (x, y, z) represents the velocity field in a fluid flow, then the flow along a smooth curve C extending
Flow =
F .T ds =
F .d
r =
F .d
r.
C
In case, C is a closed curve, then the above integral is called circulation of F (x, y, z) around C, and is
denoted by
I
I
F .T ds =
F .d
r.
C
Ex. Find the circulation of the field F = (x y)i + xj around the circle C given by
r (t) = cos ti +
sin tj,
0 t 2.
d
r
F.
(1 sin t cos t)dt = 2.
dt =
dt
0
0
Flux
Consider the planar flow of a fluid with continuous velocity field F (x, y) in the xy-plane. If a smooth and
C, then the outward flux of F across C is given by line integral of normal component F .
n of F along
C, that is,
I
Outward Flux =
F .
nds.
Figure 1:
If the curve C is traversed counterclockwise in the xy-plane as viewed from the tip of positive z-axis
(see Figure 1), then we have
dx dy
d
r
dx
dy
k =
i + j k = j + i.
n
=T k =
ds
ds
ds
ds
ds
dy
dx
. If F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j, then F .
N . So
n=M
ds
ds
I
I
Outward Flux =
F .
nds =
M dy N dx.
C
Ex. Find the flux of the field F = (x y)i + xj across the circle C given by
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj,
t 2.
Sol. Here M = x y and N = x. On C, x = cos t and y = sin t. So the flux of the given field is
Z 2
Z 2
(M dy N dx) =
cos2 tdt = .
0
Consider a vector field F defined in an open region D1 . If the line integral of F along any smooth path
R
RB
C extending from a point A to a point B inside D, that is, C F .d
r = A F .d
r does not depend on
the path C joining A and B rather it depends solely on the end points A and B of the path, then the line
Suppose there exits a differentiable function such that F = in D. Then is called potential of
d
d
d dx d dy d dz
d
r
r
=
+
+
= .
= F.
.
dt
dx dt
dy dt
dz dt
dt
dt
It follows that
Z
C
F .d
r =
F .d
r =
t2
t1
Z t2
d
d
r
dt =
dt = (x(t), y(t), z(t))]tt21 = (B) (A).
F.
dt
dt
t1
This shows that line integral of F is path independent in D. The above result is known as the fundamental
theorem of line integrals. We notice that the path independence of the line integral of F is ensured
provided F is gradient field of some differentiable function . In this regard, we state the following useful
results.
Let F be a continuous vector field in an open connected2 region D. Then F is conservative if and only
Let F be a continuous vector field in an open connected region D. Then F is conservative if and only if
I
F .d
r = 0 for every loop or closed curve C in D.
C
1
Open region is a region which contains a neighbourhood of its every point. In other words, all points of an open region
Let F = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, z)j + P (x, y, z)k be a vector field having continuous first order partial
, N=
, P =
.
x
y
z
Ex. Show that the field F = yi + xj + 4k is conservative. Find its potential and hence evaluate the line
integral
Z (2,3,1)
ydx + xdy + 4dz
(1,1,1)
f
= x,
y
f
= 4.
z
We shall use these three equations to determine f . From first equation, we get
f (x, y, z) = xy + g(y, z),
which gives
f
g
=x+
.
y
y
In view of second equation, we have
g
= 0.
y
dh
f
=0+
= 4,
z
dz
or h(z) = 4z + C.
f
z
f (x, y, z) = xy + 4z + C.
Since the given vector field is conservative, so the required line integral is independent of the path from
(1, 1, 1, ) to (2, 3, 1), and equals
f (2, 3, 1) f (1, 1, 1) = 2 + C (5 + C) = 3.
Divergence
Consider planar flow of a fluid in the xy-plane. Suppose F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j is the velocity
field of the fluid having continuous first order partial derivatives in a region R of the xy-plane.
Let A(x, y) be a point in R, and ABCD be a small rectangle traversed counterclockwise completely
lying inside R, with edges parallel to the coordinate axes having lengths x and y. To be more precise,
let AB = x is bottom edge; CD = x is the top edge; AD = y is the left edge and BC = y
is the right edge. We also assume that the velocity field components M and N do not change their
signs throughout the small rectangle ABCD. Then the amount of fluid coming out of the bottom edge
AB = x per unit time is given by
The flow rate of the fluid across the left edge AD = y of the rectangle is
F (x + x, y).iy = M (x + x, y)y.
Summing the flow rates across the opposite pairs gives
N
yx
y
M
xy
x
So the net flow rate across the entire rectangle or the flux across the rectangle
So the flux per unit area or flux density for the rectangle
M
x
M
x
N
y
xy.
N
y .
In the limit (x, y) (0, 0), we get the flux density at the point A(x, y), and we call it the divergence
of F at the point A(x, y). Formally, we have the following definition of divergence.
The divergence (flux density) of a vector field F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j at a point (x, y) is
M
N
div F =
+
.
x
y
If a fluid is compressible, then the divergence of its velocity field measures to what extent it is expanding
or contracting at each point. Intuitively, if a fluid is expanding at a point (x, y), the lines of flow would
diverge there, and since the fluid would be flowing out of a small rectangle about (x, y), the divergence of
the velocity field at (x, y) would be positive. In case of compression, the divergence would be negative.
The points of expansion and compression in a fluid are sometimes called as sources (something coming
out) and sinks (something loosing into), respectively. Of course, there would be no sources and sinks in
an incompressible fluid, and divergence of the velocity field of such a fluid would be zero at every point.
The divergence of a more general vector field F = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, z)j + P (x, y, z)k at a point
(x, y, z) is defined as
N
P
M
+
+
.
div F =
x
y
z
An easy to use notation and formula for computing divergence of F = M (x, y, z)i+N (x, y, z)j+P (x, y, z)k
read as
= M + N + P .
div F = . F = i
+j
+k
.(M i + N j + P k)
x
y
z
x
y
z
10
Consider planar flow of a fluid in the xy-plane. Suppose F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j is the velocity
field of the fluid having continuous first order partial derivatives in a region R of the xy-plane.
Let A(x, y) be a point in R, and ABCD be a small rectangle traversed counterclockwise completely
lying inside R, with edges parallel to the coordinate axes having lengths x and y. To be more precise,
let AB = x is bottom edge; CD = x is the top edge; AD = y is the left edge and BC = y is
the right edge. We also assume that the velocity field components M and N are positive throughout the
small rectangle ABCD. Then the amount of fluid flowing along the bottom edge AB = x per unit time
is given by
F (x + x, y).jy = N (x + x, y)y.
Summing the flow rates across the opposite pairs gives
M
yx
y
N
xy
x
11
So the net flow rate or the counterclockwise circulation rate around the rectangular boundary
N
M
xy.
x
y
N
M
.
x
y
In the limit (x, y) (0, 0), we get the circulation density of F at the point A(x, y). Physically,
it is the measure of how a floating paddle wheel with axis perpendicular to the xy-plane spins at a point
(x, y) in the fluid flowing in the xy-plane.
The expression
N
x
M
y ,
The curl of a vector field F = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, z)j + P (x, y, z)k at a point (x, y, z) is
M
N
P
N
P
M
k.
i+
j+
curl F =
y
z
z
x
x
y
An easy to use notation and formula for computing curl of F = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, z)j + P (x, y, z)k
read as
i
curl F = F = x
M
k
P
N
M
P
N
M
=
i+
j+
k.
z
y
z
z
x
x
y
P
Note that the determinant here is not the determinant of numbers. The determinant notation is used
just to facilitate the calculation of curl.
Greens Theorem
We have the following two forms of the Greens theorem.
12
Let F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j be a vector field having continuous first order partial derivatives in
an open region in xy-plane containing a piecewise smooth simple closed curve C enclosing a region R.
Then the outward flux of F across the curve C equals the double integral of the divergence of F over
the region R, that is,
ZZ
I
I
M
N
M dy N dx =
dxdy.
F .
nds =
+
x
y
R
C
C
Circulation-Curl or Tangential Form
Let F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j be a vector field having continuous first order partial derivatives in an
open region in xy-plane containing a piecewise smooth simple closed curve C enclosing a region R. Then
the counterclockwise circulation of F around the curve C equals the double integral of curl F .k over R,
that is,
I
F .T ds =
ZZ
I
M dx + N dy =
C
N
M
x
y
dxdy.
Ex. Verify both forms of the Greens theorem for the vector field F = (x y)i + xj and the region R
Next,
ZZ
R
M
N
+
x
y
F .
nds =
ZZ
dxdy =
(1 + 0)dxdy = .
R
ZZ
M dy N dx = =
M
N
+
x
y
dxdy
N
M
F .T ds =
M dx + N dy = 2 =
dxdy.
x
y
C
C
R
Surface Integrals
Parametrization of a surface
We know that
r (t) = x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k represents a curve in space parametrized by the single parameter
t.
13
For example,
r (t) = (x0 + lt)i + (y0 + mt)j + (z0 + nt)k represents the line
y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
,
l
m
n
with direction cosines l, m, n, and passing through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
Likewise,
r (u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k represents a surface in space parametrized by the
two parameters u and v.
0 u , 0 v 2 represents the
For example,
r (u, v) = a sin u cos vi + a sin u sin vj + a cos uk,
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 .
r
r is normal vector to the surface
r (u, v).
u
Smooth surface
continuous with
r
r 6= 0 at every point of the parameters domain under consideration.
u
where u and v
Consider a smooth surface S parametrized by
r (u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k,
belong to some region R in the uv-plane. Divide the region R into meshes by choosing lines parallel to u
and v-axes. Let there be n complete rectangles with dimensions ui and vi (i = 1, 2, ...., n). Let i
be the area of the patch on the surface S corresponding to the ith rectangle. We approximate the area
i u
i |ui
ru vi
rv | = |
ru
rv |ui vi .
i v
n
X
n
X
|
ru
rv |ui vi . In the limit n such that
i=1
|
ru
rv |ui vi defines the double integral
Area of S =
ZZ
|
ru
rv |dudv.
d =
S
0 u , 0 v 2.
r (u, v) = a sin u cos vi + a sin u sin vj + a cos uk,
Then we find
|
ru
rv | = a2 sin u.
Z
ZZ
R
i=1
14
|
ru
rv |dudv, and
15
where c is a constant. Suppose R is the shadow or vertical projection on one of the suitable coordinate
planes, that is, xy, yz or zx-plane such that any line perpendicular to the plane region R does not intersect
the surface S in more than one point. This would be possible if the surface does not fold back over itself
over the plane of projection. Suppose the projection region R lies in the xy-plane. Then F (x, y, z) = c
can be expressed in the form z = f (x, y), by implicit function theorem (a theorem of advanced calculus).
Let u = x, v = y so that z = f (u, v). Then the given surface in parametrized form is
ru = i +
k,
rv = j +
k.
k =i
k=j
u
Fz
v
Fz
It follows that
1
= F .
ru
rv =
(Fxi + Fy j + Fz k)
Fz
F.k
So the surface area differential is
|F |
d = |
ru
rv |dudv =
dxdy.
|F.k|
Thus, the surface area of the implicit surface F (x, y, z) = c, when its projected region R lies in xy-plane,
reads as
ZZ
R
|F |
dxdy.
|F.k|
|F.
j|
R
R
Ex. Find the surface area of paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 , 0 z 2.
Sol. Here f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 , and the projected region R in the xy-plane of the given surface is the circle
x2 + y 2 = 2. So the required surface area equals to
ZZ p
Z
ZZ q
2
2
2
2
fx + fy + 1 dxdy =
4x + 4y + 1 dxdy =
R
Z
0
2p
16
n
X
G(xi , yi , zi )i ,
i=1
ZZ
G(x, y, z)d =
S
If the surface S is implicitly given by F (x, y, z) = c, its projected region R lies in the xy-plane and
z = f (x, y), then
ZZ
ZZ
G(x, y, z)d =
|F |
dxdy =
G(x, y, f (x, y))
|F.k|
R
ZZ
q
G(x, y, f (x, y)) fx2 + fy2 + 1 dxdy.
p
4x2 + 4y 2 + 1 over the surface of the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 , 0 z 2.
Ex. Integrate
Sol. The projected region R in the xy-plane of the given surface is the circle x2 + y 2 = 2. So the integral
p
of 4x2 + 4y 2 + 1 equals to
ZZ p
ZZ p
q
p
4x2 + 4y 2 + 1 fx2 + fy2 + 1 dxdy =
4x2 + 4y 2 + 1 4x2 + 4y 2 + 1 dxdy
R
=
0
Orientable surface
A smooth surface S is said to be orientable, if it possesses continuous unique normal vector at each point.
For example, the surface of a sphere is orientable. A Mobius band is not orientable surface. Take a strip
of paper, give half twist and join the two ends of the strip to get a Mobius band. By moving continuously
17
along the surface, we can reach to the opposite of starting point. It means there exist two different normal
vectors at each point of the surface. So it is not orientable.
If the surface is orientable, conventionally we consider unit normal vector n
drawn outwards to the
surface, and say that the surface is oriented in the direction of n
.
Let F be a continuous vector field in an open region containing a smooth surface S oriented in the
direction of n
. Then the flux of F across S is defined as
ZZ
Flux =
F .
nd.
S
Stokes Theorem
Let F = M i + N j + P k be a vector field having continuous first order partial derivatives in an open
region containing a piecewise smooth oriented surface S with piecewise smooth boundary C. Then the
circulation of F around C in the direction counterclockwise with respect to the unit normal vector n
on
F .d
r =
F .
nd.
C
Notice that if F = M i+N j and S is the region enclosed by C in the xy-plane, then the above theorem
reduces to the tangential form of Greens theorem.
always vanishes. On the other hand, Stokes theorem can be used to show that if F = 0 in a simply
H
connected open region D, then
F .d
r = 0 for any piecewise smooth closed path C inside the region
C
Divergence Theorem
Let F = M i+N j +P k be a vector field having continuous first order partial derivatives in an open region
containing a piecewise smooth oriented closed surface S. Then the flux of F across S in the direction of
F .
nd =
. F dV.
ZZZ
D
Notice that if F = M i + N j and D is the region enclosed by S in the xy-plane, then the above
theorem reduces to the normal form of Greens theorem.
18
1. Verify divergence theorem for F = (x2 yz)i + (y 2 zx)j + (z 2 xy)k over the cuboidal region
given by 0 x 1, 0 y 2, 0 z 3.
Ans. 36.
2. Verify divergence theorem for F = 4xi 2y 2 j + z 2 k over the region bounded by the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = 16, z = 0, z = 3.
Ans. 84.
3. Using divergence theorem, integrate F = (2x + 3z)i (xz + y)j + (y 2 + 2z)k over the surface of the
sphere having center at origin and radius 3.
Ans. 108.
4. Verify Stokes theorem for the vector field
F = y 2i + x2 j (x + z)k and C is boundary of the triangle with vertices (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0) and
(1, 1, 0).
Ans. 1/3.