Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract. Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy (CI therapy) refers to a family of treatments for motor disability that combines
constraint of movement, massed practice, and shaping of behavior to improve the amount of use of the targeted limb. CI therapy
has controlled evidence for efficacy that supports its benefit for patients with chronic disability following central nervous system
injury, regardless of their age or the interval since illness onset. Furthermore, the benefits transfer to real-world measures of limb
use. Significant functional improvement may occur even after the patient has been treated with conventional physical therapy.
In this paper we review the evidence for the efficacy of CI therapy, particularly for chronic stroke hemiparesis, but also for
diverse other chronic disabling illnesses, including non-motor disorders such as phantom limb pain and aphasia. The adaptation
of the therapy to the stroke clinic is described, along with a review of the neurophysiologic mechanisms that are postulated to
underlie the treatment benefit (overcoming learned nonuse, plastic brain reorganization). Critical to the success of CI therapy is
its modification according to disease factors, economic considerations, limitations of the practice setting, and the cognitive and
physical status of the patient. We conclude by recommending future areas for research on CI therapy.
Keywords: Stroke, hemiparesis, rehabilitation, aphasia, phantom limb pain, transcranial magnetic stimulation
1. Introduction
This special issue of Restorative Neurology and
Neuroscience details the neuroscientific foundations of
promising new treatments for neurologic disability, especially with respect to purposive limb movement. Our
research laboratory at the University of Alabama at
Birmingham and its collaborating research groups have
not only had the privilege to innovate diverse treatments
for chronic functional impairment in a variety of disorders, but have also had considerable experience with
transferring lessons learned from our investigational
Corresponding
0922-6028/04/$17.00 2002 IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved
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319
living activities. Movement quality, however, was reported not to improve. Benefits were measurable as
much as one year post-intervention. The changes were
small (effect size d = 0.2), but they were reliable.
In 1993 Taub and colleagues [78] at our laboratory at the University of Alabama at Birmingham
(UAB) employed the full treatment program proposed
in 1980 [76]. (1) Chronic hemiparetic stroke patients
(n = 4) underwent massed practice training of the
more-affected limb for 6 hours/day for 2 weeks, while
the other limb wore a sling restraint. Training tasks
involved repetition of multiple activities typical of routine daily living tasks (e.g., playing dominoes, writing,
throwing a ball). (2) A new outcome measure was used,
the Motor Activity Log (MAL), which assessed realworld performance on numerous common daily living
activities at home (e.g., opening a door, manipulating
a wall switch to turn on a light). The MAL requires
the patient to report on a scale from 05 the relative
amount that the more-affected hand was used for each
activity, and on a separate scale the quality of the hands
use on the same activities. The MAL shows no repeated measures effects in the absence of therapy [50],
thus indicating good test-retest reliability. The MAL
has concurrent validity with standard neurologic motor
tests (NIH Stroke Scale, r = 0.76; Fugl-Meyer scale,
r = 0.85) [11,28]. A laboratory measure initially developed by Wolf et al. and modified in our laboratory
to include masked rating of quality of movement from
videotape [78] was also used to directly assess maximal
motor ability. This laboratory test has subsequently
been termed the Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT)
and has been found to have high interrater reliability and
correlation with other motor ability tests [32,52]. (3) A
treatment control group of chronic hemiparetic stroke
patients (n = 5) was included. These attentional control patients were encouraged to monitor their paretic
limb and passively move it for brief periods with the
less-affected limb, and they underwent standard range
of motion assessments.
The results indicated that the treatment group had
significantly improved performance on both the MAL
and WMFT at the conclusion of therapy, while the control group showed no net gain over the same period.
Furthermore, the treatment group showed an improvement (though nonsignificant) on the MAL for the two
years following the treatment, while the control group
again did not change. Real-world benefits extended
both to amount of limb use and to quality of movement. Taub and colleagues [77] developed the treatment approach further by including the training tech-
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V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
Fig. 1. A stroke patient undergoes CI therapy with the more- affected left hand, while the less-affected right hand wears a padded mitt.
V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
by accelerometers during most of the time when subjects are out of the laboratory and awake [89]. We
have found that there is a large, significant increase in
the ratio of more-affected to less-affected arm movement as a result of CI therapy, and that the change
in this measure is highly correlated with MAL measures (r = 0.77 in one study and r = 0.75 in another,
ps < 0.001) [88]. (These observations in addition
provide further evidence against a Hawthorne effect.)
The correlation between AAUT and MAL measures of
CI therapy treatment change are similar (unpublished
data). Accelerometry has at present become a standard part of the CI therapy regimen in the laboratory to
improve quality assurance.
2.3.5. The current format of CI therapy is too complex
to appeal to stroke patients [58]
A. Acceptability of CI therapy. Standard CI therapy
for the upper extremity requires 6 hours of daily training for 2 or 3 weeks (depending on the severity of the
deficit), exclusive of weekends, and wearing a padded
mitt for 90% of waking hours. Page et al. [58] reported
a survey of 208 stroke patients which indicated that
two-thirds would be uninterested or unmotivated to adhere to the training requirements. However, the questionnaire used by those authors was unavailable upon
request. Moreover, it seems unlikely that the patients
were told about the benefits obtained by previous CI
therapy participants. When this is done we have obtained very different results. Of 536 consecutive patients with chronic stroke identified by chart review
[prior to the United States Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) restrictions] and
who contacted us in response to periodical and newspaper advertisements from 19951998 (before CI therapy
was widely known), 5.0% indicated no interest in CI
therapy treatment; in addition, 10.8% of the sample requested additional information, but were not contacted
again (unpublished data). The remainder indicated interest in participating, though the amount of effort the
therapy required was fully revealed to avoid the serious contamination of later dropout. Further, and perhaps more compelling are the data from the ongoing
multi-site randomized clinical trial of CI therapy which
involves 5 sites other than this one (see Section 6 below). Of 3,606 patients with subacute stroke contacted
in screening, just 235 (6.5%) indicated that they were
not interested in receiving the therapy [96].
B. Amount of treatment. Page et al. [59,60] reported
significant improvements on the MAL, WMFT, and
other motor measures following 3 hours per week of
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V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
Numerous outpatient CI clinics in nonacademic centers in several countries provide the standard form of
CI therapy. It therefore seems that there is a substantial
demand for standard CI therapy, despite the objections
raised by Page et al. [58].
Our CI therapy research program at UAB is conducting prospective trials to systematically vary the daily
amount of CI therapy as well as the concentration of
treatment (e.g., 2 weeks vs. 10 weeks, all treatment
carried out in the laboratory vs. some carried out as
monitored home practice). In this way we expect to
learn what conditions will promote the greatest treatment response in the most patients. These findings
should help patients to choose the treatment plan that
would best suit them, if several alternate plans would
be available. It is conceivable that stroke patients with
enduring disability would favor the treatment program
with the greatest promise for functional improvement,
even if this would require intensive treatment over a
short period.
2.3.6. The standard CI therapy regimen is
unreimbursable in many current health
plans [60]
This is currently true. At present, conventional physical therapy, which does not have controlled evidence
for its efficacy, is nonetheless reimbursable, while in
contrast treatment programs for rehabilitation that have
controlled evidence for efficacy have not so far been
approved. This appears to reflect a cautious approach
from third-party payers, who await an unspecified critical mass of peer-reviewed publications, clinical trials, and other standards of evidence before approving a
treatment that would be amenable to a very large number of patients with chronic stroke who are not otherwise being treated. The number of patients potentially
involved would make the financial outlay substantial.
However, in view of the economic burden currently
imposed by stroke and the substantial increase in this
burden due to the anticipated increase in the number
of stroke survivors in industrialized societies, it would
seem that third-party payers should favor therapy programs that are backed by controlled evidence for efficacy. Our laboratory is attempting to deal with the
reluctance of third party payers to reimburse for CI
therapy with its current research that systematically investigates dose-response profiles in CI therapy, as we
indicated above, as well as evaluating the long-term
economic benefits to patients and caregivers and the
effect of using automated devices that reduce the use
of costly therapist time to provide treatment.
In our laboratorys initial report of the latter line of research [41], carried out in collaboration with Peter Lum
and others at the VA Rehabilitation Research and Development Center in Palo Alto, 9 chronic stroke patients
were trained on a workstation called AutoCITE (Automated Constraint-Induced Therapy Extension) for
3 hours/day for 2 weeks and were compared with a
matched group of 12 patients who received the same
amount and concentration of standard CI therapy (i.e.,
with direct treatment from therapists). The AutoCITE
device is a cabinet of several drawers, each containing
implements for a different manual task that is computermonitored through sensors mounted in the equipment.
(Examples among the 8 activities include object flipping, letter tracing, and finger tapping.) Results indicated no significant differences between treatment
groups; both showed effect sizes > 3.0 on MAL scores
and equal to 0.5 on the WMFT. The findings are thus
auspicious for reducing the time of participation of
specially-trained therapists in this form of stroke rehabilitation. Evaluation of this approach in a more extended study might indicate substantial rehabilitation
cost savings, which could favor reimbursement from
health plans.
V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
relative to control-intervention patients on several motor measures [79]. Further work with 21 additional subjects has confirmed the original results. Control was
obtained (1) by administering this laboratorys upper
extremity tests to the patients receiving lower extremity
therapy as well the lower extremity tests of motor function, and (2) perhaps of greater interest by administering both upper and lower extremity tests to an equivalent number of patients receiving upper extremity CI
therapy. Both sets of patients exhibited large gains in
the extremity that was treated, but no significant improvement for the extremity not treated in the protocol. The lack of transfer of treatment effect from the
lower to the upper extremity provides a useful control
for many nonspecific effects associated with the treatment environment, including intensive interaction with
a therapist. Over a 2-year period of follow-up testing,
there was no decrement in retention of the therapeutic
gain. Earlier, the laboratory of S. Hesse and K.H. Mauritz had shown that massed practice on a treadmill can
produce substantial improvement in the gait of patients
with stroke [24,25].
325
As was indicated already, the study of Wolf and coworkers [101] using the restraint component of the CI
therapy protocol [76] included TBI patients (n = 5).
No differences in treatment outcomes were noted between the TBI patients and the stroke patients. Taub et
al. [85] reported 3 chronic TBI patients who had undergone CI therapy. Two responded similarly to stroke patients. The third, who had bilateral motor deficits, was
given CI therapy to each upper extremity in alternating
Elderly patients with hip fractures may develop increased fear of falling [67] and secondary constriction
of activity [103]. In effect, therefore, hip fracture may
lead to learned nonuse or misuse of the lower extremities despite a non-neurologic etiology. Lower extremity
training as discussed above has been undertaken with a
sample of 5 hip fracture patients in our laboratory, with
effect sizes above 1.5 [82].
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4.7. Aphasia
Pulvermu ller et al., in collaboration with this laboratory, suggested that aphasia may involve a linguistic form of learned nonuse [65]. That is, following
acute failure to communicate effectively, aphasic patients may cease attempting to produce complex utterances and thereby rely on compensatory communicative channels (e.g., gesture, facial expression, modulated vocal intonation). Therefore, in a preliminary
study 10 chronically aphasic patients underwent a modification of CI therapy, in which they played a language
game where they requested cards with specific pictures
on them from 3 other players (2 aphasic) while deprived
of visual contact with them. Constraints were imposed
by the requirement that they correctly name the objects
on the cards or lose the game. Shaping was introduced
by progressively requiring more complex and formal
requests and by increasing the complexity of the items
depicted (different colors, numbers and variety of objects represented on different cards and eventually on
the same card). Treatment was 34 hours per day for 10
days; a control chronic aphasic group (n = 7) received
4 weeks of conventional aphasia therapy. The results
indicated that the treatment group improved on most
V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
standard measures of language performance administered, whereas controls benefited on only one measure.
Furthermore, the treatment group improved on a linguistic analog of the MAL, the Communication Activity Log, while control participants did not improve.
These findings were corroborated by another laboratory
in smaller samples (total n = 8) of chronic nonfluent
aphasic patients, using similar methods [44,45].
Unlike the research for upper extremity hemiparesis,
comparatively few patients have been evaluated in these
other treatment programs, and so further studies are
needed before drawing conclusions on the ability to
adapt CI therapy to other disorders.
327
we have treated chronically hemiparetic patients following invasive treatments for brain tumor or cerebral
vascular malformation. In our experience, these patients have behaved like stroke patients and responded
as well. (5) The status of patients as reflected in MAL
scores is monitored daily and problems in treatment are
discussed as they arise. In addition, quality assurance
meetings are held biweekly with staff therapists (who
include both physical and occupational therapists) to
collectively review individual patients progress on the
daily MAL scores and, through personal observations,
to identify behaviors or other circumstances that may
hinder treatment progress. Sources of interference are
identified by consensus and plans are formulated to
improve treatment procedures and compliance.
The screening process starts when the clinics therapists communicate with prospective patients by telephone, e-mail, or regular mail. Because most of our
clinic patients are not from Birmingham, medical and
motor screening must be thorough to minimize inconvenience from traveling long distances to UAB. The
therapists review the patients motor abilities and medical histories, and ambiguous medical issues are discussed with the clinics physician (VWM), who may
require the patients detailed medical records for review
or discussion with the patients personal physicians.
Subsequently, patients who are provisionally considered appropriate for treatment undergo comprehensive on-site medical examination by the clinic physician and detailed movement evaluation by an occupational therapist and a physical therapist. Total evaluation time is about 90 minutes. Because most physicians
are unaware of the procedures in CI therapy, we require
medical approval by the clinic physician rather than
the patients personal physician. In rare cases where
poorly controlled conditions such as hypertension, cardiac ischemia, or epilepsy are encountered during medical screening, the clinic physician arranges with the
patients personal physician to improve control before
clearing the patient for CI therapy.
Whether CI therapy programs in general will require
an on-site physician, as ours does, is unclear but may
depend on the clinics geographic catchment area. A CI
therapy clinic that enrolls patients primarily from the
local population may refer patients with acute illnesses
back to their primary care practitioners, if necessary,
but this is not feasible in a program such as ours, which
has a worldwide enrollment. An advantage to having
a dedicated, on-site clinic physician is that unexpected
medical complications can be addressed rapidly, in part
because the physician has already evaluated the patient
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V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
and thus has a baseline for comparison. We rarely encounter unexpected illness in our patients, due in large
part to our thorough screening measures. However, it
should be noted that because stroke mainly afflicts the
elderly and frequently results from chronic systemic
vascular disease, patients in adult CI therapy programs
may have age-related or cardiovascular comorbid illnesses that can unexpectedly worsen (e.g., congestive
heart failure). Consequently, immediately available
comprehensive medical services should be considered
essential.
V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
329
sis in humans, which most commonly appears following stroke. In addition, varying degrees of initial unilateral failure of purposive limb movement may occur acutely, i.e., anything from mild limb apraxia (select failure of skillful tool use) to complete hemiplegia.
Furthermore, other motor and sensory hemisyndromes
may be present, including spasticity, incoordination,
and hyperkinetic limb movements (e.g., tremor) [19].
It is hypothesized that these diverse phenomena inhibit
functional limb use. Thus, even though the patient
may have a retained ability to move purposefully with
the more-affected limb, which he may even acknowledge, he may not do so because of accompanying effort, clumsiness, or embarrassment. Thus, regardless
of the extent to which subsequent latent motor recovery
might occur (for which there is a great need for further
investigation), the stroke patient with a sensorimotor
hemisyndrome often may manifest the performancevs.-capacity inequality that we referred to earlier (Section 2.2).
It is noteworthy that this functional mismatch has not
garnered much notice from stroke investigators. Beginning with the seminal investigation of Twitchell [87],
motor recovery following stroke has been evaluated
primarily by movement to command, while the comparative amount of spontaneous movement has seldom
been examined. However, in 1979 Andrews and Stewart [1] noted that chronic stroke patients who attended
an outpatient rehabilitation clinic often used the moreaffected limb more in the clinic than their caregivers
reported them to do at home. To our knowledge, this
was the first (and only) published indication that movement to command (i.e., movement ability) could be discrepant from self-initiated limb use in the real world
environment in chronic stroke. The consequence of this
finding is that determining the extent of maximal movement ability in the clinic or laboratory following stroke
cannot be accepted as a proxy measure for real-world
performance.
In our clinical experience, this performance-vs.capacity disparity can be extraordinarily large. As we
indicated above, patients who appear to respond best
to CI therapy have minimally impaired motor capacity (as assessed by movement to command), yet desire
rehabilitation because they do not habitually use their
more- affected limb (as indicated by their responses on
the MAL). When shown the extent to which they can
move and then asked why they do not spontaneously
use the limb more often during routine daily living activities (e.g., turning on a light switch, opening a refrigerator door), they sometimes state that they understand
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V.W. Mark and E. Taub / Constraint-induced movement therapy for chronic stroke hemiparesis and other disabilities
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Rehabilitation Research and Development Service, Department of Veterans Affairs; National Institutes of Health; Retirement
Research Foundation; Center for Aging, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, and the James S. McDonnell
Foundation.
The authors thank the following collaborators: Neal
E. Miller, Jean E. Crago, Sharon Shaw, Sherry Yakley, Francilla Allen, Danna Kay King, Camille Bryson,
Michelle Spear, Sonya Pearson, Stephanie C. DeLuca,
Karen Echols, Sharon Ramey, J. Scott Richards,
Stephanie Abernathy, Benita Moore, Denise Goldman,
Thomas Jannett, Anjan Chatterjee, Edwin W. Cook,
Wolfgang H.R. Miltner, Herta Flor, Thomas Elbert,
Jennifer Glasscock, Staci McKay, Dawn White, Christy
Bussey, Louis D. Burgio, Thomas Novack, Donna M.
Bearden, Thomas E. Groomes, William D. Fleming,
and Cecil S. Nepomuceno.
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