Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Springer-Verlag 2000
O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E
Introduction
In order to improve or at least confirm the results of the
temperature-based nomogram method [1], commonly used
non-temperature-based methods suitable for use at a scene
were integrated into a compound method [2, 3]. The variation in conclusions drawn from the non-temperature-based
methods regarding the time since death was extremely
large. Nevertheless, the exclusive use of the time limits of
variation or 95% confidence levels (Table 1 and Fig. 1) can
provide reliable lower or upper limits for the period since
death. The limits of variation or 95% confidence levels
given in the literature are not dependent on special factors, in contrast to the method of estimation using body
cooling. Therefore, these methods can even be used when
the method of body cooling cannot be used because of unknown or uncertain cooling conditions.
321
Result of
examination
Minimum limit
Result of
of the period
examination
since death (hpm)
Lividity
Beginning
Confluence
Thumb pressure
Complete shifting
Maximum
Incomplete shifting
Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative
0.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Negative
Negative
Positive
Positive
Negative
Positive
3.0
4.0
20.0
6.0
16.0
24.0
Variation
Variation
Variation
Variation
Variation
Rigor
Beginning
Re-establishment
Maximum
Positive
Negative
Positive
0.5
2.0
2.0
Negative
Positive
Negative
7.0
8.0
20.0
Variation
Variation
Variation
Negative
Negative
0.0
1.5
Positive
Positive
2.5
13.0
Variation
Variation
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
5.0
5.0
3.0
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
6.0
7.0
8.0
13.0
26.0
22.0
11.0
95% confidence
95% confidence
95% confidence
95% confidence
95% confidence
95% confidence
Variation
Negative
Negative
Negative
3.0
5.0
14.0
Positive
Positive
Positive
10.0
30.0
46.0
Variation
Variation
Variation
Reference
[8]
[8]
[9, 10]
[10, 11]
[4, 7]
[4]
[4]
322
laris oculi muscle (grade IV). The orbicularis oculi muscle may react for a much longer time than the time limits given (Table 1) if a
(fresh) haematoma or emphysema of the eylids is present [4]. If a
haematoma or emphysema was present on one side of the eyelids,
the stimulation was performed on the other side. If haematoma or
emphysema was present on both sides, the results of stimulation
were not used for estimation of the time since death.
A change in the width of the iris after chemical excitation was
not used as a positive reaction if the observation was made much
later than 1 h after the injection as this could be due to the spontaneous course post-mortem.
The conclusions concerning the time since death drawn from
all the criteria used and characterized either as limits of variation
or 95% confidence limits are taken from the references given in
Table 1.
At the scene, a computer program (C.A. Henssge, http://home.
t-online.de/home/Christoph.Henssge/t-zeit.htm) was utilized by
means of a note-book computer which places all methods and criteria of the compound method at the disposal of the examiners.
The program uses the results of the method/criterion performed
first (usually, but not necessarily, the nomogram method) as primary information for estimation of the period since death and all
subsequent requirements for further examinations are automatically selected based on the initial information regarding improvement or confirmation (Fig. 1). The suggestions for subsequent examinations can, however, be ignored without interrupting the flow
of the program which leads to the following advantages:
Results
Efficiency
According to the situation at the scene, the non-temperature-based methods could be used at least partially in addition to the method of body cooling in 69 out of the
72 cases examined. In 49 cases, the non-temperature-based
methods provided a reduction in the span of the period
since death as estimated by the temperature method. In a
further 6 cases at least one of the limits of the period since
death as estimated by the temperature method was con-
69 (2nd)
1.0
2.4
3.0
1.7
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.9
5.0
46
69 (1st)
1.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
45
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.4
3.0
31
38
3.0
3.5
3.5
5.0
0.8
1.0
1.0
Cooling
Lividity maximum
Lividity confluence
Rigor maximum
No electr. excit. oribic, oris m.
Electr. excit. eye NO II
Rigor beginning
Electr. excit. eye NO VI
Lividity confluence
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye NO IV
Cooling
Lividity confluence+
Electr. excit. eye NO VI
11.0
10.0
8.0
7.0
11.0
10.0
7.3
6.0
13.0
13.0
10.5
8.0
6.0
10.0
8.0
11.0
10.0
7.0
10.0
8.0
7.0
16.0
10.0
9.1
8.0
7.0
7.0
6.4
6.0
Idiomuscular contraction
Electr. excit. eye III
Cooling
Rigor re-establishment
Lividity complete shifting
Rigor beginning
Electr. excit. eye V
Cooling
Lividity complete shifting
Method/criterion
hpm
hpm
Method/criterion
Upper limit
Lower limit
Estimation
28
Case
4.3
3.1
5.8
4.5
3.0
4.8
6.6
2.5
Lower
hpm
4.6
3.4
6.1
7.5
5.3
6.9
3.5
Upper
hpm
Ascertainment
(limits)
Table 2 Details of cases in which the non-temperature-based methods provided both the best lower and upper limits
Comments
26
23
22
21
20
19
12
11
Case
2.0
2.0
6.3
3.0
3.0
6.1
0.0
1.0
5.0
18.1+
3.5
5.6
3.0
6.0
3.0
4.1
5.0
16.7
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Lividity maximum
Electr. excit. eye NO IV
Cooling
Lividity confluence
Cooling
Cooling
Lividity maximum
Lividity no incomplete shifting
No electr.excit.eye
11.9
8.0
13.0
11.7
10.0
8.0
7.0
4.9
30.0
29.9
24.0+
13.0
11.2
11.0
10.0
8.0
13.0
11.6
11.0
10.0
9.7
8.0+
30.0
25.7
22.0
7.6
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye IV
7.4
9.3
2.7
Rigor no beginning
Cooling
2.8*
3.4*
Idiomuscular contraction
Cooling
Electr. excit. orbic. oris m.
Mydriasis to atropine
Electr. excit. eye IV
7.3
Cooling
Rigor re-establishment+
5.8
Lower
hpm
7.4
9.4
2.9
9.8+
7.0+
7.8
6.3
Upper
hpm
Ascertainment
(limits)
Cooling
Method/criterion
hpm
hpm
Method/criterion
Upper limit
Lower limit
Estimation
Table 3 Details of cases in which the non-temperature-based methods provided either the best lower or the best upper limit
+ Missing for 7 h
*Finding the body 3.4 h before examination
+ It was uncertain whether the broken rigor was reestablished slightly or not
Comments
324
C. Henssge et al.: Estimation of time since death II
1.0
2.0
3.3
34
0.5
1.0
1.1
3.0
44
57
53
5.0
5.0
11.6
14.0
1.0
2.7
5.0
11.2
3.0
5.0
8.9
40
49
1.0
1.0
2.5
37
0.5
3.1
4.0
4.7+
5.0
33
35
2.8
3.0
5.0
Lividity confluence
Cooling
Rigor beginning
Lividity confluence
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye NO IV
Lividity confluence
Electr. excit. eye NO VI
Cooling
Rigor beginning
Cooling
Lividity confluence
Electr. excit. eye NO V
Cooling
Cooling
Lividity maximum
No electr. excit. eye
20.0
17.2
11.0
10.0
8.3
7.0
6.0
46.0
21.6
20.0
13.0
11.0
8.0
6.7
14.5
10.0
10.0
8.1
7.0
11.0
10.0
8.7
6.0
6.0
8.9
8.0
6.0
10.3+
8.4
3.6
7.5*
6.8
3.4+
4.8
0.5
1.5
Lower
hpm
3.2
3.2
18.7
3.5
16.8
4.3
12.3+
7.8
3.4+
5.5
25.5
6.3
Upper
hpm
Ascertainment
(limits)
Cooling
Mydriasis of iris to atropine
Cooling
Electr.excit. eye IV
Lividity complete shifting
Cooling+
Cooling
Method/criterion
hpm
hpm
Method/criterion
Upper limit
Lower limit
Estimation
27
Case
Table 3 (continued)
+ Functioning storage-ECG device found. By analysing the tape, the beginning of ventricular fibrillation could be defined exactly to the minute
+ Supposed malignant hyperthermia; not used in expertise (Table 10, part I[1])
Comments
5.0
14.4
71
48
3.0
5.0
8.8
14.0+
2.0
3.9
2.0
3.0
6.9
68
72
3.0
3.0
3.5
4.9
5.0
67
3.0
5.6
0.6
2.0
3.0
3.0
61
63
2.2
3.0
3.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
13.7
1.8
1.5
2.0
3.0
60
59
58
13.0
11.2
8.0
7.0
13.0
6.2
7.8
8.0
8.0
7.4
24.0
20.1
20.0
Lividity maximum
No electr. excit. eye
Cooling
No miosis of iris to acetycholine
14.4
9.5
8.0
8.0
6.0+
23.4
20.0
15.9
8.0
Lividity maximum
Cooling
Cooling
Rigor maximum
Lividity maximum
Electr.excit.eye NO IV
Cooling
No electr. excit. oribic, oris m.
No mydriasis of iris to atropine
No mydriasis of iris to Mydriaticum
No electr. excit. eye
Electr.excit.eye NO II
Cooling
Cooling
No idiomuscular contraction
Electr.excit.eye NO V
No mydriasis of iris to atropine
Cooling
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye IV
Rigor re-establishment
Lividity complete shifting+
Cooling
Lividity positive thumb pressure
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye IV
Idiomuscular contraction
Cooling
Rigor re-establishment
Electr. excit. eye V
Cooling
11.0
5.1
17.2
5.7
9.3
6.7
3.1
2.5
2.4
14.0
5.4
17.7
11.2
10.3
7.1
3.6
8.3
4.5
16.1
Same scene as 70
See text
326
C. Henssge et al.: Estimation of time since death II
2.1
3.0
3.0
3.5
2.0
3.0
3.5
5.0
47
3.0
3.2
2.0
2.4
4.0
5.0
0.3
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
0.6
1.0
Rigor maximum
Lividity maximum
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye NO II
Cooling
Lividity maximum+
No electr. excit. oribic, oris m.
Electr. excit. eye NO III
Lividity maximum
Cooling
Cooling
Electr. excit. eye NO VI
Lividity confluence
Rigor maximum+
Lividity maximum+
Electr.excit.eye NO V
Lividity maximum
Cooling
Cooling
Rigor beginning
Lividity confluence
Rigor beginning
Cooling
Electr. excit.eye NO VI
10.0
9.1
8.0
7.7
6.0+
8.8
7.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
11.0
10.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.9
11.0
8.6
8.0
11.0
8.0
8.0
7.6
8.0
6.0
6.0
5.4
7.0
6.2
Rigor re-establishment
Cooling
Lividity complete shifting
Cooling
Rigor no beginning
Lividity no beginning
Rigor re-establishment
Cooling
Rigor re-establishment
Electr. excit. eye VI
Lividity complete shifting
Cooling
Electr. excit.eye V
Cooling
Method/criterion
hpm
hpm
Method/criterion
Upper limit
Lower limit
Estimation
43
41
39
15
Case
7.3
4.5
4.4
4.3
1.8
1.8
2.5
2.5
Lower
hpm
7.6
5.0
7.9+
4.5
15.0
15.0
3.5
2.9
Upper
hpm
Ascertainment
(limits)
+ Unsure
Same scene as 6
Same scene as 7
The husband (case 7) strangled his wife with his hands
(case 6) and committed suicide by hanging. The overlapping time of examinations does not allow a statement as to the sequence of deaths
Comments
Table 4 Details of cases in which the non-temperature-based methods improved one and confirmed the other limit of the period since death estimated by the temperature method
2.8
2.3
5.2
3.8
Idiomuscular contraction
Electr. excit. orbic. oris m.
Rigor no beginning
Electr. excit. eye VI
Lividity complete shifting+
Cooling
0.0
1.0
65
55
1.0
2.2
Cooling
Lividity confluence
13.0
11.0
7.0
6.0
6.0
5.6
3.6
3.6
51
1.0
1.0
1.6
Lividity confluence
Electr. excit. eye NO VI
Cooling
13.0
11.0
7.2
7.0
7.0
Idiomuscular contraction
Electr. excit. orbic. oris m.
Cooling
Rigor no beginning
Electr. excit. eye V
4.1
4.8
328
firmed, but in 14 cases the inclusion of non-temperaturebased methods did not provide additional information.
In 7 cases the non-temperature-based methods provided
both the best lower and upper limits of the final estimated
period since death (Table 2) among which there were
3 cases in which the temperature-based method could not
be used. The lower or upper limit was improved by the nontemperature-based methods in 28 cases (Table 3) and one
of the limits obtained from body cooling was improved
and the other limit was confirmed in 13 cases (Table 4).
The non-temperature-based methods could not improve
but at least confirme one of the limits obtained from the
method of body cooling in 6 cases (Table 5).
The period since death estimated from body cooling
alone was reduced by more than 2 h in 23 cases by inclusion of the additional methods which led to total spans of
the period since death of up to 1.5 h in 5 cases and up to
3.5 h in a further 15 cases. The results of the temperature
method and the various non-temperature-based methods
showed no contradictions in all cases. The close interrelationship of all the findings can be clearly seen in most cases
listed in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5. The final result in fact develops with each consecutive result obtained by the further
examinations. All criteria of the non-temperature-based
methods contributed to some degree to the final evaluation. Table 6 lists the total number of improvements or
confirmation of a limit of the period since death obtained
from the non-temperature-based methods in relation to the
limits obtained by the method of body cooling and in several cases one of the limits obtained by body cooling was
improved or confirmed by more than one criterion.
Reliability
The interval since death could be determined by the police
enquiries with certainty within a different range of time
(accuracy) in 44 out of the 49 cases in which the non-temperature-based methods provided a reduction of the period
since death as estimated by the temperature method. The
reliability of the reduced period since death could be verified only in these cases.
The period since death which was known within an
accuracy of 4 h (35 cases, Fig. 2) fell totally within the
reduced period estimated by the compound method in
28 cases, partially in 6 cases and death could have occurred within the overlapping part of both the estimated
and the known period. In 1 case (number 23, Table 3) there
was a contradiction between the conclusion of the maximum time since death provided by re-establishment of
rigor (8 hpm) and the known time of death (9.4 hpm). However, the upper limits of the time since death concluded
from the nomogram method (11.7 hpm) and from the criterion mydriasis of the iris after atropine application (10 hpm)
were not in contradiction. In 9 cases where the time of death
could only be ascertained from the enquiries within a time
range sometimes much greater than 4 h, the period since
death obtained by the compound method was not contradictory.
329
Table 5 Details of cases in which the non-temperature-based methods could not improve but at least confirm one limit of the period
since death estimated from the temperature method
Case
Estimation
Ascertainment
(limits)
Lower limit
Upper limit
hpm
Method/criterion
hpm
Method/criterion
Rigor maximum
Lividity maximum
11.0
2.0
3.0
Cooling
11.0
17
5.0
5.0
14.0
15.1
29.1
18
5.0
5.0
14.0
15.1
24
2.0
3.0
3.5
3.7
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
Rigor maximum
Lividity no complete shifting+
Lividity maximum
3.9
Cooling
5.4
36
64
Lower
hpm
Upper
hpm
Cooling
26.8
27.8
24.1
Cooling
4.4
26.0
16.0
10.0
9.3
5.8
8.8
13.0
8.6
7.1
8.1
20.0
9.5
Comments
+ Observed at the
scene after turning the
body from LP to LB
6.3
6.6
Method/criterion
Improvement
Confirmation
33
6
9
4
1
5
3
6
1
0
6
9
3
5
3
18
5
3
1
2
4
0
7
1
0
3
3
0
5
1
Discussion
Our field study demonstrates both the possibilities and
limitations of estimating the period since death in the early
post-mortem period by the compound method described.
330
which provides both a lower and an upper limit of the period since death with the exception of reaction grades 0
and VI. This may contribute to the greater effect of this
method compared with the criteria of the other non-temperature-based methods which merely provide either a
lower or an upper limit of the period since death. The 95%
limits of confidence [7] used for the data on 447 bodies
[4] were re-examined on 30 bodies [5, 6] and combined
with the temperature-based nomogram method on 32 bodies in casework [3]. Our study confirms these results. It is
recommended that conservative estimates are given if there
is an occasional uncertainty to differentiate between reaction grades II/III or IV/V and in these cases the grade which
results in the wider range for the time since death should
be used.
To examine the reactability of the iris to subconjuctival
injection of chemicals is not a common procedure but
proved to be valuable in some cases. The extraordinarily
small range of the period since death provided by the lack
of a reaction of the iris to acetycholine in case 48 (Table 3)
was not used as a precautionary measure to avoid an unreliable estimation. Nevertheless, this result did not contradict the value obtained from the police investigation.
The limits of the time since death used are based on the limits of variation resulting from the examination of 5765 eyes
from 3979 corpses [4].
A slight re-establishment of rigor should not be considered for the estimation if there is an uncertainty as to
331
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