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TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysicsVol.IICh.16:InducedCurrents

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SUMMARY

16InducedCurrents

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161Motorsandgenerators
Thediscoveryin1820thattherewasacloseconnectionbetweenelectricityandmagnetismwasveryexcitinguntilthen,thetwosubjectshadbeenconsidered
asquiteindependent.Thefirstdiscoverywasthatcurrentsinwiresmakemagneticfieldsthen,inthesameyear,itwasfoundthatwirescarryingcurrentina
magneticfieldhaveforcesonthem.

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Oneoftheexcitementswheneverthereisamechanicalforceisthepossibilityofusingitinanenginetodowork.Almostimmediatelyaftertheirdiscovery,
peoplestartedtodesignelectricmotorsusingtheforcesoncurrentcarryingwires.Theprincipleoftheelectromagneticmotorisshowninbareoutlinein
Fig.161.Apermanentmagnetusuallywithsomepiecesofsoftironisusedtoproduceamagneticfieldintwoslots.Acrosseachslotthereisanorthand
southpole,asshown.Arectangularcoilofcopperisplacedwithonesideineachslot.Whenacurrentpassesthroughthecoil,itflowsinoppositedirectionsin
thetwoslots,sotheforcesarealsoopposite,producingatorqueonthecoilabouttheaxisshown.Ifthecoilismountedonashaftsothatitcanturn,itcanbe
coupledtopulleysorgearsandcandowork.

Fig.161.Schematicoutlineofasimpleelectromagneticmotor.
Thesameideacanbeusedformakingasensitiveinstrumentforelectricalmeasurements.Thusthemomenttheforcelawwasdiscoveredtheprecisionof
electricalmeasurementswasgreatlyincreased.First,thetorqueofsuchamotorcanbemademuchgreaterforagivencurrentbymakingthecurrentgoaround
manyturnsinsteadofjustone.Thenthecoilcanbemountedsothatitturnswithverylittletorqueeitherbysupportingitsshaftonverydelicatejewel
bearingsorbyhangingthecoilonaveryfinewireoraquartzfiber.Thenanexceedinglysmallcurrentwillmakethecoilturn,andforsmallanglestheamount
ofrotationwillbeproportionaltothecurrent.Therotationcanbemeasuredbygluingapointertothecoilor,forthemostdelicateinstruments,byattachinga
smallmirrortothecoilandlookingattheshiftoftheimageofascale.Suchinstrumentsarecalledgalvanometers.Voltmetersandammetersworkonthesame
principle.

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Thesameideascanbeappliedonalargescaletomakelargemotorsforprovidingmechanicalpower.Thecoilcanbemadetogoaroundandaroundby
arrangingthattheconnectionstothecoilarereversedeachhalfturnbycontactsmountedontheshaft.Thenthetorqueisalwaysinthesamedirection.Smalldc
motorsaremadejustthisway.Largermotors,dcorac,areoftenmadebyreplacingthepermanentmagnetbyanelectromagnet,energizedfromtheelectrical
powersource.
Withtherealizationthatelectriccurrentsmakemagneticfields,peopleimmediatelysuggestedthat,somehoworother,magnetsmightalsomakeelectricfields.
Variousexperimentsweretried.Forexample,twowireswereplacedparalleltoeachotherandacurrentwaspassedthroughoneoftheminthehopeoffindinga
currentintheother.Thethoughtwasthatthemagneticfieldmightinsomewaydragtheelectronsalonginthesecondwire,givingsomesuchlawaslikes
prefertomovealike.Withthelargestavailablecurrentandthemostsensitivegalvanometertodetectanycurrent,theresultwasnegative.Largemagnetsnext
towiresalsoproducednoobservedeffects.Finally,Faradaydiscoveredin1840theessentialfeaturethathadbeenmissedthatelectriceffectsexistonlywhen
thereissomethingchanging.Ifoneofapairofwireshasachangingcurrent,acurrentisinducedintheother,orifamagnetismovednearanelectriccircuit,
thereisacurrent.Wesaythatcurrentsareinduced.ThiswastheinductioneffectdiscoveredbyFaraday.Ittransformedtheratherdullsubjectofstaticfieldsinto
averyexcitingdynamicsubjectwithanenormousrangeofwonderfulphenomena.Thischapterisdevotedtoaqualitativedescriptionofsomeofthem.Aswe
willsee,onecanquicklygetintofairlycomplicatedsituationsthatarehardtoanalyzequantitativelyinalltheirdetails.Butnevermind,ourmainpurposeinthis
chapterisfirsttoacquaintyouwiththephenomenainvolved.Wewilltakeupthedetailedanalysislater.
Wecaneasilyunderstandonefeatureofmagneticinductionfromwhatwealreadyknow,althoughitwasnotknowninFaradaystime.Itcomesfromthe
v Bforceonamovingchargethatisproportionaltoitsvelocityinamagneticfield.Supposethatwehaveawirewhichpassesnearamagnet,asshownin
Fig.162,andthatweconnecttheendsofthewiretoagalvanometer.Ifwemovethewireacrosstheendofthemagnetthegalvanometerpointermoves.
Themagnetproducessomeverticalmagneticfield,andwhenwepushthewireacrossthefield,theelectronsinthewirefeelasidewaysforceatrightanglesto
thefieldandtothemotion.Theforcepushestheelectronsalongthewire.Butwhydoesthismovethegalvanometer,whichissofarfromtheforce?Because
whentheelectronswhichfeelthemagneticforcetrytomove,theypushbyelectricrepulsiontheelectronsalittlefartherdownthewirethey,inturn,repel
theelectronsalittlefartheron,andsoonforalongdistance.Anamazingthing.
ItwassoamazingtoGaussandWeberwhofirstbuiltagalvanometerthattheytriedtoseehowfartheforcesinthewirewouldgo.Theystrungawireallthe
wayacrosstheircity.Mr.Gauss,atoneend,connectedthewirestoabattery(batterieswereknownbeforegenerators)andMr.Weberwatchedthegalvanometer
move.Theyhadawayofsignalinglongdistancesitwasthebeginningofthetelegraph!Ofcourse,thishasnothingdirectlytodowithinductionithastodo
withthewaywirescarrycurrents,whetherthecurrentsarepushedbyinductionornot.

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Fig.162.Movingawirethroughamagneticfieldproducesacurrent,asshownbythegalvanometer.
NowsupposeinthesetupofFig.162weleavethewirealoneandmovethemagnet.Westillseeaneffectonthegalvanometer.AsFaradaydiscovered,moving
themagnetunderthewireonewayhasthesameeffectasmovingthewireoverthemagnettheotherway.Butwhenthemagnetismoved,wenolonger
haveanyv Bforceontheelectronsinthewire.ThisistheneweffectthatFaradayfound.Today,wemighthopetounderstanditfromarelativityargument.
Wealreadyunderstandthatthemagneticfieldofamagnetcomesfromitsinternalcurrents.Soweexpecttoobservethesameeffectifinsteadofamagnetin
Fig.162weuseacoilofwireinwhichthereisacurrent.Ifwemovethewirepastthecoiltherewillbeacurrentthroughthegalvanometer,oralsoifwemove
thecoilpastthewire.Butthereisnowamoreexcitingthing:Ifwechangethemagneticfieldofthecoilnotbymovingit,butbychangingitscurrent,thereis
againaneffectinthegalvanometer.Forexample,ifwehavealoopofwirenearacoil,asshowninFig.163,andifwekeepbothofthemstationarybutswitch
offthecurrent,thereisapulseofcurrentthroughthegalvanometer.Whenweswitchthecoilonagain,thegalvanometerkicksintheotherdirection.

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Fig.163.Acoilwithcurrentproducesacurrentinasecondcoilifthefirstcoilismovedorifitscurrentischanged.
WheneverthegalvanometerinasituationsuchastheoneshowninFig.162,orinFig.163,hasacurrent,thereisanetpushontheelectronsinthewirein
onedirectionalongthewire.Theremaybepushesindifferentdirectionsatdifferentplaces,butthereismorepushinonedirectionthananother.Whatcountsis
thepushintegratedaroundthecompletecircuit.Wecallthisnetintegratedpushtheelectromotiveforce(abbreviatedemf)inthecircuit.Moreprecisely,theemf
isdefinedasthetangentialforceperunitchargeinthewireintegratedoverlength,oncearoundthecompletecircuit.Faradayscompletediscoverywasthat
emfscanbegeneratedinawireinthreedifferentways:bymovingthewire,bymovingamagnetnearthewire,orbychangingacurrentinanearbywire.
LetsconsiderthesimplemachineofFig.161again,onlynow,insteadofputtingacurrentthroughthewiretomakeitturn,letsturntheloopbyanexternal
force,forexamplebyhandorbyawaterwheel.Whenthecoilrotates,itswiresaremovinginthemagneticfieldandwewillfindanemfinthecircuitofthe
coil.Themotorbecomesagenerator.
Thecoilofthegeneratorhasaninducedemffromitsmotion.TheamountoftheemfisgivenbyasimplerulediscoveredbyFaraday.(Wewilljuststatetherule
nowandwaituntillatertoexamineitindetail.)Theruleisthatwhenthemagneticfluxthatpassesthroughtheloop(thisfluxisthenormalcomponentofB
integratedovertheareaoftheloop)ischangingwithtime,theemfisequaltotherateofchangeoftheflux.Wewillrefertothisasthefluxrule.Youseethat
whenthecoilofFig.161isrotated,thefluxthroughitchanges.Atthestartsomefluxgoesthroughonewaythenwhenthecoilhasrotated180 thesame
fluxgoesthroughtheotherway.Ifwecontinuouslyrotatethecoilthefluxisfirstpositive,thennegative,thenpositive,andsoon.Therateofchangeoftheflux
mustalternatealso.Sothereisanalternatingemfinthecoil.Ifweconnectthetwoendsofthecoiltooutsidewiresthroughsomeslidingcontactscalledslip
rings(justsothewireswontgettwisted)wehaveanalternatingcurrentgenerator.

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Orwecanalsoarrange,bymeansofsomeslidingcontacts,thataftereveryonehalfrotation,theconnectionbetweenthecoilendsandtheoutsidewiresis
reversed,sothatwhentheemfreverses,sodotheconnections.Thenthepulsesofemfwillalwayspushcurrentsinthesamedirectionthroughtheexternal
circuit.Wehavewhatiscalledadirectcurrentgenerator.
ThemachineofFig.161iseitheramotororagenerator.Thereciprocitybetweenmotorsandgeneratorsisnicelyshownbyusingtwoidenticaldcmotorsof
thepermanentmagnetkind,withtheircoilsconnectedbytwocopperwires.Whentheshaftofoneisturnedmechanically,itbecomesageneratoranddrivesthe
otherasamotor.Iftheshaftofthesecondisturned,itbecomesthegeneratoranddrivesthefirstasamotor.Sohereisaninterestingexampleofanewkindof
equivalenceofnature:motorandgeneratorareequivalent.Thequantitativeequivalenceis,infact,notcompletelyaccidental.Itisrelatedtothelawof
conservationofenergy.
Anotherexampleofadevicethatcanoperateeithertogenerateemfsortorespondtoemfsisthereceiverofastandardtelephonethatis,anearphone.The
originaltelephoneofBellconsistedoftwosuchearphonesconnectedbytwolongwires.ThebasicprincipleisshowninFig.164.Apermanentmagnet
producesamagneticfieldintwoyokesofsoftironandinathindiaphragmthatismovedbysoundpressure.Whenthediaphragmmoves,itchangesthe
amountofmagneticfieldintheyokes.Thereforeacoilofwirewoundaroundoneoftheyokeswillhavethefluxthroughitchangedwhenasoundwavehitsthe
diaphragm.Sothereisanemfinthecoil.Iftheendsofthecoilareconnectedtoacircuit,acurrentwhichisanelectricalrepresentationofthesoundissetup.

Fig.164.Atelephonetransmitterorreceiver.
IftheendsofthecoilofFig.164areconnectedbytwowirestoanotheridenticalgadget,varyingcurrentswillflowinthesecondcoil.Thesecurrentswill
produceavaryingmagneticfieldandwillmakeavaryingattractionontheirondiaphragm.Thediaphragmwillwiggleandmakesoundwavesapproximately
similartotheonesthatmovedtheoriginaldiaphragm.Withafewbitsofironandcopperthehumanvoiceistransmittedoverwires!
(Themodernhometelephoneusesareceiverliketheonedescribedbutusesanimprovedinventiontogetamorepowerfultransmitter.Itisthecarbonbutton
microphone,thatusessoundpressuretovarytheelectriccurrentfromabattery.)

162Transformersandinductances
OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofFaradaysdiscoveriesisnotthatanemfexistsinamovingcoilwhichwecanunderstandintermsofthemagnetic
forceqv Bbutthatachangingcurrentinonecoilmakesanemfinasecondcoil.Andquitesurprisinglytheamountofemfinducedinthesecondcoilis
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givenbythesamefluxrule:thattheemfisequaltotherateofchangeofthemagneticfluxthroughthecoil.Supposethatwetaketwocoils,eachwound
aroundseparatebundlesofironsheets(thesehelptomakestrongermagneticfields),asshowninFig.165.Nowweconnectoneofthecoilscoil(a)toan
alternatingcurrentgenerator.Thecontinuallychangingcurrentproducesacontinuouslyvaryingmagneticfield.Thisvaryingfieldgeneratesanalternatingemf
inthesecondcoilcoil(b).Thisemfcan,forexample,produceenoughpowertolightanelectricbulb.

Fig.165.Twocoils,wrappedaroundbundlesofironsheets,allowageneratortolightabulbwithnodirectconnection.
Theemfalternatesincoil(b)atafrequencywhichis,ofcourse,thesameasthefrequencyoftheoriginalgenerator.Butthecurrentincoil(b)canbelargeror
smallerthanthecurrentincoil(a).Thecurrentincoil(b)dependsontheemfinducedinitandontheresistanceandinductanceoftherestofitscircuit.Theemf
canbelessthanthatofthegeneratorif,say,thereislittlefluxchange.Ortheemfincoil(b)canbemademuchlargerthanthatinthegeneratorbywinding
coil(b)withmanyturns,sinceinagivenmagneticfieldthefluxthroughthecoilisthengreater.(Orifyouprefertolookatitanotherway,theemfisthesame
ineachturn,andsincethetotalemfisthesumoftheemfsoftheseparateturns,manyturnsinseriesproducealargeemf.)
Suchacombinationoftwocoilsusuallywithanarrangementofironsheetstoguidethemagneticfieldsiscalledatransformer.Itcantransformoneemf
(alsocalledavoltage)toanother.
Therearealsoinductioneffectsinasinglecoil.Forinstance,inthesetupinFig.165thereisachangingfluxnotonlythroughcoil(b),whichlightsthebulb,
butalsothroughcoil(a).Thevaryingcurrentincoil(a)producesavaryingmagneticfieldinsideitselfandthefluxofthisfieldiscontinuallychanging,sothere
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isaselfinducedemfincoil(a).Thereisanemfactingonanycurrentwhenitisbuildingupamagneticfieldor,ingeneral,whenitsfieldischanginginany
way.Theeffectiscalledselfinductance.
Whenwegavethefluxrulethattheemfisequaltotherateofchangeofthefluxlinkage,wedidntspecifythedirectionoftheemf.Thereisasimplerule,
calledLenzsrule,forfiguringoutwhichwaytheemfgoes:theemftriestoopposeanyfluxchange.Thatis,thedirectionofaninducedemfisalwayssuchthat
ifacurrentweretoflowinthedirectionoftheemf,itwouldproduceafluxofBthatopposesthechangeinBthatproducestheemf.Lenzsrulecanbeusedto
findthedirectionoftheemfinthegeneratorofFig.161,orinthetransformerwindingofFig.163.
Inparticular,ifthereisachangingcurrentinasinglecoil(orinanywire)thereisabackemfinthecircuit.Thisemfactsonthechargesflowingincoil(a)of
Fig.165toopposethechangeinmagneticfield,andsointhedirectiontoopposethechangeincurrent.Ittriestokeepthecurrentconstantitisoppositetothe
currentwhenthecurrentisincreasing,anditisinthedirectionofthecurrentwhenitisdecreasing.Acurrentinaselfinductancehasinertia,becausethe
inductiveeffectstrytokeeptheflowconstant,justasmechanicalinertiatriestokeepthevelocityofanobjectconstant.

Fig.166.Circuitconnectionsforanelectromagnet.Thelampallowsthepassageofcurrentwhentheswitchisopened,preventingtheappearanceofexcessive
emfs.
Anylargeelectromagnetwillhavealargeselfinductance.Supposethatabatteryisconnectedtothecoilofalargeelectromagnet,asinFig.166,andthata
strongmagneticfieldhasbeenbuiltup.(Thecurrentreachesasteadyvaluedeterminedbythebatteryvoltageandtheresistanceofthewireinthecoil.)Butnow
supposethatwetrytodisconnectthebatterybyopeningtheswitch.Ifwereallyopenedthecircuit,thecurrentwouldgotozerorapidly,andindoingsoit
wouldgenerateanenormousemf.Inmostcasesthisemfwouldbelargeenoughtodevelopanarcacrosstheopeningcontactsoftheswitch.Thehighvoltage
thatappearsmightalsodamagetheinsulationofthecoiloryou,ifyouarethepersonwhoopenstheswitch!Forthesereasons,electromagnetsareusually
connectedinacircuitliketheoneshowninFig.166.Whentheswitchisopened,thecurrentdoesnotchangerapidlybutremainssteady,flowinginstead
throughthelamp,beingdrivenbytheemffromtheselfinductanceofthecoil.

163Forcesoninducedcurrents

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Fig.167.Aconductingringisstronglyrepelledbyanelectromagnetwithavaryingcurrent.
YouhaveprobablyseenthedramaticdemonstrationofLenzsrulemadewiththegadgetshowninFig.167.Itisanelectromagnet,justlikecoil(a)ofFig.16
5.Analuminumringisplacedontheendofthemagnet.Whenthecoilisconnectedtoanalternatingcurrentgeneratorbyclosingtheswitch,theringfliesinto
theair.Theforcecomes,ofcourse,fromtheinducedcurrentsinthering.Thefactthattheringfliesawayshowsthatthecurrentsinitopposethechangeofthe
fieldthroughit.Whenthemagnetismakinganorthpoleatitstop,theinducedcurrentintheringismakingadownwardpointingnorthpole.Theringandthe
coilarerepelledjustliketwomagnetswithlikepolesopposite.Ifathinradialcutismadeintheringtheforcedisappears,showingthatitdoesindeedcome
fromthecurrentsinthering.
If,insteadofthering,weplaceadiscofaluminumorcopperacrosstheendoftheelectromagnetofFig.167,itisalsorepelledinducedcurrentscirculatein
thematerialofthedisc,andagainproducearepulsion.
Aninterestingeffect,similarinorigin,occurswithasheetofaperfectconductor.Inaperfectconductorthereisnoresistancewhatevertothecurrent.Soif
currentsaregeneratedinit,theycankeepgoingforever.Infact,theslightestemfwouldgenerateanarbitrarilylargecurrentwhichreallymeansthattherecan
benoemfsatall.AnyattempttomakeamagneticfluxgothroughsuchasheetgeneratescurrentsthatcreateoppositeBfieldsallwithinfinitesimalemfs,
sowithnofluxentering.

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Fig.168.Anelectromagnetnearaperfectlyconductingplate.
Ifwehaveasheetofaperfectconductorandputanelectromagnetnexttoit,whenweturnonthecurrentinthemagnet,currentscallededdycurrentsappearin
thesheet,sothatnomagneticfluxenters.ThefieldlineswouldlookasshowninFig.168.Thesamethinghappens,ofcourse,ifwebringabarmagnetneara
perfectconductor.Sincetheeddycurrentsarecreatingopposingfields,themagnetsarerepelledfromtheconductor.Thismakesitpossibletosuspendabar
magnetinairaboveasheetofperfectconductorshapedlikeadish,asshowninFig.169.Themagnetissuspendedbytherepulsionoftheinducededdy
currentsintheperfectconductor.Therearenoperfectconductorsatordinarytemperatures,butsomematerialsbecomeperfectconductorsatlowenough
temperatures.Forinstance,below3.8 Ktinconductsperfectly.Itiscalledasuperconductor.

Fig.169.Abarmagnetissuspendedaboveasuperconductingbowl,bytherepulsionofeddycurrents.
IftheconductorinFig.168isnotquiteperfecttherewillbesomeresistancetoflowoftheeddycurrents.Thecurrentswilltendtodieoutandthemagnetwill
slowlysettledown.Theeddycurrentsinanimperfectconductorneedanemftokeepthemgoing,andtohaveanemfthefluxmustkeepchanging.Thefluxof
themagneticfieldgraduallypenetratestheconductor.
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Inanormalconductor,therearenotonlyrepulsiveforcesfromeddycurrents,buttherecanalsobesidewiseforces.Forinstance,ifwemoveamagnetsideways
alongaconductingsurfacetheeddycurrentsproduceaforceofdrag,becausetheinducedcurrentsareopposingthechangingofthelocationofflux.Such
forcesareproportionaltothevelocityandarelikeakindofviscousforce.

Fig.1610.Thebrakingofthependulumshowstheforcesduetoeddycurrents.
TheseeffectsshowupnicelyintheapparatusshowninFig.1610.Asquaresheetofcopperissuspendedontheendofarodtomakeapendulum.Thecopper
swingsbackandforthbetweenthepolesofanelectromagnet.Whenthemagnetisturnedon,thependulummotionissuddenlyarrested.Asthemetalplate
entersthegapofthemagnet,thereisacurrentinducedintheplatewhichactstoopposethechangeinfluxthroughtheplate.Ifthesheetwereaperfect
conductor,thecurrentswouldbesogreatthattheywouldpushtheplateoutagainitwouldbounceback.Withacopperplatethereissomeresistanceinthe
plate,sothecurrentsatfirstbringtheplatealmosttoadeadstopasitstartstoenterthefield.Then,asthecurrentsdiedown,theplateslowlysettlestorestin
themagneticfield.

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Fig.1611.Theeddycurrentsinthecopperpendulum.
ThenatureoftheeddycurrentsinthecopperpendulumisshowninFig.1611.Thestrengthandgeometryofthecurrentsarequitesensitivetotheshapeofthe
plate.If,forinstance,thecopperplateisreplacedbyonewhichhasseveralnarrowslotscutinit,asshowninFig.1612,theeddycurrenteffectsaredrastically
reduced.Thependulumswingsthroughthemagneticfieldwithonlyasmallretardingforce.Thereasonisthatthecurrentsineachsectionofthecopperhave
lessfluxtodrivethem,sotheeffectsoftheresistanceofeachlooparegreater.Thecurrentsaresmallerandthedragisless.Theviscouscharacteroftheforceis
seenevenmoreclearlyifasheetofcopperisplacedbetweenthepolesofthemagnetofFig.1610andthenreleased.Itdoesntfallitjustsinksslowly
downward.Theeddycurrentsexertastrongresistancetothemotionjustliketheviscousdraginhoney.

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Fig.1612.Eddycurrenteffectsaredrasticallyreducedbycuttingslotsintheplate.
If,insteadofdraggingaconductorpastamagnet,wetrytorotateitinamagneticfield,therewillbearesistivetorquefromthesameeffects.Alternatively,ifwe
rotateamagnetendoverendnearaconductingplateorring,theringisdraggedaroundcurrentsintheringwillcreateatorquethattendstorotatethering
withthemagnet.

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Fig.1613.Makingarotatingmagneticfield.
AfieldjustlikethatofarotatingmagnetcanbemadewithanarrangementofcoilssuchasisshowninFig.1613.Wetakeatorusofiron(thatis,aringofiron
likeadoughnut)andwindsixcoilsonit.Ifweputacurrent,asshowninpart(a),throughwindings(1)and(4),therewillbeamagneticfieldinthedirection
showninthefigure.Ifwenowswitchthecurrenttowindings(2)and(5),themagneticfieldwillbeinanewdirection,asshowninpart(b)ofthefigure.
Continuingtheprocess,wegetthesequenceoffieldsshownintherestofthefigure.Iftheprocessisdonesmoothly,wehavearotatingmagneticfield.We
caneasilygettherequiredsequenceofcurrentsbyconnectingthecoilstoathreephasepowerline,whichprovidesjustsuchasequenceofcurrents.Three
phasepowerismadeinageneratorusingtheprincipleofFig.161,exceptthattherearethreeloopsfastenedtogetheronthesameshaftinasymmetricalway
thatis,withanangleof120 fromonelooptothenext.Whenthecoilsarerotatedasaunit,theemfisamaximuminone,theninthenext,andsoonina
regularsequence.Therearemanypracticaladvantagesofthreephasepower.Oneofthemisthepossibilityofmakingarotatingmagneticfield.Thetorque
producedonaconductorbysucharotatingfieldiseasilyshownbystandingametalringonaninsulatingtablejustabovethetorus,asshowninFig.1614.
Therotatingfieldcausestheringtospinaboutaverticalaxis.Thebasicelementsseenherearequitethesameasthoseatplayinalargecommercialthreephase
inductionmotor.

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Fig.1614.TherotatingfieldofFig.1613canbeusedtoprovidetorqueonaconductingring.
AnotherformofinductionmotorisshowninFig.1615.Thearrangementshownisnotsuitableforapracticalhighefficiencymotorbutwillillustratethe
principle.TheelectromagnetM ,consistingofabundleoflaminatedironsheetswoundwithasolenoidalcoil,ispoweredwithalternatingcurrentfroma
generator.ThemagnetproducesavaryingfluxofBthroughthealuminumdisc.Ifwehavejustthesetwocomponents,asshowninpart(a)ofthefigure,wedo
notyethaveamotor.Thereareeddycurrentsinthedisc,buttheyaresymmetricandthereisnotorque.(Therewillbesomeheatingofthediscduetothe
inducedcurrents.)Ifwenowcoveronlyonehalfofthemagnetpolewithanaluminumplate,asshowninpart(b)ofthefigure,thediscbeginstorotate,andwe
haveamotor.Theoperationdependsontwoeddycurrenteffects.First,theeddycurrentsinthealuminumplateopposethechangeoffluxthroughit,sothe
magneticfieldabovetheplatealwayslagsthefieldabovethathalfofthepolewhichisnotcovered.Thissocalledshadedpoleeffectproducesafieldwhich
intheshadedregionvariesmuchlikethatintheunshadedregionexceptthatitisdelayedaconstantamountintime.Thewholeeffectisasiftherewerea
magnetonlyhalfaswidewhichiscontinuallybeingmovedfromtheunshadedregiontowardtheshadedone.Thenthevaryingfieldsinteractwiththeeddy
currentsinthedisctoproducethetorqueonit.

Fig.1615.Asimpleexampleofashadedpoleinductionmotor.
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164Electricaltechnology
WhenFaradayfirstmadepublichisremarkablediscoverythatachangingmagneticfluxproducesanemf,hewasasked(asanyoneisaskedwhenhediscoversa
newfactofnature),Whatistheuseofit?Allhehadfoundwastheodditythatatinycurrentwasproducedwhenhemovedawirenearamagnet.Ofwhat
possibleusecouldthatbe?Hisanswerwas:Whatistheuseofanewbornbaby?
Yetthinkofthetremendouspracticalapplicationshisdiscoveryhasledto.Whatwehavebeendescribingarenotjusttoysbutexampleschoseninmostcasesto
representtheprincipleofsomepracticalmachine.Forinstance,therotatingringintheturningfieldisaninductionmotor.Thereare,ofcourse,somedifferences
betweenitandapracticalinductionmotor.Theringhasaverysmalltorqueitcanbestoppedwithyourhand.Foragoodmotor,thingshavetobeputtogether
moreintimately:thereshouldntbesomuchwastedmagneticfieldoutintheair.First,thefieldisconcentratedbyusingiron.Wehavenotdiscussedhowiron
doesthat,butironcanmakethemagneticfieldtensofthousandsoftimesstrongerthancoppercoilsalonecoulddo.Second,thegapsbetweenthepiecesofiron
aremadesmalltodothat,someironisevenbuiltintotherotatingring.Everythingisarrangedsoastogetthegreatestforcesandthegreatestefficiencythat
is,conversionofelectricalpowertomechanicalpoweruntiltheringcannolongerbeheldstillbyyourhand.
Thisproblemofclosingthegapsandmakingthethingworkinthemostpracticalwayisengineering.Itrequiresseriousstudyofdesignproblems,although
therearenonewbasicprinciplesfromwhichtheforcesareobtained.Butthereisalongwaytogofromthebasicprinciplestoapracticalandeconomicdesign.
YetitisjustsuchcarefulengineeringdesignthathasmadepossiblesuchatremendousthingasBoulderDamandallthatgoeswithit.
WhatisBoulderDam?Ahugeriverisstoppedbyaconcretewall.Butwhatawallitis!Shapedwithaperfectcurvethatisverycarefullyworkedoutsothatthe
leastpossibleamountofconcretewillholdbackawholeriver.Itthickensatthebottominthatwonderfulshapethattheartistslikebutthattheengineerscan
appreciatebecausetheyknowthatsuchthickeningisrelatedtotheincreaseofpressurewiththedepthofthewater.Butwearegettingawayfromelectricity.
Thenthewateroftheriverisdivertedintoahugepipe.Thatsaniceengineeringaccomplishmentinitself.Thepipefeedsthewaterintoawaterwheela
hugeturbineandmakeswheelsturn.(Anotherengineeringfeat.)Butwhyturnwheels?Theyarecoupledtoanexquisitelyintricatemessofcopperandiron,
alltwistedandinterwoven.Withtwopartsonethatturnsandonethatdoesnt.Allacomplexintermixtureofafewmaterials,mostlyironandcopperbutalso
somepaperandshellacforinsulation.Arevolvingmonsterthing.Agenerator.Somewhereoutofthemessofcopperandironcomeafewspecialpiecesof
copper.Thedam,theturbine,theiron,thecopper,allputtheretomakesomethingspecialhappentoafewbarsofcopperanemf.Thenthecopperbarsgoa
littlewayandcircleforseveraltimesaroundanotherpieceofironinatransformerthentheirjobisdone.
Butaroundthatsamepieceofironcurlsanothercableofcopperwhichhasnodirectconnectionwhatsoevertothebarsfromthegeneratortheyhavejustbeen
influencedbecausetheypassednearittogettheiremf.Thetransformerconvertsthepowerfromtherelativelylowvoltagesrequiredfortheefficientdesignof
thegeneratortotheveryhighvoltagesthatarebestforefficienttransmissionofelectricalenergyoverlongcables.
Andeverythingmustbeenormouslyefficienttherecanbenowaste,noloss.Why?Thepowerforametropolisisgoingthrough.Ifasmallfractionwerelost
oneortwopercentthinkoftheenergyleftbehind!Ifonepercentofthepowerwereleftinthetransformer,thatenergywouldneedtobetakenout
somehow.Ifitappearedasheat,itwouldquicklymeltthewholething.Thereis,ofcourse,somesmallinefficiency,butallthatisrequiredareafewpumps
whichcirculatesomeoilthrougharadiatortokeepthetransformerfromheatingup.
OutoftheBoulderDamcomeafewdozenrodsofcopperlong,long,longrodsofcopperperhapsthethicknessofyourwristthatgoforhundredsofmilesin
alldirections.Smallrodsofcoppercarryingthepowerofagiantriver.Thentherodsaresplittomakemorerodsthentomoretransformerssometimesto
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greatgeneratorswhichrecreatethecurrentinanotherformsometimestoenginesturningforbigindustrialpurposestomoretransformersthenmore
splittingandspreadinguntilfinallytheriverisspreadthroughoutthewholecityturningmotors,makingheat,makinglight,workinggadgetry.Themiracle
ofhotlightsfromcoldwaterover600milesawayalldonewithspeciallyarrangedpiecesofcopperandiron.Largemotorsforrollingsteel,ortinymotorsfor
adentistsdrill.Thousandsoflittlewheels,turninginresponsetotheturningofthebigwheelatBoulderDam.Stopthebigwheel,andallthewheelsstopthe
lightsgoout.Theyreallyareconnected.
Yetthereismore.Thesamephenomenathattakethetremendouspoweroftheriverandspreaditthroughthecountryside,untilafewdropsoftheriverare
runningthedentistsdrill,comeagainintothebuildingofextremelyfineinstrumentsforthedetectionofincrediblysmallamountsofcurrentforthe
transmissionofvoices,music,andpicturesforcomputersforautomaticmachinesoffantasticprecision.
Allthisispossiblebecauseofcarefullydesignedarrangementsofcopperandironefficientlycreatedmagneticfieldsblocksofrotatingironsixfeetin
diameterwhirlingwithclearancesof1/16ofaninchcarefulproportionsofcopperfortheoptimumefficiencystrangeshapesallservingapurpose,like
thecurveofthedam.
IfsomefuturearchaeologistuncoversBoulderDam,wemayguessthathewouldadmirethebeautyofitscurves.Butalsotheexplorersfromsomegreatfuture
civilizationswilllookatthegeneratorsandtransformersandsay:Noticethateveryironpiecehasabeautifullyefficientshape.Thinkofthethoughtthathas
goneintoeverypieceofcopper!
Thisisthepowerofengineeringandthecarefuldesignofourelectricaltechnology.Therehasbeencreatedinthegeneratorsomethingwhichexistsnowhere
elseinnature.Itistruethatthereareforcesofinductioninotherplaces.Certainlyinsomeplacesaroundthesunandstarsthereareeffectsofelectromagnetic
induction.Perhapsalso(thoughitsnotcertain)themagneticfieldoftheearthismaintainedbyananalogofanelectricgeneratorthatoperatesoncirculating
currentsintheinterioroftheearth.Butnowherehavetherebeenpiecesputtogetherwithmovingpartstogenerateelectricalpowerasisdoneinthegenerator
withgreatefficiencyandregularity.
Youmaythinkthatdesigningelectricgeneratorsisnolongeraninterestingsubject,thatitisadeadsubjectbecausetheyarealldesigned.Almostperfect
generatorsormotorscanbetakenfromashelf.Evenifthisweretrue,wecanadmirethewonderfulaccomplishmentofaproblemsolvedtonearperfection.But
thereremainasmanyunfinishedproblems.Evengeneratorsandtransformersarereturningasproblems.Itislikelythatthewholefieldoflowtemperaturesand
superconductorswillsoonbeappliedtotheproblemofelectricpowerdistribution.Witharadicallynewfactorintheproblem,newoptimumdesignswillhave
tobecreated.Powernetworksofthefuturemayhavelittleresemblancetothoseoftoday.
Youcanseethatthereisanendlessnumberofapplicationsandproblemsthatonecouldtakeupwhilestudyingthelawsofinduction.Thestudyofthedesignof
electricalmachineryisalifeworkinitself.Wecannotgoveryfarinthatdirection,butweshouldbeawareofthefactthatwhenwehavediscoveredthelawof
induction,wehavesuddenlyconnectedourtheorytoanenormouspracticaldevelopment.Wemust,however,leavethatsubjecttotheengineersandapplied
scientistswhoareinterestedinworkingoutthedetailsofparticularapplications.Physicsonlysuppliesthebasethebasicprinciplesthatapply,nomatterwhat.
(Wehavenotyetcompletedthebase,becausewehaveyettoconsiderindetailthepropertiesofironandofcopper.Physicshassomethingtosayabouttheseas
wewillseealittlelater!)
ModernelectricaltechnologybeganwithFaradaysdiscoveries.Theuselessbabydevelopedintoaprodigyandchangedthefaceoftheearthinwaysitsproud
fathercouldneverhaveimagined.
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Copyright1964,2006,2013bytheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,
MichaelA.Gottlieb,andRudolfPfeiffer

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