ASSIGNMENT ON ADVANCE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

UNIT II

SUBMITTED TO

NAME :A.L.SRIRAM SUDHAN

MR.RAFIQ SIR

REG NO :15230008
M Tech Thermal 1st yr

Question 1: Factors that Effect Ignition delay in CI engines:

Factors that influence ignition delay in diesel engine (Compression Ignition or CI engine) are
1. Compression ratio
2. Inlet air temperature
3. Coolant temperature
4. Jacket water temperature
5. Fuel temperature
6. Intake pressure
7. Air-fuel ratio and
8. Engine size
Compression ratio: With increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag, a higher pressure
increases density resulting in closer contact of the molecules which reduce the time of action when
fuel is injected.
Inlet air temperature: With increase in inlet temperature increases the air temperature after
compression and hence decreases the ignition delay.
Coolant temperature: Increase in engine speed increases cylinder air temperature and thus reduces
ignition lag. Increase in engine speed increases turbulence and this reduces the ignition lag.
Jacket water temperature: With increase in jacket water temperature also increases compressed air
temperature and hence delay period is reduced.
Fuel temperature: Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and chemical delay
period.
Intake pressure (supercharging): Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the autoignition temperature and hence reduces delay period. Since the compression pressure will increase
with intake pressure, the peak pressure will be higher. Also the power output will be more air and
hence more fuel can be injected per stroke.
Air-fuel ratio (load): With increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the combustion temperatures are
lowered and cylinder wall temperatures are reduced and hence the delay period increases, with
increase in load, air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature increases and hence, delay period
decreases.
Engine size: The engine size has little effect on the delay period in milliseconds. As large engines
operate at low revolutions per minute (rpm) because of inertia stress limitations, the delay period in
terms of crank angle is smaller and hence less fuel enters the cylinder during period. Thus combustion
in large slow speed Compression Ignition engines is smooth.
Below table shows how the increase in each variable effects the ignition delay period and the reason
for the cause of delay.

Increase in Variable

Effect on Delay Period

Reason

Cetane number of fuel

Reduces

Reduces the self-ignition temperature

Injection pressure

Reduces

Reduces physical delay due to greater surface

volume ratio.

Reduces

Reduced pressure and temperature when the

ignition begins

Compression ratio

Reduces

Increase air temperature and pressure and

reduces autoignition temperature

Intake temperature

Reduces

Increases air temperature

Injection
advance

timing

Jacket
temperature

water

Reduces

Increases wall and hence air temperature

Reduces

Increases chemical reaction due to better

vaporization

Intake
pressure
Reduces
(supercharging)

Increases density and also reduces auto ignition

Fuel temperature

Engine Speed

Reduces in the order of

Reduces loss of heat
milliseconds

Question 2 :Combustion chambers in CI engines:

The most important function of CI engine combustion chamber is to provide proper mixing of fuel
and air in short time. In order to achieve this, an organized air movement called swirl is provided to
produce high relative velocity between the fuel droplets and the air .When the liquid fuel is injected
into combustion chamber, the spray cone gets disturbed due to air motion and turbulence inside. The
onset of combustion will cause an added turbulence that can be guide d by the shape of the
combustion chamber, makes it necessary to study the combustion design in detail.
C I engine combustion chambers are classified into two categories:
1. OPEN INJECTION (DI) TYPE : This type of combustion chamber is also called an Open
combustion chamber. In this type the entire volume of combustion chamber is located in the main
cylinder and the fuel is injected into this volume.
2. INDIRECT INJECTION (IDI) TYPE: In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space
is divided into two parts, one part in the main cylinder and the other part in the cylinder head. The fuel
injection is effected usually into the part of chamber located in the cylinder head. These chambers are
classified further into :
a) Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is generated
b) Pre combustion chamber in which combustion swirl is induced
c) Air cell in which both compression and combustion swirl are induced.
DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a single
cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to the other and hence with no large
difference in pressure between parts of the chamber during the combustion process. There are many
designs of open chamber some of which are shown below :
In four-stroke engines with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is obtained either by careful
formation of the air intake passages or by masking a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve
whereas in two-stroke engines it is created by suitable form for the inlet ports. These chambers mainly
consist of space formed between a flat cylinder head and cavity in the piston crown in different
shapes. The fuel is injected directly into space. The injection nozzles used for this chamber are
generally of multi hole type working at a relatively high pressure ( about 200 bar)

The main advantages of this type of chambers are:

Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume ratio and
hence, better efficiency.
No cold starting problems.
Fine atomization because of multi hole nozzle.
The drawbacks of these combustion chambers are:
High fuel-injection pressure required and hence complex design of fuel injection pump.

Shallow Depth Chamber : In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in the
piston is quite small. This chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speeds. Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is negligible.

Hemispherical Chamber: This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth to
diameter ratio for a cylindrical chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give
better performance.

Cylindrical Chamber: This design was attempted in recent diesel engines. This is a
modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form of a truncated cone with base angle of
30. The swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly 1800 of circumference. Squish
can also be varied by varying the depth. Toroidal Chamber: The idea behind this shape is to
provide a powerful squish along with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar smoke
ring, within the toroidal chamber. Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is
small and there is better utilisation of oxygen. The cone angle of spray for this type of
chamber is 150 to160.

IN DIRECT INJECTION CHAMBERS:

A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is divided into two or
more distinct compartments connected by restricted passages This creates considerable pressure
differences between them during the combustion process.

Ricardos Swirl Chamber: Swirl chamber consists of a spherical shaped chamber separated from the
engine cylinder and located in the cylinder head. Into this Chamber , about 50% of the air is
transferred during the compression stroke. A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder which enters
the chamber in a tangential direction so that the air coming into this chamber is given a strong rotary
movement inside the swirl chamber and after combustion, the products rush back into the cylinder
through same throat at much higher velocity. This causes considerable heat loss to walls of the
passage which can be reduced by employing a heat insulated passage. This type of combustion
chamber finds its application where fuel quality is difficult to control, where reliability under adverse
conditions is more important than fuel economy. The use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel
spray nozzle is often important consideration for the choice of swirl chamber engine.

PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERT

Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti chamber connected to the main chamber through
a number of small holes (compared to a relatively large passage in the swirl chamber). The precombustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume accounts for about 40% of the total
combustion, space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air into the pre-combustion
chamber. The fuel is injected into the pre-chamber and the combustion is initiated. The resulting
pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their combustion products to rush
out into the main cylinder at high velocity through the small holes. Thus it creates both strong
secondary turbulence and distributes the flaming fuel droplets throughout the air in the main
combustion chamber where bulk of combustion takes place. About 80% of energy is released in main
combustion chamber. The rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure is lower compared to those
in open type chamber. The initial shock if combustion is limited to pre-combustion chamber only. The
pre-combustion chamber has multi fuel capability without any modification in the injection system
because the temperature of pre-chamber. The variation in the optimum injection timing for petrol and
diesel operations is only 2 deg. for this chamber compared to 8 to 10 deg in other chamber design.
Advantages:
(i) Due to short or practically no delay period for the fuel entering the main combustion space,
tendency to knock is minimum, and as such running is smooth.
(ii) The combustion in the third stage is rapid.
(iii) The fuel injection system design need not be critical. Because the mixing of fuel and air takes
place in pre-chamber..
Disadvantages:
(i) The velocity of burning mixture is too high during the passage from pre-chambers, so the heat loss
is very high. This causes reduction in the thermal efficiency, which can be offset by increasing the
compression ratio.

(ii) Cold starting will be difficult as the air loses heat to chamber walls during compression..

M TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER :

The M-combustion chamber is a special type of open combustion chamber, having
combustion chamber in the piston cavity. It differs in principle from other open chamber
designs in that the fuel spray impinges on and spreads over the surface of a spherical cavity in
the piston. Earlier it had usually been assumed that fuel spray impingement was undesirable,
though in most diesel engines some impingement always takes place at full load. The fuel is
injected tangentially from a multi-hole nozzle on the surface of the chamber in the direction
of the air swirl. Injected fuel forms a film, about 0.15 mm thick, on the surface of the
chamber. The combustion is initiated by the auto-ignition of a small portion of fuel which is
air-borne at the very beginning. The amount of this airborne fuel is controlled by selecting a
proper distance between the nozzle tip and the combustion chamber wall. Subsequently the
fuel vapours rise from the hot wall and are mixed with the swirling air in successive layers
and combustion takes place in a near homogeneous air-fuel mixture at the desired rate. The
rate of energy release is thus almost equal to the rate of evaporation of fuel. Thus, even
though the engine works on diesel cycle, once the ignition takes place, the combustion
characteristics are similar to those of OTTO cycle combustion..

M TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

QUESTION: 3 TURBOCHARGING
Turbochargers were first used in production aircraft engines , although they were less common than
engine-driven centrifugal superchargers. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbo charged diesel
engines began appearing in the 1920s. Turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by
the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U.S. aircraft with turbochargers include
the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. The technology was
also used in experimental fittings by a number of other manufacturers, notably a variety of models,
but the need for advanced high-temperature metals in the turbine kept them out of widespread use
Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity
engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power and considerably higher
torque.

TURBOCHARGING VS SUPERCHARGING:

In contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains,
shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, placing a mechanical load on the
engine.. For example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the
supercharger uses about 150 horsepower (110 kilowatts). Yet the benefits outweigh the costs; for the
150 hp (110 kW) to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net
gain of 250 hp (190 kW). This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes
apparent; the engine must withstand the net power output of the engine plus the power to drive the
supercharger.
Another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to
turbochargers (Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of a compressor's ability to compress air without
adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in
elevated output temperature; however, more efficient compressors produce less excess heat. Roots
superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers. Thus, for a given volume
and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen
molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the
disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more
power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency (however, due to heat transfer from the
hot exhaust, considerable heating does occur).
By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although
turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, increasing pumping losses. This is more
efficient, because while the increased back pressure taxes the piston exhaust stroke, much of the
energy driving the turbine is provided by the still-expanding exhaust gas that would otherwise be
wasted as heat through the tailpipe. In contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of
turbocharging is what is referred to as "lag" or "spool time". This is the time between the demand for
an increase in power (the throttle being opened) and the turbocharger(s) providing increased intake
pressure, and hence increased power.
Throttle lag occurs because turbochargers rely on the buildup of exhaust gas pressure to drive the
turbine. In variable output systems such as automobile engines, exhaust gas pressure at idle, low
engine speeds, or low throttle is usually insufficient to drive the turbine. Only when the engine
reaches sufficient speed does the turbine section start to spool up, or spin fast enough to produce
intake pressure above atmospheric pressure.

A combination of an exhaust-driven turbocharger and an engine-driven supercharger can mitigate the

weaknesses of both. This technique is called twincharging.
In the case of Electro-Motive Diesel's two-stroke engines, the mechanically assisted turbocharger is
not specifically a twincharger, as the engine uses the mechanical assistance to charge air only at lower
engine speeds and startup. Once above notch # 5, the engine uses true turbocharging. This differs
from a turbocharger that uses the compressor section of the turbo-compressor only during starting
and, as a two-stroke engines cannot naturally aspirate, and, according to SAE definitions, a two-stroke
engine with a mechanically assisted compressor during idle and low throttle is considered naturally
aspirated uses,,

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF TURBOCHARGING:

In normally aspirated piston engines, intake gases are "pushed" into the engine by atmospheric
pressure filling the volumetric void caused by the downward stroke of the piston. (which creates a
low-pressure area), similar to drawing liquid using a syringe. The amount of air actually inspirited
compared to the theoretical amount if the engine could maintain atmospheric pressure, is
called volumetric efficiency. The objective of a turbocharger is to improve an engine's volumetric
efficiency by increasing density of the intake gas (usually air) allowing more power per engine cycle.
The turbocharger's compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters into the intake
manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each
intake stroke. The power needed to spin the centrifugal compressor is derived from the kinetic energy
of the engine's exhaust gases..
A turbocharger may also be used to increase fuel efficiency without increasing power. This is
achieved by recovering waste energy in the exhaust and feeding it back into the engine intake. By
using this otherwise wasted energy to increase the mass of air, it becomes easier to ensure that all fuel
is burned before being vented at the start of the exhaust stage. The increased temperature from the
higher pressure gives a higher Carnot efficiency.
The control of turbochargers has changed dramatically over the 100-plus years of its use. Modern
turbochargers can use blow-off valves and variable geometry, as discussed in later sections.
The reduced density of intake air is often compounded by the loss of atmospheric density seen with
elevated altitudes. Thus, a natural use of the turbocharger is with aircraft engines. As an aircraft
climbs to higher altitudes, the pressure of the surrounding air quickly falls off. At 5,486 metres

(17,999 ft), the air is at half the pressure of sea level, which means that the engine produces less than
half-power at this altitude.

Pressure increase (or boost):

In automotive applications, boost refers to the amount by which intake manifold pressure
exceeds atmospheric pressure. This is representative of the extra air pressure that is achieved over
what would be achieved without the forced induction. The level of boost may be shown on a pressure
gauge, usually in bar, psi or possibly kPa.
Turbocharger lag:
Turbocharger lag (turbo lag) is the time required to change power output in response to a throttle
change, noticed as a hesitation or slowed throttle response when accelerating as compared to a
naturally aspirated engine. This is due to the time needed for the exhaust system and turbocharger to
generate the required boost. Inertia, friction, and compressor load are the primary contributors to
turbocharger lag. Superchargers do not suffer this problem, because the turbine is eliminated due to
the compressor being directly powered by the engine.
Turbocharger applications can be categorized into those that require changes in output power (such as
automotive) and those that do not (such as marine, aircraft, commercial automotive, industrial,
engine-generators, and locomotives). While important to varying degrees, turbocharger lag is most
problematic in applications that require rapid changes in power output. Engine designs reduce lag in a
number of ways:

Lowering the rotational inertia of the turbocharger by using lower radius parts and ceramic and
other lighter materials
Changing the turbine's aspect ratio
Increasing upper-deck air pressure (compressor discharge) and improving wastegate response
Reducing bearing frictional losses, e.g., using a foil bearing rather than a conventional oil bearing
Using variable-nozzle or twin-scroll turbochargers
Decreasing the volume of the upper-deck piping
Using multiple turbochargers sequentially or in parallel
Using an antilag system
Using a turbocharger spool valve to increase exhaust gas flow speed to the (twin-scroll) turbine
Boost threshold:
The boost threshold of a turbocharger system is the lower bound of the region within which the
compressor operates. Below a certain rate of flow, a compressor produces insignificant boost. This
limits boost at a particular RPM, regardless of exhaust gas pressure. Newer turbocharger and engine
developments have steadily reduced boost thresholds.
Electrical boosting ("E-boosting") is a new technology under development. It uses an electric motor to
bring the turbocharger up to operating speed quicker than possible using available exhaust gases.An
alternative to e-boosting is to completely separate the turbine and compressor into a turbine-generator
and electric-compressor as in the hybrid turbocharger. This makes compressor speed independent of
turbine speed. In 1981, a similar system that used a hydraulic drive system and overspeed clutch
arrangement accelerated the turbocharger of the MV Canadian Pioneer (Doxford 76J4CR engine)
Turbochargers start producing boost only when a certain amount of kinetic energy is present in the
exhaust gasses. Without adequate exhaust gas flow to spin the turbine blades, the turbocharger cannot
produce the necessary force needed to compress the air going into the engine. The boost threshold is
determined by the engine displacement, engine rpm, throttle opening, and the size of the turbocharger.
The operating speed (rpm) at which there is enough exhaust gas momentum to compress the air going
into the engine is called the "boost threshold rpm".

QUESTION 4: AIR MOTION:

AIR MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER
The air motion inside the cylinder greatly influences the performance of diesel engines. It is one of the
major factors that controls the fuel-air mixing in diesel engines. Air-fuel mixing influences
combustion, performance and emission level in the engine. The air motion inside the cylinder mainly
depends on manifold design, inlet and exhaust valve profile and combustion chamber configuration.
The initial in-cylinder intake flow pattern is set up by the intake process, and then it is modified
during the compression process. The shape of the bowl in the piston and the intake system, control the
turbulence level and air-fuel mixing of the DI diesel engine. The variation of shape of intake system,
shape of piston cavity, etc. lead to a change in the flow field inside the engine.
EFFECTS OF AIR MOTION:
The air motion inside the cylinder:
1. Atomizes the injected fuel into droplets of different sizes.
2. Distributes the fuel droplets uniformly in the air charge.
3. Mixes injected fuel droplets with the air mass.
4. Assists combustion of fuel droplets.
5. Peels off the combustion products from the surface of the burning drops as they are being
consumed.
6. Supplies fresh air to the interior portion of the fuel drops and thereby ensures complete combustion.
7. Reduces delay period.
8. Reduces after burning of the fuel.
9. Better utilization of air contained in the cylinder.
TYPES OF AIR MOTION
The air motion in a diesel engine is generally caused by either by the intake port during the suction
stroke or by combustion chamber geometry during the compression stroke. Three different elements
of the air motion present during intake to expansion strokes in a diesel engine cylinder have been
classified as
1) Swirl
2) Squish
3) Turbulence

SWIRL:

Swirl is defined as the organized rotation of the charge about the cylinder axis. It is created by
bringing the intake flow into the cylinder with an initial angular momentum. Swirl is generated during
the intake process in diesel engines by the intake port and subsequently by combustion chamber
geometry during the compression stroke. The swirl intensity increases the tangential component of the
velocity of air inside the cylinder, which aids in the mixing of fuel and air, and significantly affects
the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engines.

Suction swirl:
During suction, air is admitted into the engine cylinder in a tangential direction. The entering air is
deflected by the cylinder wall. Air thereby assumes a rotary motion i.e. swirl about the cylinder axis.
This swirl is called suction swirl. Helical ports produce swirl upstream of the valve and directed ports
have it downstream. In diesel engines, tangential entry of air is effected by one of the following
methods:
1. By masking a portion of the inlet valve.
2. By angling the inlet port in the desired direction.
3. By providing a lip in the inlet port, over one side of the inlet valve..
3.3.1.2 Compression swirl:
The combustion chamber cavity tends to modify the swirl as the piston approaches the Top Dead
Centre (TDC) position during the compression process. As the piston approaches TDC the rotating air
is forced into the piston bowl. The rotational force is magnified by the reduced diameter of the piston
bowl. Thin, deep bowls have a higher swirl rate.
3.3.2 Squish:
The squish motion of air is brought about by a recess in the piston crown. At the end of the
compression stroke, the piston is brought to within a very small distance from the cylinder head. This
fact causes a flow of air from the periphery of the cylinder to its center and into the recess in the
piston crown. This radial inward movement of air is called squish by Ricardo. The combustion recess,
into which the air mass is squeezed in, is located either in the piston crown or in the cylinder head.
The former arrangement is preferred and is widely used. In this case, heat losses from the compressed
air will be lesser. This is because the piston crown is not cooled to that extent as the cylinder head
which is cooled by the coolant.

Schematic of squish air motion

Turbulence:
Turbulence contributes to the dispersion of fuel and the micro mixing of fuel and air
respectively. As such, they greatly influence the diesel engine performance. The flow
processes in the engine cylinder are turbulent. In turbulent flows, the rates of transfer and
mixing are several times greater than the rates due to molecular diffusion. This turbulent
diffusion results from the local fluctuations in the flow field. It leads to increased rates of
momentum and heat and mass transfer, and is essential to the satisfactory operation of Spark
Ignition and Diesel engines.

QUESTION :5 FUEL SPRAY BEHAVIOUR:

The ignition quality tester (IQT) is a bench-scale, constant-volume combustion device (Figure 1) with
a spray injection system designed for the direct measurement of the ignition delay of liquid fuels.
Ignition delay is then used to calculate a derived cetane number (DCN) using the ASTM D6890-08
method with high repeatability (0.85 DCN, 34-61 DCN range) [14], providing high sensitivity for
middle distillate fuels. A piezo-electric pressure transducer installed in the combustion chamber
measures the pressure rise during the combustion event; the time delay between the start of injection
(SOI) and the rise in combustion pressure to the combustion pressure recovery point of injected fuel
determines the ignition delay for various fuels [9,10] (Figure 2). The ignition delay comprises both
physical processes (e.g., spray breakup, vaporization, air entrainment) and the chemical kinetics of
ignition [9]. A pneumatically driven mechanical fuel pump is used for the injection of the fuel along
with a single-hole S-type delayed (inward opening) pintle nozzle. The injection pressure, as
experimentally determined, is approximately 225 bar during the main injection period; n-heptane
(99.5%, Fluka) is used for all experiments in this study and is chosen because of its use as a
calibration fuel for the IQT, with a reference ignition delay time of 3.78 ms

Several electric rod heaters are inserted into the outer wall of the stainless steel combustion chamber ,
they maintain a constant charge temperature of approximately 550C (in the vicinity of the nozzle
tip). There is approximately a 40C temperature gradient (increase) to the second thermocouple (7 cm
down range) along the axial direction of the combustion chamber. The lower injection end
temperature is due to the heat transfer to the coolant around the injection nozzle body and surface
exposure to ambient air ..The chamber (volume 0.21 L) is pressurized to approximately 21 bar prior
to injection of the fuel

Schematic of the IQT combustion chamber

Spray characterization of the IQT fuel injection system:
The goal of validating ignition kinetic models using the IQT requires a thorough understanding of the
combustion and injection processes within the IQT, as the measured ignition delay is a combination of
the physical dynamics of the spray and combustion chemistry. A three-dimensional model was
developed and utilized to gain a better understanding of the injection and combustion processes.
Compared with a reciprocating engine, the well-controlled experimental parameters of the IQTsuch
as charge pressure, chamber wall temperature, air temperature, oxygen concentration, and mass of
fuel injectedfacilitate accurate implementation of these parameters into the model. This improves
the models ability to predict realistic and representative combustion events. To ensure the accuracy
of the modeled spray, experimental tests capture IQT injection system spray events at ambient
conditions using high-speed charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging.

High-speed imaging.
The IQT injection system is placed in a fume hood and controlled using the systems software to
study fuel spray under ambient conditions (Ta = 22-25C, Pa = 0.87 bar). The injection pressures
(~225 bar at 0.027-in. needle-lift) are the same ones used during normal operation of the IQT. The
needle-lift sensor is attached to the injector body during imaging to correlate the position of the
injector needle with the fuel spray. The fuel spray images are captured using a Photron SA3 (120kM2) high-speed digital camera capable of capturing images at 250,000 frames per second (fps). For
this study, images are captured at 10,000 fps, resulting in a 0.1 ms time-step and 512x256 resolution
for a main injection period of approximately 2 ms. However, high-speed imaging continued over a
period of 46 ms to capture secondary fuel spray injections (see the needle-lift traces in Figure 2).
High-speed imaging of the fuel spray provides injection velocity, cone angle, and penetration depth as
a function of the injection period ..

Fuel injection parameters.

The discharge coefficient is defined as the ratio of the experimentally determined mass injection rate
to the theoretical mass injection rate [19]. As a result of the complex geometry of the S-type pintle
nozzle and injector needle movement, the mass injection rate changes as functions of needle
displacement (injection pressure) and nozzle orifice. Because the bulk of the fuel is injected from 2.5
to 3.5 ms (Figure 2), the injection process is simplified here by considering only the steady-state fuel
flow during the main injection period, in which the injection pressure and nozzle orifice are constant.
Thus, the discharge coefficient calculated from the mass flow rate during this period is considered the
input parameter for the numerical model. Further work is required to determine the discharge
coefficient during the entire injection process, which will lead to a detailed look-up table that accounts
for the change in needle-lift position (injection pressure) and orifice area. The measured fuel spray tip
velocities, along with needle-lift position as a function of the injection period, are in the current lookup table. The fuel spray parameters from both experiments and imaging are utilized in the numerical
model. Initial droplet size is not measured; thus, maximum droplet size is estimated based on the
spacing of the orifice of the injector nozzle as a function of time; details are presented later in this
paper. The mass of fuel injected is an average of three test collections of the fuel (each composing 10
injections) as directed by the IQT manual.

QUESTION 6: STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES:

The combustion in CI engine is considered to b considered to be taking place in four phases:: e taking
place in four phases:
Ignition Delay period Ignition Delay period/Pre-flame combustion flame combustion flame
combustion
Uncontrolled combustion Uncontrolled combustion Controlled combustion Controlled combustion
After burning After burning Ignition Delay period /Pre- Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame
combustion flame combustion The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the
combustion chamber.

Ignition Delay period /Pre- Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion flame
combustion:
There is a definite period of inactivity between the time is a definite period of inactivity between the
time of injection and of injection and of injection and the actual burning the actual burning the actual
burning this period is known as the ignition delay period. Period is known as the ignition delay
period. The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on both engine design
influence on both engine design and performance. It is of extreme importance because of its effect on
both the combustion rate and knocking and also its influence on engine starting ability and the
presence of smoke in the exhaust. Presence of smoke in the exhaust.

Period of rapid combustion:

The period of rapid combustion is counted from end of delay period from end of delay period or the
beginning of the combustion to the point of maximum inning of the combustion to the point of
maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. The rate of heat-release is release is maximum during
maximum during this period. This is also known as uncontrolled combustion phase, This is also
known as uncontrolled combustion phase, because it is difficult to it is difficult to control the amount
of control the amount of burning process of burning. It may be noted that the pressure reached during
the period of rapid combustion will depend on the duration of the delay period (the long depend on
the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay the more rapid and the delay the more rapid and
higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have been present in the cylinder before the rate of
burning comes under control). before the rate of burning comes under control).

Period of controlled combustion:

The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled combustion.. The
temperature and The temperature and temperature and pressure in the second stage pressure in the
second stage pressure in the second stage are so high that fuel droplets are so high that fuel droplets
injected burn almost as they enter injected burn almost as they enter and find and find and find the
necessary oxygen the necessary oxygen the necessary oxygen and any further and any further pressure
rise can be controlled by injection rate. pressure rise can be controlled by injection rate. rate. The
period of controlled combustion is rolled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle
temperature.

PERIOD OF AFTER BURNING:

Combustion does not stop with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt and partially
burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber partially burnt fuel particles left as soon as they as
soon as they come into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain duration called
the after-burning period.. This burning may continue in expansion stroke up to70 to 80% 70 to 80%
of crank travel from TDC..

TWO MARK QUESTIONS:

QUESTION 1: SQUISH MOTION,SWIRL MOTION,TUMBLE MOTION,TURBULENCE
MOTION:

Swirl:
Swirl is defined as the organized rotation of the charge about the cylinder axis. It is created by
bringing the intake flow into the cylinder with an initial angular momentum. Swirl is generated during
the intake process in diesel engines by the intake port and subsequently by combustion chamber
geometry during the compression stroke. The swirl increase the tangential component of the velocity
of air inside the cylinder, which aids in the mixing of fuel and air, and significantly affects the
combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engines.

Squish:
The squish motion of air is brought about by a recess in the piston crown. At the end of the
compression stroke, the piston is brought to within a very small distance from the cylinder head. This
fact causes a flow of air from the periphery of the cylinder to its center and into the recess in the
piston crown. This radial inward movement of air is called squish by Ricardo. The combustion recess,
into which the air mass is squeezed in, is located either in the piston crown or in the cylinder head.
The former arrangement is preferred and is widely used. In this case, heat losses from the compressed
air will be lesser. This is because the piston crown is not cooled to that extent as the cylinder head
which is cooled by the coolant.

Turbulence:
Turbulence contributes to the dispersion of fuel and the micro mixing of fuel and air respectively. As
such, they greatly influence the diesel engine performance. The flow processes in the engine cylinder
are turbulent. In turbulent flows, the rates of transfer and mixing are several times greater than the
rates due to molecular diffusion. This turbulent diffusion results from the local fluctuations in the flow
field. It leads to increased rates of momentum and heat and mass transfer, and is essential to the
satisfactory operation of Spark Ignition and Diesel engines.

Tumble:
Another intake-generated large-scale vertical flow pattern is the tumbling motion. The rotation axis of
vortex is normal to the cylinder axis, resembling the rotation of a barrel. It is formed about a
circumferential axis near the edge of the clearance volume in the piston crown or in the cylinder head,
which is caused by squishing of the in-cylinder volume as piston reaches near TDC. Thus, tumbling
motion is also called as vertical swirl or barrel swirl. To generate a pure tumbling motion for single
intake-valve cylinders, the directional vector of intake jet should be on the plane defined by the
cylinder axis and the intake valve axis. A tumbling flow with both the radial and the axial motion is
therefore expected in the cylindrical coordinate. If an intake jet has only the tangential and the axial
components in the cylindrical coordinate, a pure swirl flow is produced...

QUESTION 2: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUPERCHARGING AND

TURBOCHRAGING:
SUPERCHARGER:
A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to
an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn
more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power.
Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, or chain
connected to the engine's crankshaft
TURBOCHARGER:
Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were
classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term "supercharger" is usually applied only to
mechanically driven forced induction devices. The key difference between a turbocharger and a
conventional supercharger is that a supercharger is mechanically driven by the engine, often through a
belt connected to the crankshaft, whereas a turbocharger is powered by a turbine driven by the
engine's exhaust gas. Compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more
efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a
turbocharger.
Turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines.
They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines. They have
also been found useful in automotive fuel cells.