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Wood, Paper and Coating Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 P. Pinang, Malaysia
b
Polymer Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 P. Pinang, Malaysia
c
School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 P. Pinang, Malaysia
Received 6 January 2000; received in revised form 22 May 2000; accepted 26 June 2000
Abstract
Interfacial shear strength between acetylated bres and various matrices was studied. The chemical modication of
oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) and coconut bre (coir) using non-catalysed acetic anhydride were investigated.
Proof of acetylation of EFB and coir was indicated by the increase in weight percent gain, and was conrmed by
Fourier transform infrared spectra. Pull-out tests were employed to study the compatibility of acetylated bres with
dierent commercial matrices such as ``Epiglass'' (epoxy), ``West system'' (epoxy), ``Crystic'' (unsaturated polyester),
``Metset'' (unsaturated polyester) and polystyrene. An increase in the interfacial shear strength between acetylated bres
and hydrophobic resins was noted. Modied bres were shown to have a smoother surface compared with unmodied,
which was believed to be a factor in improving the brematrix adhesion. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Acetylation; Interfacial shear strength; Plant bres; Compatibility; Thermoset; Thermoplastic
1. Introduction
Incorporation of bres (man-made or natural) into a
polymer is known to cause substantial changes in the
mechanical properties of composites [1]. A good interfacial bond between bre and matrix, can substantially
improve the mechanical properties of the composite.
Interfacial shear strength is one of the means of determining bonding between bre and matrix.
The term ``interface'' has been dened as the
boundary region between two phases in contact. The
composition, structure or properties of the interface may
be variable across the region and may also dier from
the composition, structure or properties of either of the
two contacting phases [2]. This interfacial region exhibits
a complex interplay of physical and chemical factors,
0014-3057/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
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2. Experimental
2.1. Acetylation of bres
The selected oil palm EFB and coir bres were extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with a 4:1:1 mixture (by
weight) of toluene, methylated spirit and acetone, for 5
h. The extracted bres were then dried overnight in an
oven at 105C. After drying, the bres were allowed to
cool in a desiccator, over silica gel. Each sample (1 g)
was weighed to four decimal places and placed in a
round bottom reaction ask. Other round bottom reaction asks with sucient acetic anhydride to cover the
bres were brought to the desired reaction temperature
of 100C for 3 h to obtain optimum high weight percent
gain (WPG). Temperature control was provided by a
thermostatic oil bath. The heated acetic anhydride was
poured into a round bottom ask (tted with a reux
condenser) which contained the pre-weighed bres.
After the appropriate time period, the anhydride was
decanted o, and the bres were put into acetone at
ambient temperature, to quench the reaction, for a period of 1 h. Extreme care was taken not to lose any bre
during the transfer from the reaction ask into the other
weighed (oven dry) ask. After 1 h, the acetone was
poured out, and new fresh acetone added. The bres
were washed by reuxing in acetone for 3 h, in a round
bottom ask tted with a reux condenser in order
to removed unreacted reagents and by-products. The
modied bres were then oven-dried at 103 2 C overnight, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Weight gain
(based on percentage of oven dried weight) of the
chemically modied bres was calculated as follows:
WPG % weight gain=original weight 100:
4
Chemical composition of EFB and coir bres were
determined using the procedure stated by the previous
study [18].
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Table 1
Percentage chemical composition and WPG of EFB and coir in this study
Fibre
Cellulose
Lignin
Extractives
Weight percent
gain (%)
EFB
Coir
53
46
19
21
22
31
3
4
15
18
1040
1041
Table 2
The peak assignments of natural bre for FT-IR analysis
Wave number (cm 1 )
Unmodied
Modied
10501085
1310
1390
1460
1640
1750
29003000
32003600
10851050
1310
1390
1460
17521979
1640
29003000
32003600
Groups
Alcoholic CO stretch
CH2 from holocellulose
CH from the cellulose and hemicelluloses
CH2 from cellulose
Carbonyl C@O larger peak from the bonded acetyl group
Carbon double bond C@O
Very small peak showing very little C@O from holocellulose contaminated lignin
CH stretch in aromatic ring and alkanes
Broad, strong band of the OH group
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Fig. 4. SEM micrographs on surface of EFB bres: (a) showing silica bodies of unmodied (800), (b) silica nodule of unmodied
bre (3000), (c) silica of an acetylated (800) and (d) surface of an acetylated (3000).
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between unmodied and acetylated bres in a polystyrene matrix are shown in Table 3.
``Metset'' (SW products Buehler Krautkramer) is a
unsaturated polyester resin which contains 33% styrene.
Acetylation slightly improved the ISS for both EFB
and coir bres the values was signicantly dierent
p 6 0:05, compared to unmodied, (Table 4). ``Crystic''
471PALV is a ployester resin manufactured by Scott
Bader Ltd. (UK) which contains more than 45%
of styrene. Acetylation has signicantly increased
p 6 0:05 the ISS, compared to unmodied, for both
EFB and coir (Table 5). In this study, unmodied coir
had an ISS of 1.68 MPa whereas 2.34 MPa for acetylated, whereas the ISS for EFB was 1.15 MPa for unmodied and 2.05 MPa for acetylated. As compared to
``Metset'', the ISS values was higher and this is presumably due to the dierences in styrene content.
Epoxy 105 is a product of ``West System'', containing
epoxy resin (molecular weight < 700) and benzyl alcohol. Acetylation of coir increased the ISS from 1.82 MPa
(unmodied) to 2.46 MPa. However, the statistical
Table 3
Results of analysis of variance (unstacked) of polystyrene resin, correlations between unmodied coir or EFB with acetylated bres
Source
ISS
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
DF
SS
MS
1
68
69
21.98
50.28
72.24
21.98
0.74
29.7
0.001
1
68
69
6.66
35.98
42.55
6.57
0.53
12.4
0.001
DF: degrees of freedom; SS: sums of squares; MS: means of squares; F: the ANOVA test statistic (which is MS treatments/MS
residuals); p: probability of the correlation's treatments, were signicant at 95% (p 6 0:05); ISS: interfacial shear strength; Error:
the dierence within unmodied and modied (EFB or Coir).
1044
Table 4
Results of analysis of variance (unstacked) of Metset (unsaturated polyester) correlations between unmodied coir or EFB with
acetylated bres
Source
ISS
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
DF
SS
1
68
69
15.55
30.21
45.76
15.55
0.44
35.0
0.000
1
68
69
6.57
35.98
42.55
MS
6.56
0.053
12.41
0.001
Table 5
Results of analysis of variance (unstacked) of Crystic (unsaturated polyester resin) correlations between unmodied coir or EFB with
acetylated bres
Source
ISS
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
DF
SS
MS
1
68
69
3.31
14.29
17.6
3.31
0.21
15.7
0.000
1
68
69
4.46
9.70
14.17
4.46
0.14
31.3
0.000
Table 6
Results of analysis of variance (unstacked) of West system (epoxy) correlations between unmodied coir or EFB with acetylated bres
Source
ISS
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
DF
SS
MS
1
68
69
2.51
8.56
11.07
2.51
0.13
10.9
0.000
1
68
69
0.84
14.30
15.13
0.84
0.21
4.0
0.050
Table 7
Results of analysis of variance (unstacked) of Epiglass (epoxy) correlations between unmodied coir or EFB with acetylated bres
Source
ISS
Error
Total
DF
SS
MS
DF
SS
MS
1
68
69
11.12
22.74
33.85
11.12
0.33
33.2
0.000
1
68
69
4.75
19.35
24.09
4.75
0.28
16.7
0.000
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their thanks to Sabutek
Sdn. Bhd. Malaysia and Biocomposites Centre, UK for
supplying bres. Thanks are also due to Dr. Callum
Hill, University of Wales, Bangor, UK and Dr. Jamie
Hague, Biocomposite, UK for the use of facilities and
for valuable discussion.
References
[1] Gowda TM, Naidu ACB, Chhaya R. Composites Part A:
Appl Sci Manufac 1999;30(3):277.
[2] Schwartz MM. Composite materials handbook. New
York: McGraw Hill; 1984.
[3] Sreekala MS, Thomas S, Neelakantan NR. J Polym Engng
1997;16(4):265.
[4] Cook J, Gordon JE. Proc Royal Soc London, series A.
Math Phys Sci, vol. 282. 1964. p. 508.
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