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Original article
Department of Environmental Science, School of Vocational Studies and Applied Sciences, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, UP 201303, India
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, New Delhi Branch, 110060, India
Clarkson University, Box 5708, Potsdam, NY 13699-5708, USA
d
India Meteorological Department, Lodi Road, New Delhi 110003, India
b
c
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 6 November 2015
Received in revised form
20 April 2016
Accepted 21 April 2016
Available online 11 May 2016
Keywords:
Oxides of nitrogen
Carbon monoxide
Ozone
Air quality monitoring stations
Resultant wind vector
1. Introduction
Clean air is a basic necessity for sound health and the well-being
of humans, animals, and plants. Unfortunately, during the past few
decades, the atmosphere has become progressively more polluted
particularly in developing countries. Large increases in population
density, industrial development, and vehicular trafc are causing
worsening air pollution and pose serious environmental threats in
many urban and surrounding areas. One of the challenging issues in
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: styagi6@gmail.com (S. Tyagi).
Peer review under responsibility of Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control.
the ever growing industrial and urban environments is atmospheric trace gases (Wang et al., 2012). The major gaseous air pollutants are oxides of carbon (COx), nitrogen (NOx) and sulfur (SOx)
that are emitted by various sources including transportation, power
generation, refuse incineration, industrial and domestic fuel combustion (Smith, 2004). Extensive use of fossil fuels in urban transportation and industry has led to signicant increases in gaseous
pollutant concentrations (Rai et al., 2011) mostly through combustion (Khare, 2012; Andreae and Merlet, 2001). One of the other
major contributors to ne particles and gaseous pollutants over the
northern India is agricultural residue burning following the harvest
(Awasthi et al., 2011).
The National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi with an area of
1483 km2 and a population density (11,320 per km2) (Delhi
Statistical Hand Book, 2014) is a developing megacity with a very
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.04.008
1309-1042/Copyright 2016 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
809
810
Fig. 1. Map of NCR of Delhi depicting Air Quality Monitoring Stations (AMSs) & Meteorological Observatories (MOs).
Running mean
Concentrations
Daily mean
60
50
40
30
20
(A)
5
4
3
2
1
(B)
90
75
60
45
30
15
(C)
30
60
Monthly mean
811
monsoon season (1.05) and was lower in the pre-monsoon season (0.79). The daily mean concentrations of NO2 were lower than
the Indian NAAQS (42.5 ppb) (CPCB, 2012) as well as the USEPA
standard (53 ppb) (USEPA, 2015) by 56% and 64%, respectively.
Ahammed et al. (2006) reported an annual average NOx mixing
ratio of z3.9 ppb in Anantapur, a semi-arid site in India during
2001e2003. This value was quite low as compared to the NCR of
Delhi concentrations of NOx. Concentrations of NOx (32e272 ppb)
in Delhi during the winter months of 1993 (Singh et al., 1997)
showed a wider variation compared to the present study. Tiwari
et al. (2015) found that lower concentrations of NO (17.2 ppb),
NO2 (12.5 ppb) and NOx (29.7 ppb) during the year 2010e12 in a
single station monitoring as compared to NCR of Delhi values.
Kumar et al. (2015) reported average values of NO (NO2) of 5.0
(11.3), 4.1 (8.6), and 4.0 (10.5) ppb for the winter, autumn and
summer respectively over Delhi that values were much lower than
the values observed in the present study.
Day of year
Conc. in ppb
Conc. in ppm
Conc. in ppm
Fig. 2. Daily, running and monthly mean (standard deviation) concentrations in ppb,
ppm and ppb of variation of NOx (A), CO (B) and O3 (C) respectively over NCR of Delhi
during the study period.
NO
42
35
28
21
14
7
0
4
3
2
1
0
NO2
CO
O3
60
40
20
As, NOx, the daily variability of CO along with its 20 days running
mean values at all seven AMSs are plotted (Fig. 2) and the daily
mean CO concentration across NCR of Delhi was 2.3 0.6 ppm and
varied from 1.3 to 5.1 ppm. The mean 1-hr concentration of CO is
much lower than NAAQS (z4 ppm) and USEPA standard (35 ppm)
(CPCB, 2012; USEPA, 2015). Goyal et al. (2013) reported vehicle
emissions of CO, approximately 509 tons per day in Delhi for the
year 2008e2009. It was found that hourly average CO values varied
from 0.09 to 19.57 ppm across the AMSs. The annual mean
NCMRWF concentration (2.7 0.9 ppm) was 19% higher than the
mean concentrations of NCR of Delhi followed by IMD
(2.5 0.9 ppm), IGI (2.4 0.9 ppm), DU (2.3 0.9 ppm), IITM
(2.1 1.0 ppm), CRRI (2 0.9 ppm) and CVR (1.8 0.8 ppm) (Fig. 3).
Seasonally, the post-monsoon (2.5 0.4 ppm) and winter
(2.5 0.3 ppm) mean concentrations of CO were the highest followed by the pre-monsoon (2.4 0.8 ppm) season. However,
approximately 17% lower (than the annual mean value) concentrations were observed during the south-west (SW) monsoon
(1.9 0.3 ppm) season.
Fig. 4 shows the average diurnal pattern of CO concentrations
over NCR of Delhi. Overall, the lowest area average diurnal
CVR
CRRI
DU
IITM
IMD NCMRWF
IGI
CRRI
DU
IITM
IMD
NCMRWF
IGI
Mean
Monitoring sites
3.2
Fig. 3. Annual mean mass concentrations and their standard deviation of NO, NO2, CO
and O3 over NCR of Delhi during the study period.
Concentrations in ppm
concentrations of NOx were z11% higher than the mean concentration across the region. This higher value is the result of higher
diesel vehicular trafc on the NH-2 in the close proximity of CRRI
AMS.
The air quality over the residential and industrial locations
across the Indian cities has indicated rapid increases in NOx concentrations with some locations showing values as high as
100e240 mg/m3; exceeding the permissible limits. These concentrations are likely to increase further in coming years
(Kunhikrishnan et al., 2006). Seasonally, the variation of the concentrations of NOx was highest in the post-monsoon
(40.8 4.5 ppb) and monsoon (40.8 4.5 ppb) seasons
decreasing in the pre-monsoon (36.9 4.5 ppb) and winter
(36.5 6.5 ppb). The NO/NO2 ratio was higher during the post-
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour of the day
Fig. 4. Diurnal variation of CO over NCR of Delhi of AMSs during the study period.
70
CVR
DU
IMD
IGI
65
60
Concentrations in ppb
812
CRRI
IITM
NCMRWF
Mean
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour of Day
Fig. 5. Diurnal variation of O3 over different locations over NCR of Delhi during 2014.
3.3. Ozone
The daily O3 variability at all the seven AMSs during the study
period is depicted in Fig. 2 and the mean concentration across NCR
of Delhi were 37.5 11 ppb varying from 13.9 to 86.0 ppb which is
much lower than the national standards (CPCB, 2012). A signicant
variability in the annual mean concentrations of O3 were observed
among the monitoring locations with highest (43.3 10.9 ppb) at
CRRI Mathura Road AMS followed by CVR (42.4 23.7 ppb), DU
(37.3 15.8 ppb), IITM (36.5 16.4 ppb), IGI (34.5 14.6 ppb),
NCMRWF (33.2 19.5 ppb), and IMD (32.9 12.9 ppb) (Fig. 3).
Seasonally, during the post monsoon, O3 concentrations were
highest (mean 45.3 9.5 ppb) followed by the SW monsoon
(mean 39.8 8.0 ppb), pre-monsoon (mean 36.0 9.1 ppb) and
winter (mean 23.0 5.4 ppb). The concentrations were lowest in
the winter months and started increasing subsequently till the post
monsoon season. This large seasonal variability in the concentrations of O3 and its precursors is due to the impact of variability in
meteorological conditions as well as different emission sources.
The lower concentrations in winter months may be attributed to
the shorter daylight period, the lower solar radiation (Wang and
Hao, 2012) as well as rainfall (~total rainfall in winter: 45.7 mm).
The highest concentrations of O3 in post monsoon were due to the
excessive biomass burning over northwest parts (Punjab & Haryana
states) of the study region (Kaskaoutis et al., 2013; Chateld and
Delany, 1990). Kumar et al. (2015) reported highest/lowest concentrations (in ppb) of O3 at three different locations in Delhi (49.3/
30.7 (Dariyapur village: rural area), 38.8/23.9 (Jawaharlal Nehru
University: urban/rural mixed area), and 35.1/21.5 (Connaught
Place: high trafc area) during the pre-monsoon season and suggested that it is due to photochemical oxidation by higher solar
radiation and temperature. Our study is in agreement with Khoder
(2009) in Egypt, Kourtidis et al. (2002) in Greece and Wang and Hao
(2012) in Beijing.
Fig. 5 shows the diurnal pattern of concentrations of O3 at
different monitoring locations over NCR of Delhi. The diurnal variations of O3 concentrations these AMSs were characterized by the
high concentrations during the daytime (07:00 to 17:00 h LT:
43.6 ppb) and low concentration (31.1 ppb) during the late evening
and early morning hours (18:00 to 06:00 h LT) which is approximately 40% higher. From 07:00 onwards, the O3 concentrations
start increasing gradually just after sunrise coinciding with the
increasing solar radiation. It was observed that highest concentrations (51.7 ppb) were around 15:00 h LT thereafter it is started
decreasing and maintained lower values during the entire night
due to lack of sunlight. In addition to solar ux variations, emissions
from anthropogenic activity, planetary boundary layer forces,
mixing processes of both horizontal and vertical convection and
meteorological element also dominate in the variations in O3
concentrations (Nishanth et al., 2014; references therein). Tiwari
et al. (2015) reported ozone concentrations start increasing during the morning (after 07:00 h LT), following sunrise and reach
maximum around 15:00 h LT. Subsequently, it starts declining. NO2
decreases as O3 increases because it is a precursor for the formation
of ozone and is also converted to NOx. O3 is a secondary pollutant
formed through a series of photochemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx NO and NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under intense solar radiation. A
comparison of Figs. 4 and 5 reveal reverse diurnal pattern with
lowest concentrations of CO being observed during the afternoon
hours when O3 showed a peak. The daytime O3 concentration
buildup is a pronounced feature of urban polluted sites (Lal et al.,
2000). The mean concentration value of O3 (13.9e86.0 ppb)
across NCR of Delhi in present study was found to be less than the
values of O3 (34e126 ppb) in Delhi during the winter months of
1993 (Singh et al., 1997) and at Ahmedabad (12e33 ppb) from 1991
to 95 (Lal et al., 2000). Kumar et al. (2015) also reported large
variability in the diurnal analysis of O3 characterized by daytime
maxima/(night-time minima) having concentrations 50.2/(17.2),
46.1/(15.7), and 56.7/(23.6) ppb at three different sites in Delhi
during 2013e14.
813
Fig. 6. Annual distribution of wind speed (m/s) with wind direction at (A) Hindon MO & (B) IGI airport Palam MO during 2014.
AMS from the Sahibabad industrial area (located NW-7 km). The
N-S oriented national highway (NH-24) lies just 500 m NW with
constant heavy trafc. There are densely populated areas,
Makanpur Colony, Rajeev Nagar, Sagam Park, Partap Vihar etc.,
lying to the west and northwest (Fig. 7). Fig. 6B shows that the
annual resultant wind vector for the Palam MO was WNW [288
(27%)] with wind speed varying from 2.1 to 5.7 m/s. The IGI
airport Palam is spread over an area of 5106 acres (AAI, 2015)
Fig. 7. Wind rose of Hindon MO, superimposed on NCMRWF, Noida AMS using Google earth map.
814
(Gaur et al., 2014), Pune (Beig et al., 2007), and Ahmadabad (Beig
et al., 2007), respectively. For CO, the concentrations were found
to be higher by z2, 4 and 7 times in comparison to Kanpur (Gaur
et al., 2014), Anantpur (Ahammed et al., 2006) and Nainital
(Kumar et al., 2010). The O3 concentrations were found to z6%, 2%
and 8% higher than Delhi (Tiwari et al., 2015), Pune (Beig et al.,
2007) and Ahmedabad (Beig et al., 2007) respectively, and lower
by z1% compared to values measured in Nainital (Kumar et al.,
2010).
4. Conclusions
Measurement of NOx (NO NO2), CO, and O3 at seven different
AMSs across the NCR of Delhi were made during 2014. Daily mean
concentrations of NOx, CO, and O3 over NCR of Delhi were
37.1 11.6 ppb (NO: 18.3 and NO2: 18.8 ppb), 2.3 0.6 ppm, and
37.5 11 ppb, respectively. Daily concentrations of CO at NCMRWF,
NOIDA AMS were higher than mean values across NCR of Delhi. CO
and O3 show reverse diurnal patterns with lowest CO concentrations and highest O3 concentration during the afternoon hours. The
highest diurnal CO concentrations were observed during midnight
due to nocturnal boundary conditions whereas high diurnal O3
concentrations were observed during day time after sunrise, coinciding with the increasing solar radiation. Possible local sources of
gaseous pollutants were identied by analyzing the surface wind
direction at the Hindon and Palam MOs where the annual resultant
wind vectors were northwesterly 338 (57%) and westerly 228
(27%), respectively. Local NO emissions substantially reduce the
urban ozone concentrations as can be seen by the concentrations of
untitrated NO. Such high NO emissions can be expected to result in
high ozone concentrations in downwind areas. The high NO
emissions are likely the result of the switch of a signicant portion
of the vehicular eet to CNG. Although such changes result in the
lower particulate matter and CO emissions, they result in higher NO
concentrations. This conclusion is supported by the relatively low
CO and high NO concentrations observed across the study area.
Table 1
Comparative results of gaseous pollutants concentration in cities of India.
City
Study period
NO (ppb)
NO2 (ppb)
NOx (ppb)
CO (ppm)
O3 (ppb)
Present study
Delhia
Delhib
New Delhic
Agrad
Kanpure
Punef
Ahmedabadg
Anantapurh
Anantapuri
Kannurj
Nainitalk
Mt. Abul
Jan.eDec. 2014
Jan. 2013eDec.2014
Sep. 2010eAug. 2012
Jan. 2000eDec. 2009
Nov.eFeb. 2003e05
Jun. 2009eMay 2013
Jun. 2003eMay 2004
Jun. 2003eMay 2004
Jan.2001eDec. 2003
Jan.eDec. 2010
Nov. 2009eOct. 2010
Oct. 2006eDec. 2008
Jan. 1993eDec. 2000
18.8
19.0
2.3
17.2
12.5
26.1
37.8
16.6
29.3
37.5
29.1
23.6
15.8
26.1
27.9
30.9
20.7
35.9
40.7
18.4
43.9
39.9
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
5.7
9.6
9.5
3.9
5.1
2.5
4.5
5.9
2.7
0.6
0.7
1.5 1.4
2.0
22.5
0.71 0.2
0.72 0.4
0.44 0.1
0.28 0.2
0.13 0.1
5.7
17.8
14
5.5
3.7
4.4
11.5
10.8
Acknowledgements
Authors thank the Vice Chancellor, Gautam Buddha University
for the encouragement and support during the study period. Authors are also thankful to Director General, Indian Meteorological
Department (IMD); Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Meteorology), Indian Air Force and Director, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
(IITM) for providing requisite data and guidance.
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