1.

The living and non-living components of the

Earth contain mixtures.
Element
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminium
Iron

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and

mixtures in terms of the particle theory.
The Particle Theory

Hydrosphere

All matter consists of many, very small particles which are

constantly moving (aka. The kinetic particle theory).

Water-containing layer of the earth

Refer to:
o The particle nature of, and motions in: solids, liquids and
gases (diagram)
o Summary of solids, liquids and gases (table)
o Changes between states of matter (diagram)
o Classification of matter (diagram)
o Pure substances vs Mixtures (table)

Element
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Sodium

Abundance
86.0
10.8
1.9
1.1

Biosphere

Pure Substances
o

Abundance
46.6
27.7
8.2
5

Region where living organisms are found

Most living things are complex carbon life forms
e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins

o
o

Element:
o Simplest substance which cannot be decomposed by
ordinary physical or chemical means
o Made up of the same type of atoms
o E.g. Na, Mg, C, Zn
o The atoms of one element are all alike, but different
from the atoms of all the other elements

Element
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen

Abundance
60
21
11

Atmosphere
o

Compound:
o Pure substance consisting of two or more different
elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio
o Can be decomposed using chemical means (e.g.
electrolysis, UV, combustion)
o E.g. H2O, NaCl, CO2, C6H12O6
o

Mixtures are physical combinations of two or more substances

(elements, compounds, mixtures)
o

Homogeneous mixture:
o A substance with uniform composition throughout
o The components are indistinguishable
o E.g. air, salt, water, milk
Heterogeneous mixture:
o a substance with non-uniform composition
o individual components are
recognisable/distinguishable
o E.g. sand, soil, nerds (lollies)

Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds.
Lithosphere
o
o
o

Element
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon

Molecules are substances with two or more atoms

chemically combined. All compounds are molecules
(e.g. H2O, CO2), but not all molecules are
compounds.

Mixtures

Outer rock layer of the Earths surface

Sediment of mixture of minerals with sand, rock and soil.
Mineral: naturally occurring solid substances that have a
fixed chemical formula.

Mixture of gases above the Earths surface

Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant gases in the
atmosphere

o
o

Abundance
75.3
23.1
1.3

Refer to:
o Spheres of the Earth (diagram)
o

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to

separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
o Solids of different sizes
o Solids and liquids
o Dissolved solids in liquids
o Liquids
o Gases
Refer to:
o Scientific diagrams of the separation techniques
Physical Separation
o
o
o
o

Used to separate impure substances (mixtures)

Separating mixtures based on physical properties, such as
boiling point, solubility, density, etc.
Does not break chemical bonds (input of energy not large
enough)
Examples include: evaporation, filtration,
simple/fractional distillation, separating funnel,
magnetism, centrifugation/decanting/sieving, froth
floatation

Solids of different sizes

Sieving
o
o
o

used to separate mixtures of particles of different solids

with different sizes.
Uses the property of particle size.
E.g. sieving lumps out of flour

the gas is condensed back into liquid and is

collected as the distillate
o the less volatile liquid remains in the original
solution.
Can also be used to separate a mixture containing a liquid
with a dissolved solid.
o

Solids and liquids

Filtration
o

o
o
o
o

used to separate:
a liquid and an insoluble solid
a soluble solid mixed with an insoluble solid
o water is added to dissolve the soluble solid
o insoluble solid is filtered out, soluble solid
remains in the filtrate.
Uses the property of solubility.
The insoluble solid caught in the filter paper is called the
residue.
The dissolved substance passing through is called the
filtrate.
Note: if the solid is coarse or very dense, a similar
process of decantation or sedimentation can be used.

Sedimentation and Decantation

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Sedimentation: the process in which solids settle to the

bottom of a container.
Decantation: the process of carefully pouring off the
liquid and leaving the solid undisturbed at the bottom of
the container.
Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
Uses the property of insolubility.
Once the solid has settled (sedimentation), the top layer
of the liquid can be removed.
Note: this process does not completely separate all of the
liquid from the solid.
E.g. pouring tea off tea leaves.

Dissolved solids and liquids

Liquids
Fractional Distillation
o
o
o

Used to separate miscible liquids with a small difference

in boiling point.
The arrangement of the fractional column allows for
repeated condensations and vaporisations to effectively
distil the mixture.
E.g. separation of crude oil into various commercial
products.

Separating column/funnel
o
o
o
o

Used to separate a heterogeneous mixture of two or more

immiscible liquids
denser liquids will sink to the bottom
less dense liquids float to the top
liquids are separated based on the property of difference
in density.

Others
Magnetism
o

separate certain substances based on their

ferromagnetism.
these ferromagnetic substances will attach to the
magnet.
E.g. iron fillings.
Ferromagnetism: the basic magnetic property where a
substance is naturally attracted to a magnet.

Evaporation
Centrifugation
o
o
o
o

Used to separate a mixture containing a liquid with a

dissolved solid
the liquid evaporates, leaving the solid residue
Uses the property of the difference in boiling points
between the solid and the liquid
E.g. NaCl and water (soluble solid and liquid)
How would we retain both the solid and liquid?
Distillation.

Simple Distillation
o

o
o
o
o

Water must come in from the bottom to counter gravity

to maintain water at all times.
rather than water running right through if put in from
the top (inefficient at cooling)
Separates a mixture of two miscible liquids.
Miscible liquids: are those which are able to dissolve in
one another to form a homogeneous solution.
Uses property of the large difference in boiling points
between the liquids.
it is important to carefully control the temperature.
When the mixture is heated, the more volatile liquid
evaporates and passes through the condenser.
o *More volatile lower boiling point (easier to turn
to gas)
Volatility only for boiling points

o
o

Used to separate mixtures with:

an insoluble solid and a liquid.
two immiscible liquids.
Uses the property of difference in density.
the denser substance migrates away from the axis of
rotation.

Froth Floatation
o
o
o
o
o
o

Ore: naturally occurring solid which metals and minerals

can be extracted from.
Industrial purification process to separate minerals from
gauge (waste material)
The crushed ore is first mixed with oil and detergent,
which coats the surface of the minerals
Air is then blown vigorously through, trapping the coated
minerals and carrying them to the surface.
The minerals are trapped in the froth, which is then
separated and washed.
Uses the property of difference in density.
o Denser gauge sink to the bottom of the tank.
o Less dense minerals float to the top, where they are
separated.

Chemical Separation
Column chromatography
Used to separate/decompose pure substances
o Electrolysis
o Thermal decomposition
o Only works for compounds
o Breaking chemical bonds large input of energy
Separating gases: fractional distillation, zeolite sieve,
chromatography.
o

o
o

Separation method used to purify individual chemical

compounds from a mixture of compounds.
Note: you put the mobile phase through the stationary
phase.

Distinguishing between elements

Elements in the periodic table can be separated into several
categories: metals, semi-metals and non-metals.
Each category has their own distinctive properties.

Electrolysis
o
o

Properties of Elements

Chemical process which decomposes a substance by

applying electricity.
E.g. electrolysis uses electricity to decompose water
down into elemental hydrogen and oxygen.

Elements can be classified according to the following

properties.
Lustre: How shiny it is
Electrical Conductivity: Amount of free moving charged
particles ions, electrons
Malleability: Ability to be hammered into a sheet
Ductility: Ability to be formed into a wire
Melting/Boiling point: Temperature in which the substance
will convert to liquid/gas respectively

electricity

2H2O (l)

2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

Thermal Decomposition
o
o

Chemical process which decomposes a substance via heat

energy.
E.g.
heat
copper carbonate

Refer to:
o Table of properties: Metals, non-metals and semimetals

carbon dioxide + copper oxide

heat

CuCO3 (s)

CO2 (g) + CuO (s)

o

Gases
Fractional Distillation
o
o
o
o

E.g. Nitrogen and oxygen gas

The mixture is cooled to approximately -200C so both
gases condense into liquids
BP:
N2 (g) -196C
O2 (g) -183C
Note: same set up as fractional distillation, but without
the Bunsen burner.

Refer to:
o Summary of separation methods and the properties they
depend on (table)
o

Quantitative analysis of the mass of substances

Percentage composition of materials
Percentage of component in a mixture
o Reasons for wanting to know the per cent composition of
a mixture:
To decide whether a newly discovered mineral
deposit contains a sufficiently high percentage of the
required compound to make its extraction from that
deposit economically viable
To determine the composition of soil in a particular
location to see if it is suitable for growing a certain
crop
To determine the amounts of particular substances,
present in water or air to decide how polluted the
samples are
To decide whether a particular commercial mixture
has the same percentage composition as a similar
mixture being marketed by a rival company.
Refer to:
o Gravimetric analysis examples
o

Zeolite: mineral (chemical compound)

o E.g. separating oxygen gas from an air mixture
o Process used selective adsorption (substances get stuck
on the surface of the mineral), while allowing other gases
to pass through
o Uses the property of the difference in particle size.
Chromatography

Mixture is dissolved into a fluid called the mobile phase

(allows the mixture to move quicker).
The fluid is passed through a structure called the
stationary phase.
o Components interact with the stationary phase
differently.
o Hence they move through it at different speeds.
o Note: if it interacts, it will move slowly. If it
doesnt, it will move faster.
Paper chromatography
o
o

Separation technique used for pigments or colours.

Mixture runs up through a thin sheet of paper.

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies

useful data for chemists and other scientists
Gravimetric Analysis

Zeolite Sieve

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in

separating examples of earth materials, identifying the
differences in properties which enable these separations

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they

are introduced in the laboratory

o
o

2.

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are

encountered

Diatomic elements
o

Although most elements are found in

combinations on Earth, some elements are found
uncombined.

Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an

element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined
element.
Monatomic elements

These elements are found uncombined in nature

because they are inert (stable)
E.g. noble gases (Gr 8) He, Ne, Ar, etc.

These elements exist as molecules and are found in

nature bonded with another atom from the same
element.
E.g. H2, N2, O2, F2, Br2, etc.

Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals

according to their physical properties.

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of

their physical properties.