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PROPERTIESOFSTEAMANDWATER

PROPERTIESOFSTEAMANDWATER

PROPERTIESOFSTEAMANDWATER

INTRODUCTION

The process by which we convert water into steam and use the steam to turn a propulsion shaft
encompassesthegenerationandexpansionphasesofthesteamcycle. A study of the properties
of water and steam at these critical phases is necessary to understand the steam cycle. This
lesson defines terms associated with these properties and processes, and explains the use of
steamtablestocalculatetheworkandefficiencycreatedbysteam.

REFERENCES

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BasicThermodynamics
UnderstandingThermodynamics
TheLawsofThermodynamics:AVeryShortIntroduction(VeryShortIntroductions)

INFORMATION
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PROPERTIESOFSTEAMANDWATER

A.BasicThermodynamicTerms

1.Enthalpy (h), measured in British thermal units per pound (mass), or BTU/lbm, represents the total
energy content of steam. It expresses the internal energy and flow work, or the total potential
energyandkineticenergycontainedwithinasubstance.Theadvantageofenthalpyisthatwecan
expressinonetermalloftheenergyinasubstancewhichisduetoitspressureandtemperature.
Enthalpyvaluesareusedtorepresenttheenergylevelofsteamenteringaturbine,avalueuseful
for determining turbine efficiency. By superheating steam, we can add enthalpy to steam without
raisingthepressureofthesteam.Forexample,steamat620psigand850Fcandomoreworkina
turbinethansteamthatis620psigand650F.

2. Entropy (s), measured in BTU/lbmR, represents the unavailability of energy (R=Rankine


temperature scale where 0R = absolute zero and 460R = 0F). The second law of
thermodynamics states that when heat is transferred from high temperature to low temperature
regions, some of the heat will be rejected and not converted into mechanical work. Entropy is a
measureofhowmuchheatmustberejectedtoalowertemperaturereceiveratagivenpressureand
temperature.

a.Acomplexexplanationofthemathematicalsignificanceofthedefinitionofentropyisunnecessary.
It is a term which attempts to describe the universes tendency to evenly distribute all mass and
energythroughoutspace. Processes which produce entropy are possible and those which destroy
entropyareimpossible.

b. Bodies with a high temperature will, when brought in contact with a body of a lower temperature,
alwayscauseheattotransferfromthehotbodytothecoldbody.Thiswilllowertheinternalenergy
ofthehotbodyandraisetheinternalenergyofthecoldbody.Thisistheprinciplethatguidesthe
design and operation of all naval heat exchangers. For example, a main engine lube oil cooler
directshotlubeoilovercoolseawaterpiping,sothatthehotlubeoilwilltransfersomeofitsheatto
thecoolerseawater. If left together indefinitely, the property of entropy would cause the heat from
thelubeoiltobeequallydistributedbetweentheoilandthewater,sothatbothwouldhavethesame
temperature.
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c. Entropy would not be important except for the fact that the purpose of any engine is to collect,
transfer, and use energy. Thus, in a steam plant for example, it is not possible to add energy to
water, boil it and transmit the resulting high energy steam across the relatively cooler engineroom
without some of that energy being lost. Some of this energy will always be lost through system
conditionssuchasineffectivepipelagging,pipingleaks,anddirtyorfouledtubeswhichretardheat
transfer. Operators must constantly attempt to minimize the effects of these conditions to
maximizeplantefficiencyandreducefuelandwatercosts.
3.A working fluid is a substance which receives, transfers and transmits energy in a thermodynamic
system. In most systems, the working substance is a fluid (liquid, vapor or gas). In a steam
system,wateristheworkingfluid.
4.Density(r),measuredinlbm/ft,representsthemassofasubstanceperunitvolume,orhowtightly
packed the molecules are. The more molecules packed in a given space, the more dense the
material. The density of water in a given location of the boiler is critical to the steam generation

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process because relatively dense feedwater will naturally push a less dense steam/water mixture
throughtheboilergeneratingtubes.
5. Specific volume (v SP), measured in ft3/lbm, represents the space occupied per unit mass of a
substance.Itisthemathematicalinverseofdensity. Most engineering equipment is designed for
sizeandstrengthtakingintoconsiderationthespecificvolumeoftheintendedworkingfluid.

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6.Specificweight(g),measuredinlbf/ft3,representstheweightofasubstanceperunitvolume. This
is the density of a substance acted upon by gravity. The pressure of a fluid at the bottom of a
storage tank is a direct function of the height of the fluid in the tank and the specific weight of the
feedwater.Thisresultantpressureisanimportantshipboardconsiderationwithrespecttoproviding
aminimumsuctionpressureforapumpbelowthetanktomovethefluidthroughasystem.

7. The state of a working fluid refers to the physical properties it possesses at a particular
pressure, temperature and volume. If each of these are known with respect to a substance, the
state of the substance is known. The substance can be a subcooled, saturated, or superheated
solid, liquid, or gas. Many systems operate the working fluid with very specific
temperature/pressure relationships. Water is subcooled in the condensate and feed phases of the
steam cycle to allow it to be pumped, saturated in portions of the generation and feed phases for
naturalfloworformaintainingproperchemistry,andsuperheatedintheexpansionphasetoextract
maximumworkfromthesteamtoturnapropulsionturbine.
8. A thermodynamic process is any process which changes the state of the working fluid. These
processes can be classified by the nature of the state change that takes place. Common types of
thermodynamicprocessesincludethefollowing:

a. A reversible process is an ideal process where the working fluid returns to its original state by
conductingtheoriginalprocessinthereversedirection.For a process to be reversible, it must be
able to occur in precisely the reverse order. All energy that was transformed or distributed during
the original process must be capable of being returned to its exact original form, amount and
location.Reversibleprocessesdonotoccurinreallife.
b.Anirreversibleprocessisanyprocesswhichisnotreversible. All real life processes, such as the
basicsteamcycle,areirreversible.
c. An adiabatic process is a state change where there is no transfer of heat to or from the system
during the process. Because heat transfer is relatively slow, any rapidly performed process can
approach being adiabatic. Compression and expansion of working fluids are frequently achieved
adiabaticallywithpumpsandturbines.
d. An isothermal process is a state change in which no temperature change occurs. Note that heat
transfer can occur without causing a change in temperature of the working fluid. In the DFT,
auxiliaryexhaustheatsincomingcondensate,thencondensestoliquidandfallstothebottomofthe
tank. Throughout this process, the temperature of the auxiliary exhaust remains constant at 246
249F.
e. An isobaric process is a state change in which the pressure of the working fluid is constant
throughoutthechange.Anisobaricstatechangeoccursintheboilersuperheater,astheheatofthe
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exitingsteamisincreasedwithoutincreasingitsassociatedpressure.
9.Athermodynamiccycleisarecurringseriesofthermodynamicprocessesthroughwhichaneffectis
produced by the transformation or redistribution of energy. In other words, it is a series of
processes repeated over and over again in the same order. Thermodynamic cycles contain five
basic elements: (1) a working fluid, (2) an engine, (3) a heat source, (4) a heat receiver, and (5) a
pump.Allthermodynamiccyclesmaybeclassifiedasbeingopencyclesorclosedcycles.
a.Aclosedcycleisoneinwhichtheworkingfluidisreused.Steamplantsandrefrigerationcyclesare
closedcycles.Inasteamplant,thewaterundergoesaseriesofprocessesthatchangethestateof
thewater.Eventuallythewaterreturnstoitsoriginalstateandisreadytobeginthecycleagain.
b. An open cycle is one in which the working fluid is not reused. Open cycles typically use the
atmosphereasaworkingfluid.Aninternalcombustionenginerepresentsatypicalopencycle. Air
isdrawnintotheengine,combustedinthecylinders,andexhaustedbacktotheatmosphere.Fresh
airisdrawnintotheenginetobeginthecycleagain.

B.HeatAdditionandTemperature
1.Whenheatisaddedtoamaterial,oneoftwothingswilloccur:thematerialwillchangetemperature
orthematerialwillchangestate.Whenasubstanceisbelowthetemperatureatagivenpressure
requiredtochangestate,theadditionofsensibleheat will raise the temperature of the substance.
Sensibleheatappliedtoapotofwaterwillraiseitstemperatureuntilitboils. Once the substance
reachesthenecessarytemperatureatagivenpressuretochangestate,theadditionoflatent heat
causes the substance to change state. Adding latent heat to the boiling water does not get the
wateranyhotter,butchangestheliquid(water)intoagas(steam).
2.Onecanstatethatacertainamountofheatisrequiredtoraisethetemperatureofasubstance1F.
Thisenergyiscalledthespecificheatcapacity.Thespecificheatcapacityofasubstancedepends
uponthevolumeandpressureofthematerial.Forwater,thespecificheatcapacityis1BTU/lbmF
andremainsconstant.Thismeansthatifweadd1BTUofheatto1lbmofwater,thetemperature
willrise1F.
C.IntroductiontoSteamTables
1.Whenateapotofwaterisplacedonahotburner,sensibleheatbeginstoheatthewater.Theenergy
added to the water raises its internal energy and its temperature. When the water reaches 212F,
thetemperaturenolongerrisesaslatentheatbeginstochangethewaterfromaliquidtoavapor.
The mass inside the teapot is slowly changing from a 100% water / 0% steam mixture into a 0%
water/100%steammixture.Ifweaddonlyhalfthenecessarylatentheat,thenonlyhalfthewater
willboilintosteam.Theresultwouldbea50%water/50%steammixtureat212F.If we add all
the latent heat necessary, then the water at 212F changes completely into steam at 212F.
Continuingtoaddheattothe212Fsteamresultsinatemperatureincrease(superheating),andwe
areagainraisingthetemperaturebyaddingsensibleheat.Refertofigure3.21(sensible/latentheat
andenthalpy).
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2. While the properties of water at atmospheric pressure are commonly known, water under different
pressures will exhibit different properties. When water is boiled at pressures higher than
atmospheric, the same events occur as described above with two exceptions. First, the boiling
temperature will be higher than 212F. Second, less latent heat is required to be added to change
the water completely into steam. If water were to be boiled at a pressure lower than atmospheric
pressure, then we would find that the boiling temperature would be less than 212F and a larger
amountoflatentheatwouldberequiredtochangethewatercompletelyintosteam.Refer to figure
3.22(temperaturevs.latentheat).
a.Whenwaterisbelowtheboilingpoint,theadditionofheatisseenassensibleheat.This water is
saidtobeasubcooledliquid. When enough sensible heat is added so that the temperature of the
waterapproachessaturationtemperaturebutnosteamhasyetbeenformed,thewaterissaidtobe
asaturatedliquid.
b.Asthewateristransformedfromasaturatedliquidtosaturatedsteam,boilingisoccurring.As latent
heat is added, the temperature of the water remains the same but the saturated liquid is being
changedintoasaturatedvapor.Duringthisperiodthewaterisreferredtoasaliquid/vapormixture.
When enough latent heat is added so that all of the liquid is converted into vapor, the water
becomes a saturated vapor. Note that the saturated vapor is 100% vapor and exists at the same
temperatureasthesaturatedliquid.Abovethesaturatedsteampoint,vaporexistsatatemperature
higherthansaturationtemperature.Thisisthesuperheatedvaporregion.
c. Steam tables are a useful tool for determining the properties of steam and water at various
temperaturesandpressures.Thesteamtablesarebrokenintothreetables.

D.MollierDiagram
1.TheMollierdiagramisasmallportionofdatafromthesteamtablesgraphedontoenthalpyentropy
coordinates. It presents the region that is commonly found in propulsion plant steam systems.
ExaminethelastsectionofthesteamtablesforarepresentationofaMollierdiagram.
2.LocatinginformationofftheMollierdiagramisdoneasfollows:Thehorizontalaxisisentropy(s)in
BTU/lbmR. The vertical axis is enthalpy (h) in BTU/lbm. The dark line across the middle of the
chart is called a steam dome because of its shape. Above this line, the data is for superheated
steam. Below this line, the data is for a steamwater mixture. The data directly on the line is for
saturatedsteam.
3. To find data in the steamwater mixture region of the chart, enter the chart using the absolute
pressureand%moisture(y).Once you find the intersection of these two parameters, read off the
numberdirectlyacrossfromtheintersectionpointforenthalpy.Read off the number directly below
theintersectionpointforentropy.
To find data in the superheated region of the chart, enter the chart using the measured temperature and
pressure of the steam. Again, find the intersection point of these two parameters and read off the
valuesforentropyandenthalpy.Noticethatmoisturedoesnotplotinthesuperheatregion.Thisis
becausemoistureisaparameterwhichonlyexistsinsaturatedconditions.
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