Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a learner's L2 ability.

It not only
refers to a learner's ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but also to form correct utterances,
and know how to use these utterances appropriately. The term unlies the view of language learning
implicit in the communicative approach to language teaching.
The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam
Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky's view of linguistic
competence, however, was not intended to inform pedagogy, but serve as part of developing a
theory of the linguistic system itself, idealized as the abstract language knowledge of the
monolingual adult native speaker, and distinct from how they happen to use and experience
language. Hymes, rather than Chomsky, had developed a theory of education and learning.
Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of four components:
1.
2.
3.
4.

grammatical competence: words and rules

sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness
discourse competence: cohesion and coherence
strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies

Canale and Swain's definition has become canonical in applied linguistics.

A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad
headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or
textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and
"illocutionary" competence.
Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that
communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom
practice (e.g. Savignon 1998). This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical
competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence
has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech
acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.
[edit] External links

http://www.edu.pref.kagoshima.jp/kari/iti-ken/English/Top/Communication/nouryoku.pdf

Hymes' ideas about communicative competence was originally research based rather than
pedagogical. Specifically, to address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes (1972;
1977; 1994)discussed the ethnographic-oriented exploration of communicative competence that
included 'communicative form and function in integral relation to each other ... His researchoriented ideas have undergone an epistemic transformation: from empirically oriented questions to
an idealized pedagogic doctrine' (Leung, 2005).
Leung,C. (2005)Convival Communication: recontextualizing communicative competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 15, No.2,
119-143
Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437003-8
Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1, 147.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hymes, D.H. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Extracts available in Brumfit, C.J. & Johnson,
K. (Eds.) (1979), The communicative approach to language teaching, pp. 5-26. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-437078-X
Leung,C. (2005). Convival Communication: recontextualizing communicative competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 15,
No.2, 119-143
Savignon, S.J. (1998). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2nd edition.
Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki: Umweb.

Grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a given natural language, and, as such, is a
field of linguistics. Traditionally, grammar included morphology and syntax; in modern linguistics
these subfields are complemented by phonetics, phonology, orthography, semantics, and
pragmatics.
The same term is also applied to any set of such rules; thus, each language can be said to have its
own distinct grammar. Thus "English grammar" (uncountable) refers to the rules of the English
language itself, while "an English grammar" (countable) refers to a specific study or analysis of
these rules. A fully explicit grammar exhaustively describing the grammatical constructions of a
language is called a prescriptive grammar, or, in theoretical linguistics, a generative grammar.
Specific types of grammars, or approaches to constructing them, are known as grammatical
frameworks. The standard framework of generative grammar is the transformational grammar
model developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s to 1980s.
The origin of language (glottogony) is a topic that has attracted considerable speculation
throughout human history. The use of language is one of the most conspicuous and diagnostic traits
that distinguish Homo sapiens from other species. Unlike writing, spoken language leaves no trace.
Hence linguists have to resort to indirect methods in trying to decipher the origins of language.
Linguists agree that there are no existing primitive languages, and all modern human populations
speak languages of comparable complexity. While existing languages differ in the size of and
subjects covered in their lexicons, all possess the grammar and syntax needed, and can invent,
translate, or borrow the vocabulary necessary to express the full range of their speakers' concepts. [1]
[2]
All humans possess similar linguistic abilities, and no child is born with a biological
predisposition favoring any one language or type of language.[3]
Speech versus language
It is necessary to make a minor distinction between speech and language. Speech involves
producing sounds from the voicebox. Talking birds, such as some parrots, are able to imitate human
speech with varying ability. However this ability to mimic human sounds is very different from the
acquisition of syntax. On the other hand, the deaf generally do not use speech but are able to
communicate effectively using sign language, which is considered a fully-developed, complex,
modern language. What this implies is that the evolution of modern human language required both
the development of the anatomical apparatus and also neurological changes in the brain.
spoken language is a human natural language in which the words are uttered through the mouth.
Most human languages are spoken languages.
Speech communication stands in contrast to sign language and written language. From the point of
view of linguistic evolution, spoken is prior to written language. The writing system of any
language is developed or "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even today,
there are many world languages that can be spoken but have no standard written form. Hearing
persons acquire their first language by way of spoken language. Writing is learned later. In

linguistics, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is
only a "revised" record of speech[citation needed]. Thus linguists' data for investigation and analysis are
mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic. Even from the point of view of
syntax, spoken language usually has its own set of grammar patterns which sometimes may be quite
different from that in written language.
Sign languages have the same natural origin as spoken languages, and the same grammatical
complexities, but use the hands, arms, and face rather than parts of the mouth as their place of
articulation.
Spoken languages also stand in contrast to computer languages, which are distinguished by their
artificial origin.
COMMUNICATION:
The concept of communicative competence (Hymes, 1962), based on one's knowledge of the rules
of language structure and language use within a given culture, will be useful.
A major responsibility of teachers at all grade levels is to teach the language and communication
skills needed for academic success, and for career and social mobility. Many students come from
cultures which use different, though valid, communication and language systems from what is
considered "normal" in the classroom.
The study of sociolinguistics can help us understand different systems as a means of improving the
quality of our instruction in language and the communication arts.
By age four, most humans have developed an ability to communicate through oral language. By
age six or seven, most humans can comprehend, as well as express, written thoughts. These unique
abilities of communicating through a native language clearly separate humans from all animals.
The obvious question then arises, where did we obtain this distinctive trait? Organic evolution has
proven unable to elucidate the origin of language and communication. Knowing how beneficial this
ability is to humans, one would wonder why this skill has not evolved in other species.
Materialistic science is insufficient at explaining not only how speech came about, but also why we
have so many different languages. Linguistic research, combined with neurological studies, has
determined that human speech is highly dependent on a neuronal network located in specific sites
within the brain. This intricate arrangement of neurons, and the anatomical components necessary
for speech, cannot be reduced in such a way that one could produce a transitional form of
communication. The following paper examines the true origin of speech and language, and the
anatomical and physiological requirements. The evidence conclusively implies that humans were
created with the unique ability to employ speech for communication.
Many animals are capable of using sounds to communicate. However, there is a colossal difference
between the hoot of an owl or the grunt of a pig, and a human standing before an audience reciting
Robert Frosts The Road Not Taken. This enormous chasm between humans and animals has led
to a multiplicity of theories on exactly how man came upon this unequaled capability. Many
researchers have focused on the capabilities of animalssounds and gesturesin an effort to
understand the physiological mechanism underlying communication. But there is a single, common
theme that stands out amidst all the theories: The worlds languages evolved spontaneously. They
were not designed [emphasis added].[7]
From Hand to Mouth: The Origins of Language, Michael Corballis stated:

My own view is that language developed much more gradually, starting with the gestures of apes,
then gathering momentum as the bipedal hominids evolved. The appearance of the larger-brained
genus Homo some 2 million years ago may have signaled the emergence and later development of
syntax, with vocalizations providing a mounting refrain. What may have distinguished Homo
sapiens was the final switch from a mixture of gestural and vocal communication to an autonomous
vocal language, embellished by gesture but not dependent on it.[10]
LANGUAGE AND BRAIN.
In contemplating how language arose, evolutionists frequently link the development of the brain to
the appearance of languages. But when one considers that more than 6,000 languages exist, it is
incomprehensible to suggest that the invention of language could be viewed as some sort of simple,
clear-cut addition to human physiology made possible by an enlarged brain unique to Homo
sapiens. Terrance Deacon commented on the intricacy of evolving a language when he wrote:
For a language feature to have such an impact on brain evolution that all members of the species
come to share it, it must remain invariable across even the most drastic language change possible
[emphasis in original).[20]
The complexity underlying speech first
revealed itself in patients who were suffering
various communication problems. Researchers
began noticing analogous responses among
patients with similar injuries. The ancient
Greeks noticed that brain damage could cause
the loss of the ability to speak (a condition
known as aphasia). Centuries later, in 1836, Marc Dax described a group of patients that could not
speak normally. Dax reported that all of these patients experienced damage to the left hemisphere
of their brain. In 1861, Paul Broca described a patient who could utter only a single wordtan.
When this patient died, Broca examined his brain and observed significant damage to the left frontal
cortex, which has since become known anatomically as Brocas area (see Figure 2). While
patients with damage to Brocas area can understand language, they generally are unable to
produce speech because words are not formed properly, thus slurring their speech.
Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years.
Children are motivated to acquire language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them.
The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls
them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions.
Instrumental: This is
when the child uses language to
express their needs (e.g.'Want
juice')
Regulatory:
This is where
language is used to tell others what
to do (e.g. 'Go away')

Interactional:
Here
language is used to make
contact with others and form
relationships (e.g 'Love you,
mummy')

Personal: This is the use

of language to express feelings,
opinions and individual identity
(e.g 'Me good girl')

The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and representational, all helping the child to
come to terms with his or her environment.

Heuristic: This is when

language is used to gain
knowledge
about
the
environment (e.g. 'What the
tractor doing?')
Imaginative: Here language is
used to tell stories and jokes,
and to create an imaginary
environment.
Representational: The use of
language to convey facts and
information.