Chapter02.Ethernet TCP IP & IP Addressing PDF

E2-E3
CONSUMER FIXED ACCESS

Ethernet, TCP/IP, IP Addressing
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TCP IP,IP Addressing
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Outline of Presentation
Introduction
Ethernet Features
Description of CSMA/CD
MAC Frame Structure
TCP / IP Architecture
Functions of Layers
Discussion and Conclusion
Introduction
Most commonly used medium access
technique for BUS, Star topologies is Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
Ethernet is Currently most popular N/W
Architecture
Uses CSMA/ CD to regulate the traffic
Ethernet Media is passive
Power is taken from computer. No failure
unless cable cut or improper termination
Ethernet Features
Traditional Topology - Linear (BUS)
Type of Architecture - Baseband
Access Method - CSMA / CD
Specs. - IEEE 802.3
Transfer speed - 10 /100 / 1000 Mbps
Cable Types - Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP, STP
Description of CSMA / CD
Following rule is followed

if Medium is idle - transmit
medium is busy - Listen till channel idle
If Collision detected during Transmission

-Transmit brief jamming signal to assure
stations know collision & cease Transmission
After Jaming signal wait for random amount of
Time attempt again to Transmit
CSMA / CD Operation
CSMA / CD functioning
Description
of CSMA/CD
For BASEBAND bus, the technique is illustrated
At time t0STN A starts session to send packet to D
At time t1 both STN B & C are ready to Transmit
STN B senses Signal on media - defers Transmission
STN C starts to transmit because unaware of As
Transmission
At time t2 ,When Transmission of A reaches at STN C

Collision occurs & ceases Transmission
Effect of Collision propagates back to A after time t3

& A ceases Transmission
After random amount of time either A or C starts
retransmission
Time to detect collision is twice the end-to-end
Propagation Delay
Broadband
collision detection
timing
Description
of CSMA/CD
Description
of CSMA/CD
Broadband collision
detection timing
Description
of CSMA/CD
Broadband
collision detection
timing
Description
of CSMA/CD
CSMA
/ CD functioning
For BROADBAND BUS, delay is even longer
Figure on previous slide shows Dual Cable System
If Collision occurs, Stations cease Transmission
In Broadband Bus, Maximum Time to detect
collision is four times the end-to-end Propagation
Delay from an end of the cable to the Head-end.
CSMA / CD
Description
offunctioning
CSMA/CD
Important Rule followed
IEEE Standard also includes that
Frame should be long enough to allow collision
detection prior to the end of Transmission
If Shorter frames are used, collision detection
does not occur
CSMA / CD exhibits same performance as the
less efficient CSMA Protocol
Simpler collision detection with UTP/STP Star
Topology approach
In Star, collision detection is based on Logic
rather than sensing voltage magnitudes
For any Hub,

Any activity on more than one input-collision
Special Signal called Collision presence signal is
generated
This signal is sent till the activity is sensed
This signal is interpreted as occurrence of
Collision by every node
MAC Frame
Format
MAC Frame
OCTECTS
Preamb
le
Length
SFD
DA
Legend
SFD- Start Frame Delimiter
DA = Destination Address
SA
LLC
Data
Pad
FCS
SA= Source Address

FCS = Frame Check Sequence
IEEE 802.3 Frame Format

MAC Frame
Preamble
7-Octet pattern of alternating 0s & 1s
Used by receiver to establish bit synchronization
Start Frame Delimiter(SFD)

Sequence 10101011
Indicates start of the frame
Enables receiver to locate first bit of the rest of
the frame
MAC Frame
LLC (Logical Link Control) Data
Data unit supplied by LLC
Pad
Octets added to ensure that frame is long
enough for proper CD(Collision Detection)
operation
Frame Check Sequence(FCS)
32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check based on
all fields except the preamble, SFD & FCS
MAC Frame
Destination Address(DA)
Specifies the station of destination
Unique physical address - 48 bit address
Group address
Global address
Source Address(SA)
Specifies station that sent frame
Length
Length of the LLC (Logical Link Control) Data field
TCP/IP Internet Architecture
TCP/IP Internet Architecture
Concept of Layering
Function of Layers
Application Layer
Highest layer in the Layer Structure
Used for Communication between Hosts
Protocols
SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
FTP ( File Transfer Protocol)
Transport Layer
Encapsulation of Application Layer data
Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
Function of Layers
Transport Layer Contd .
Group of Methods & Protocols
within Layered Architecture of
Network Components responsible for
encapsulating application data blocks
into Data Units called Datagrams or
Segments
Suitable for transfer to Network
Infrastructure
Addressing Concepts
INTERNATE PROTOCOL (IP)
Internet Protocol- Introduction
Internet Protocol- Header
Header Fields
Header Length ,
Version
Type of Service,
Total Length
Identification,
Fragmentation Offset
Flags,
Time To Live
Protocol,
Checksum
Source AddressDestination Address
Option
Time Stamp option
Padding
Internet Protocol
UNRELIABLE
CONNECTION LESS
INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

The Internet Layer is responsible to connect to
two machines through Internet
In its operation, the Internet Layer is not
responsible for reliable transmission
It provides only an unreliable service, and "best
effort" delivery.
The network gives no guarantee about packets'
proper arrival
INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

The function of providing reliability of service is
the duty of higher level protocols, such as the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in the
Transport Layer
Integrity of packets is guaranteed in IPv4 through
checksums
Datagram consists of a header and data
Fig. identifies each field of Header
Internet Protocol Header details
Header Length 4 Bit field

Value represents the number of octets in the
header divided by four which makes it the
number of 4-octet groups in the header
Header length is used as a pointer to the
beginning of data
Header length is usually equal to 5 which
defines the normal, 20-octet header without
options
Header Length 4 Bit field

When options are used, padding may be
required to make the total size of the header an
even multiple of 4-octet groups. The range of
value for the header length is 5 to 15
Version 4 Bit field

All other values are reserved or unassigned.
Although the range of values is 0 to 15, the
value used by IP is 4.
By means of this field, different versions of the
IP could operate in the Internet
Type of Service 8 Bit field

Specifies the precedence and priority of the IP
datagram
Bits +5, +6, and +7 make up the precedence
field, with a range of 0 to 7
Zero is the normal precedence and 7 is
reserved for network control
Most gateways presently ignore this field
Type of Service 8 Bit field

The four bits (+1, +2, +3, and +4) define the priority field,
which has the field range of 0 to 15
Four priorities presently assigned (the remaining 12 values
are reserved) are:
value 0 (the default, normal service)
value 1 (minimize monetary cost)
value 2 (maximize reliability)
value 4 (maximize throughput)
value 8 (bit+4 equal to one, defines minimize delay
option).
These values are used by routers to select paths that
accommodate the users request
Total Length 16 Bit field

The total length field is used to identify the
number of octets in the entire datagram
The field has 16 bits, and the range is between 0
and 65,535 octets.
Since the datagram typically is contained in an
Ethernet frame, the size usually will be less than
1,500 octets
Identification 16 Bit field

The value of the identification field is a
sequential number assigned by the originating
host. The numbers cycle between 0 and 65,535
Fragmentation Offset 13 Bit field

When the size of a datagram exceeds the
maximum of an intermediate network, it is
segmented by that network
Fragment offset represents the displacement (in
increments of eight octets) of this segment form
the beginning of the entire datagram.
Fragmentation Offset 13 Bit field
This is a 13-bit field and provides an offset to

the proper location within the original datagram
of this fragmented segment
Since the value represents groups of eight
octets, the effective range of the offset is
between 0 and 8191 octets.
Flags 2 Bits
The flag field contains two flags
Low-order bit (MF) of the flags fields is used to
denote the last fragmented datagram when set
to zero
Intermediate (not-last) datagrams have the bit
set equal to 1 to denote more datagrams are to
follow
High-order bit (DF) is set by an originating host
to prevent fragmentation of the datagram
Flags 2 Bits
When this bit is set and the length of the

datagram exceeds that of an intermediate
network, the datagram is discarded by the
intermediate network and an error message
returned to the originating host via the ICMP
Time to Live (TTL)8 Bit field

Count set by the originator, that the datagram can
exist in the Internet before being discarded host
via the ICMP
Datagram may loop around an Internet for a
maximum of 28 1 or 255 before being discarded
Default TTL for the IP is 64
Each gateway handling a datagram decrements
the TTL by one, the TTL can also represent a hop
count
Protocol 8 Bit field

Protocol field is used to identify the next higher
layer protocol using the IP
For TCP value = 6
For UDP value = 17
Can identify upto 255 Protocols of Transport
Layer
Upper Layer Protocol using IP must have a
unique protocol number
Checksum 16 Bit field

Checksum provides assurance that the header
has not been corrupted during transmission
Checksum includes all fields in the IP header,
starting with the version number and ending with
the octet immediately preceding the IP data field
Checksum represents the 16-bit, twos
complement of the sum of all 16-bit groups in the
header

An intermediate network (node or gateway) that
changes a field in the IP header (e.g., time-tolive) must recompute the checksum before
forwarding it
Users of the IP must provide their own data
integrity, since the IP checksum is only for the
header.
Source Address -32 Bit field
The source address field contains the network

identifier and host identifier of the originator
Destination Address - 32 Bit field

Destination address field contains the network
and identifier & Host identifier of the destination
Options variable field

Presence of the options field is determined
from the value of the header length field
If the header length is greater than five, at least
one option is present
Options field is variable in length
Each option declared begin with a Single Octet
that defines that format of the remainder of the
option
Timestamp Option
Timestamp option provides the user with a

technique of recording the precise route taken
by a datagram and the time that each element
(node or gateway) handling the datagram
processed it.
Record/Strict/Loose Source Routes
provides a routing trace of the datagram

strict source route option permits the originator
can be useful to force all traffic over a particular
path for testing
Loose source routing is similar, except only the
major IP addresses are entered in the list of IP
addresses
Record/Strict/Loose Source Routes
Internet my take any desired intermediate path

so long as the datagram visits the IP nodes
identified
Padding variable field

Pad field, when present, consists of 1 to 3 octets
of zero, as required, to make the total number of
octets in the header divisible by four.
(The header length is in increments of 32-bit
groups.)
Transmission Control Protocol
Introduction
Transport Layer
Transport Layer Protocols
User Datagram Protocol
Internet Control Message Protocol
Internet Group Management Protocol
Discussion and Conclusion
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE IS MADE UP OF
FIVE LAYERS
Application
Transport
Network
Datalink
Physical
TRANSPORT LAYER
Two protocols are provided in this layer
TCP
UDP

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Transmission control protocol (TCP)
selection by an applications program to use
either UDP or TCP is based on the
requirement for reliability
Some application layer protocols were
designed to operate with either UDP or TCP
Selection by the IP of either the UDP or TCP is

based on the protocol number in the IP header
Although ICMP and IGMP gain control as
transport layer functions, they function as a utility
to the network layer (IP)
TCP/IP designers used the protocols number in
the IP header to demultiplex to distinct services
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
UDP provides application programs with a

transaction oriented, single-shot datagram type
service
Connectionless and unreliable
Simple, efficient and ideal for application programs
such as TFTP and DNS
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

Destination port number in the UDP header is used to
direct the UDP datagram (or user datagram) to a specific
application process (queue) located at the IP address
Source port number that allows the receiving process to
know how to respond to the user datagram
No acknowledgement, flow control, message
continuation
USER DATAGRAM Header
Source/Destination Port Numbers 16

Bit field
Source and Destination port Nos. in conjunction
with the IP addresses define the end points of the
single-shot communication
Source port number may be equal to zero if not
used
Destination port number is only meaningful within
the context of a particular UDP datagram and IP
address
Source/Destination Port Numbers

16 Bit field
There are some fixed, preassigned port number
used for services on the Internet
For example
Number 7 is used for the UDP echo server
Number 69 is used for Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP)
These fixed, preassigned port numbers are
referred to as well-known ports and controlled
by the IANA ( Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority)
Length Field 16 Bit field

UDP message-length field is 16-bit field that
contains a count of the total number of octets
in the user datagram, including the header
Minimum-size length field is 8

Usage of the UDP checksum is optional
Field must be set to zero when not used
Since the IP layer does not include the data portion
of the IP datagram in its checksum (protocols the IP
header only), UDP has its own checksum to
provide data integrity

TCP is
Connection
oriented
Reliable
TCP provides
Process to process communication
A process is identified by a Port no
Functions of TCP
Multiplexing data from multiple applications
Testing received data for the integrity
Sequencing packets that may have arrived out of order
Acknowledging successful receipt of packets
Rate adaptive data flow control
Timing
Coordinating the re-transmission of packets

that was Damaged or lost in travel.
TCP Segment Format

TCP segment consists of
TCP Header
data
Header portion of the TCP segment is relatively fixed
in size
Only optional field is the options field, which may
necessitate a pad field to assure that the overall
header length is a multiple of four-octet groups
Format of the TCP segment is illustrated in Figure
TCP Segment Format
Various Fields of TCP

Source/Destination Port Numbers
Each port number is an unsigned integer occupying
16 bits
Sequence Numbers
32 bits long and first time randomly generated by
the System
SN of the first TCP segment identifies the first octet
of the entire stream

If value of Sequence Number = n
Value of 2nd TCP Segment
=n+m
m - the octet displacement within the total stream
to the beginning of the second TCP segment
Acknowledgement Numbers
Second Sequence Number(SSN) is called
Expected receive sequence number (AKN) also
called the Acknowledgement number
AKN is a 32 bit field
AKN acknowledges the receipt of m 1 octets
by stating the next expected SSN of m

Header length
Header length is a 4-bit field
Integer equal to the total number of octets in
the TCP header, divided by four represents the
number of 4-octet
groups in the header
Typical Value = 5
Pad Field is used to force No. of Octets in
Header equal to Multiples of Four
Three octets in the pad field, each containing
the value zero

Code Bits
URG bit =1 Urgent Information
ACK bit = 1 Acknowledgment is valid
PSH bit = 1 Transmit Buffer full
RST bit = 1 Reset of TCP connection
SYN bit =1 To synchronize Sequence Nos.
FIN bit =1 To close the connection

Window
Window field is a 16-bit unsigned integer
To advertise the available buffer size (in
octets) of the sender to receive data
Options
Option field permits the application program
to negotiate
Maximum TCP segment size able to receive

Padding
Consists of one to three octets equal to 0
to force the length of the TCP header to be in
multiples of four octets
If options are nor used, padding is not required

Checksum
Since IP does not include the

Data portion of the Datagram in
its Checksum and finds
checksum of only IP Header, TCP
has its own checksum to provide
data integrity

ICMP is used to report the error message back
to the source
ICMP message is encapsulated in an IP
datagram
Error messages for different types of errors have
different type field value
ICMP Type Codes

Type Field
0
3
4
5
8
11
12
13
14
17
18
ICMP Message Type

Echo Reply
Destination Unreachable
Source Quench
Redirect ( Change Route)
Echo Request
Time exceeded for a Datagram
Parameter problem on a Datagram
Time Stamp Request
Time Stamp Response
Address Mask Request
Address Mask Response
Flow Control
Flow control is the process of managing the rate
of data transmission between two nodes to
prevent a fast sender from outrunning a slow
receiver
Time-To-Live Exceeded
To prevent routing loops, the IP datagram
contains a time-to-live that is set by the originator
As each gateway processes the datagram, it
decrements Time-To-Live by one
When zero is detected, the gateway sends an
ICMP error message to the originator and
discards the datagram
INTERNET GROUP MANAGEMENT

PROTOCOL (IGMP)
Communications protocol used to manage the

membership of Internet Protocol multicast
groups
IGMP is used by IP hosts and adjacent
multicast routers to establish multicast group
memberships
IP Addressing
AGENDA
Introduction
Binary Form of IP Address
Dotted Decimal Notation
Classes of IP Address
Private Subnets
Subnetting
Subnet Mask
Supernetting
Logical Operations
Discussion & Conclusion
Introduction
Each host on the internet is assigned a 32-bit
integer address called its internet address or IP
address
Clever part of internet addressing is that the
integers are carefully chosen to make routing
efficient
Every host and router on the internet has an IP
address, which encodes its network number and
host number
Combination is unique: no two machines have the
same IP address
Introduction
Address is coded to allow a variable allocation of bits to
specify network and host
IP address scheme is to break up the binary number into
pieces and represent each piece as a decimal number
Natural size for binary pieces is 8 bits, which is the familiar

byte or octet
lets take our binary number, write it using groups of 8 bits,
and then represent each group as a decimal number
For Ex. 140.179.220.200
Binary form of IP Address

Binary Notation
10001100.10110011.11011100.1100100
140.179.220.200
Dotted Decimal Notation
Parts of IP Address
Every IP address consists of two parts
Network part
Host part
Class of the address and the subnet mask
determine which part belongs to the network
address and which part belongs to the host address
Dot as a separator and is called as period
Parts of IP Address
Various Classes of IP Address
IP Address should be hierarchical

For a protocol to be routable, its address
structure must be hierarchical meaning that the
address must contain at least two parts
Network portion
Host portion
Host is an end station such as a computer
workstation, a router or a printer whereas a
network consists of one or more hosts
Address Classes
Encoding provides flexibility in assigning addresses to host
and allows a mix of network sizes on an internet
In particular, the three network classes are best suited to
the following conditions
Class
Networks
Hosts
A
126
16,777,214
B
16,384
65,534
C
2,097,152
254
Class D: Reserved for IP Multicasting
Class E: Reserved for future use
More about IP address Classes

You can determine which class any IP address is in by
examining the first 4 bits of the IP address
Class
Binary Form
Decimal Form
Class A
0xxx
1 to 126
Class B
10xx
128 to 191
Class C
110x
192 to 223
Class D
1110
224 to 239
Class E
1111
240 to 254
More about IP address Classes

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127
decimal are reserved for loopback and for
internal testing on a local machine
You should always be able to ping
127.0.0.1, which points to yourself
Class D addresses are reserved for
multicasting
Class E addresses are reserved for future
use
They should not be used for host addresses
Class Determination Process

Now we can see how the Class determines,
by default, which part of the IP address
belongs to the network (N) and which part
belongs to the Host (H)
Class A
NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh. hhhhhhhh. hhhhhhhh
Class B - NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.hhhhhhhh.hhhhhhhh
Class C- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN. hhhhhhhh
Private Subnets
There are three IP network addresses reserved
for private networks.
The addresses are :
10.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0/12
192.168.0.0/16
They can be used by anyone setting up internal
IP networks, such as a lab or home
Subnetting
Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a
variety of reasons, including organization, use of
different physical media (such as Ethernet,
FDDI, WAN, etc.),
Preservation of address space and security.
The most common reason is to control network
traffic
Subnet Masking
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address
allows you to identify the network and host
parts of the address
Network bits are represented by the 1s in
the mask
Host bits are represented by the 0s
Performing a bitwise logical AND operation
between the IP address and the subnet
mask results in the Network Address or
Number
For example
Logical AND operation using our test IP address and
the default Class B subnet mask, we get :
10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200
Class B IP
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255. 0. 0 Default class B
Subnet Mask
-------------------------------------------------------------------------10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.0.0 Network Address
Default Subnet masks

Class A - 255.0.0.0
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Class B - 255.255.0.0
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Class C - 255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
More Restrictive Subnet Masks

Additional bits can be added to the default
subnet mask for a given Class to further
subnet, or break down, a network
When a bitwise logical AND operation is
performed between the subnet mask and
IP address, the result defines the Subnet
Address (also called the Network Address
or Network Number)
There are some restrictions on the subnet
address

Host addresses of all "0"s and all "1"s are
reserved for specifying the local network
(when a host does not know it's network
address) and all hosts on the network
(broadcast address), respectively
To calculate the number of subnets or hosts,
use the formula
2n 2
where n = number of bits in either field, and

2n represents 2 raised to the nth power

Multiplying the number of subnets by the
number of hosts available per subnet
gives you the total number of hosts
available for your class and subnet mask
Also, note that although subnet masks
with non-contiguous mask bits are
allowed, they are not recommended
Example on next slide please
Example
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 140.179.220.200 IP Address
11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.0 Subnet Mask
----------------------------------------------------------------------------10001100.10110011.11000000.00000000 140.179.192.000 Subnet

Address
10001100.10110011.11011111.11111111 140.179.223.255 Broadcast
Address
In this Example 3 bit subnet mask was used
Example
There are 6 (23-2) subnets available with this size
mask (remember that subnets with all 0's and all
1's are not allowed)
Each subnet has 8190 (213-2) hosts
Each subnet can have hosts assigned to any
address between the Subnet address and the
Broadcast address
This gives a total of 49,140 hosts for the entire
class B address subnetted this way
Notice that this is less than the 65,534 hosts an
unsubnetted class B address would have.
Example
You can calculate the Subnet Address by
performing a bitwise logical AND operation
between the IP address and the subnet mask,
then setting all the host bits to 0s
Similarly, you can calculate the Broadcast Address
for a subnet by performing the same logical AND
between the IP address and the subnet mask,
then setting all the host bits to 1s
That is how these numbers are derived in the
example above
Another Example
Say you are assigned a Class C network
number of 200.133.175.0
Utilize this network across multiple small groups
within an organization
You can do this by subnetting that network with a
subnet address
Break this network into 16 subnets of 14 hosts
each
Second Example Contd.

This will limit us to 224 hosts on the network
instead of the 254 we would have without
subnetting, but gives us the advantages of traffic
isolation and security
To accomplish this, we need to use a subnet
mask 4 bits long
Recall default Class C subnet mask
255.255.255.0
Second Example Contd.

255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Extending this by 4 bits yields a mask of
255.255.255.240
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
This gives us 16 possible network numbers
16 Possible combinations
Subnet Network
bits
Number
Host
Addresses
Broadcast
Address
0000
200.133.175.0
.1 thru .14
200.133.175.15
0001
200.133.175.16
.17 thru .31
200.133.175.31
0010
200.133.175.32
.33 thru .46
200.133.175.47
0011
200.133.175.48
.49 thru .62
200.133.175.63
0100
200.133.175.64
.65 thru .79
200.133.175.79
0101
200.133.175.80
.81 thru .94
200.133.175.95
0110
200.133.175.96
.97 thru .110
200.133.175.111
0111
200.133.175.112
.113 thru .126
200.133.175.127
1000
200.133.175.128
.129 thru .142
200.133.175.143
16 Possible combinations
Subnet Network
bits
Number
Host
Addresses
Broadcast
Address
1001
200.133.175.144
.145 thru .158
200.133.175.159
1010
200.133.175.160
.161 thru .174
200.133.175.175
1011
200.133.175.176
.177 thru .190
200.133.175.191
1100
200.133.175.192
.193 thru .206
200.133.175.207
1101
200.133.175.208
.209 thru .222
200.133.175.223
1110
200.133.175.224
.225 thru .238
200.133.175.239
1111
200.133.175.240
.241 thru .254
200.133.175.255
Supernetting
Classful" system of allocating IP addresses can
be very wasteful
Anyone who could reasonably show a need for
more that 254 host addresses was given a Class
B address block of 65533 host addresses
Even more wasteful were companies and
organizations that were allocated Class A address
blocks which contain over 16 Million host
addresses
Supernetting
Only a tiny percentage of the allocated Class A
and Class B address space has ever been
actually assigned to a host computer on the
Internet
Under supernetting, the classful subnet masks are
extended so that a network address and subnet
mask could, for example, specify multiple Class C
subnets with one address
For example, If I needed about 1000 addresses, I
could supernet 4 Class C networks together
Supernetting
192.60.128.0 (11000000.00111100.10000000.00000000) Class C subnet address

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------192.60.128.0 (11000000.00111100.10000000.00000000) Supernetted address
255.255.252.0 (11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000) Subnet Mask
192.60.131.255 (11000000.00111100.10000011.11111111) Broadcast address
Supernetting
Subnet 192.60.128.0 includes all the addresses
from 192.60.128.0 to 192.60.131.255
As you can see in the binary representation of
the subnet mask, the Network portion of the
address is 22 bits long, and the host portion is
10 bits long
Instead of spelling out the bits of the subnet
mask, it is simply listed as the number of 1s bits
that start the mask
Supernetting
In the above example, instead of writing the

address and subnet mask as 192.60.128.0,
Subnet Mask 255.255.252.0 the network
address would be written simply as:
192.60.128.0/22 which indicates starting
address of the network, and number of 1s bits
(22) in the network portion of the address
Supernetting
If you look at the subnet mask in binary
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
you can easily see how this notation works
Allowed Class A Subnet and Host IP

addresses
#bits Subnet Mask
CIDR
# Subnets #Hosts
Nets * Hosts
255.192.0.0
/10
4194302
8388604
255.224.0.0
/11
2097150
12582900
255.240.0.0
/12
14
1048574
14680036
255.255.248.0
/13
30
524286
15728580
255.255.252.0
/14
62
262142
16252804
255.255.254.0
/15
126
131070
16514820
255.255.255.0
/16
254
65534
16645636

addresses
#bits Subnet Mask
CIDR
# Subnets #Hosts
Nets * Hosts
255.255.128.0
/17
510
32766
16710660
10
255.255.192.0
/18
1022
16382
16742404
11
255.255.224.0
/19
2046
8190
16756740
12
255.255.240.0
/20
4094
4094
16760836
13
255.255.248.0
/21
8190
2046
16756740
14
255.255.252.0
/22
16382
1022
16742404
15
255.255.254.0
/23
32766
510
16710660

addresses
#bits Subnet Mask
CIDR # Subnets #Hosts
16
255.255.255.0
/24
65534
254
16645636
17
255.255.255.128
/25
131070
126
16514820
18
255.255.255.192
/26
262142
62
16252804
19
255.255.255.224
/27
524286
30
15728580
20
255.255.255.240
/28
1048574
14
14680036
21
255.255.255.248
/29
2097150
12582900
22
255.255.255.252
/30
4194302
8388604
Nets * Hosts
Allowed Class B Subnet and Host IP

addresses
#bits Subnet Mask
CIDR
# Subnets
#Hosts
Nets * Hosts
255.255.192.0
/18
16382
32764
255.255.192.0
/19
8190
49140
255.255.240.0
/20
14
4094
57316
255.255.248.0
/21
30
2046
61380
255.255.252.0
/22
62
1022
63364
255.255.254.0
/23
126
510
64260
255.255.255.0
/24
254
254
64516
Allowed Class B Subnet and Host IP

addresses
#bits Subnet Mask
CIDR
# Subnets #Hosts
Nets *
Hosts
255.255.192.128
/25
510
126
64260
10
255.255.192.192
/26
1022
62
63264
11
255.255.240.224
/27
2046
30
61380
12
255.255.248.240
/28
4094
14
57316
13
255.255.252.248
/29
8190
49140
14
255.255.254.252
/30
16382
32764
Allowed Class C Subnet and Host IP

addresses
#bits
Subnet Mask
CIDR
#Hosts
Nets *
Hosts
/26
#
Subnet
s
2
255.255.255.192
62
124
255.255.255.224
/27
30
180
255.255.255.240
/28
14
14
196
255.255.255.248
/29
30
180
255.255.255.252
/30
62
124
Logical Operations
Brief review and explanation of the common
logical bitwise operations AND, OR, XOR
(Exclusive OR) and NOT
Logical operations are performed between
two data bits (except for NOT)
Bits can be either "1" or 0
These operations are essential to
performing digital math operations
Truth Tables
AND
I/P A
I/P B
O/P
Truth Tables
OR
I/P A
I/P B
O/P
Truth Tables
XOR
I/P A
I/P B
O/P
Truth Tables
NOT
I/P
O/P

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E2-E3

CONSUMER FIXED ACCESS

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Cable Types - Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP, STP

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Following rule is followed

If Collision detected during Transmission

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

At time t2 ,When Transmission of A reaches at STN C

Effect of Collision propagates back to A after time t3

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For any Hub,

For internal circulation of BSNL only

SA= Source Address

IEEE 802.3 Frame Format

Start Frame Delimiter(SFD)

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

TCP/IP Internet Architecture

For internal circulation of BSNL only

TCP/IP Internet Architecture

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

INTERNATE PROTOCOL (IP)

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

For internal circulation of BSNL only

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Internet Protocol Header details

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Header Length 4 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Header Length 4 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Version 4 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Type of Service 8 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Type of Service 8 Bit field

Total Length 16 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Identification 16 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Fragmentation Offset 13 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Fragmentation Offset 13 Bit field

This is a 13-bit field and provides an offset to

For internal circulation of BSNL only

For internal circulation of BSNL only

When this bit is set and the length of the

For internal circulation of BSNL only

Time to Live (TTL)8 Bit field

For internal circulation of BSNL only