Chapter I

Introduction

Human has the highest attainment on its brain that can utilize resources. As human has
the capability of utilizing these resources, their products are keep on updating in order to serve
into a demanding public. As development comes on, there is always alteration to the
environment. This alteration means that a village into a city that has establishments and also
hundreds of houses due to huge population or a so called urbanization. Air pollution is a
persistent concern in the cities of developing countries (Wang, et. al 2008) .The perfect example
is the Cagayan de Oro City which is the gateway to the Northern Mindanao and has an area of
57,851 hectares with its territorial size is 3.4% of the region; and 16.20% of Misamis Oriental
(3,570.10 sq. km.) (Research Division City Assessment Department/GIS-CPD, 2015). Since
1903 except in 1960, the population increases until that in 2015 it reaches 687,427 persons that
has a growth rate of 2.69 % (NSO, 2015). The urbanization rate also shoots up from 7,714.50 in
2010 to 23,846.72 in 2012. It continually increases in 2015 with a total urban use is 39,089
(Research Division City Assessment Department/GIS-CPD, 2015).

The urbanization makes people from neighboring provinces, cities and municipalities
would come to the city for job and income opportunities (Department for Environment, Food &
Rural Affairs, 2016). Sprouting subdivisions in the city is one attraction for the people to live in
a city. People reach their welfare by using vehicles that can be result to traffic. Traffic can be
done in those roads of the city which covers an area of 561.784 km. and it has 264,139 registered
vehicles and because of that there is an average of 729 Philippine Unit Jeepneys that are passing
into the 19 streets per hour (Road Traffic Administration Region 10, 2013). Among those streets

in Cagayan De Oro City, the Vamenta Boulevard and Claro M. Recto Avenue are considered as
the busiest streets in the city. The Vamenta Boulevard has a total annual average daily traffic of
28880 in 2012 and it shoots down to 24315 in 2013 (DPWH Region 10, 2013). The Claro M.
Recto Avenue has an annual average daily traffic of 22243 in 2012 and it shoots up in 2013 to
37092 (DPWH Region 10, 2013). These one of the greatest volume of vehicles passing by on the
streets can lead to traffic. There is a high risk of acquiring those air pollutants because according
to EPA, the more traffic, the more emissions produce. Traffic affects the air quality by releasing
toxic air pollutants that can increase into a high concentration (EPA, 2014) and produces health
effects especially respiratory disease. The quality of the abiotic sources are being changed just
like the air because hundreds of pollutants from newly invented inventions like cars and trucks
that split into primary and secondary pollution. Primary pollution is emitted directly into the
atmosphere; secondary pollution results from chemical reactions between pollutants in the
atmosphere. Each primary and secondary pollutant is producing disease like cardio vascular
diseases, respiratory diseases, brain diseases and etc. Motor vehicle emissions represent a
complex mixture of criteria air pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and particulate matter (PM), as well as hydrocarbons that react with NOx and sunlight to
form ground-level ozone.
Every traffic, there are organisms on its side of the roads involved which are the near and distant
residents. They are prone to health hazard because roadways generally influence air quality within
a few hundred meters about 500-600 feet downwind form the vicinity of heavily travelled
roadways or along corridors with significant trucking traffic or rail activities (EPA, 2014) so it
means that they have a greater chance of inhaling those toxic air pollutants. Some studies have
observed a dose-response gradient such that living closer to major roads is associated with
2

increased risk (Adams S, et al. 2008). Traffic-related air pollutants are associated with many
adverse health effects, including mortality, non-allergic respiratory morbidity, allergic illness and
symptoms, cardiovascular morbidity, cancer, preterm birth, and decreased male fertility (WHO,
2005; HEI, 2010). This health risk is from the elevated auto emissions near high traffic roadways
(Adams, 2015). They found that people who lived near a main road were almost twice as likely to
die from heart or lung disease and 1.4 times as likely to die from any cause compared with those
who lived in less-trafficked areas (Brunekreef et al. 2002). Researchers observed an
approximately 10-20 percent increase in the risk of premature birth and low birth weight for
infants born to women living near high traffic areas in Los Angeles County (Wilhelm , 2002). A
2000 Denver study showed that children living within 250 yards of streets or highways with
20,000 vehicles per day are six times more likely to develop all types of cancer and eight times
more likely to get leukemia ( Pearson et al. 2000 ). Among these situations, the researchers want
to have an assessment on the people of Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City and Barangay
Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City because there are more people will be involved. These two barangays
have the potential in terms of population growth. The Barangay Carmen has a biggest population
in the city that jumps up from 47,188 in the year 2000 to 80,880 in the year 2015 (National
Statistics Office (NSO City Planning and Development Office, 2015). It is surrounded with
traffic area in the Vamenta Boulevard where it is considered as a busy street that accommodates
an average of 24315 vehicles. The Barangay Gusa belongs to its fourth place because the
population growth jumps up from 18500 in the year 2000 to 31031 in the year 2015 (NSO City
Planning and Development Office, 2015). It is surrounded with the traffic area in the Claro M.
Recto Avenue where it is considered also as the busy street that accommodates 37092 vehicles.
The human is an important resource because it builds the economy of the nation and sustains the

environment on which he belongs into it. As we consider air is important because good air quality
is a basic necessity of a person that needs 14,000 liters of air every day (Ministry for the
Environment, 2014). In this study, the primary subject is the human experience on air quality in a
specific location. In connection, the health problem might be closer to them because according to
Buna the vehicles emission test were carried out into the streets of Cagayan De Oro City in the
year 2000 to 2010 but it stops in the 2011 up to now. By this phenomenon, the researchers want to
know the level of risk behind on the near and distant residents in the traffic area. Furthermore, the
researchers want to compare the respiratory health status between the near and distant residents in
the traffic area so that we can have a backbone on its support on the safety level of each two
areas.
Statement of the Problem
This study will aim to compare the incidence of respiratory health problems among
residents living near and far from the traffic roads of Cagayan de Oro City, specifically, at
Vamenta Boulevard, Brgy, Carmen and Claro M. Recto Avenue, Brgy. Gusa. Therefore, it will
specifically answer the following objectives:
1. To determine the concentration of Particulate Matter 10 in the residential areas that are
near and far from the traffic roads.
2. To identify if there is a significant difference in the concentration of PM10 in the
residential areas that are near and far from the traffic roads.
3. To determine the incidence of reported respiratory health problems in the sampled
residential areas near and far from the traffic roads in terms of the household members:

A. Age
B. Sex
C. Educational Attainment
D. Economic Status
E. Usual No. of hours staying at home in a day
F. Usual No. of hours spent outside home in a day
G. Length of Residency
H. Crowding

To measure the association of the concentration of PM10 in the samples residential areas
near and far from the traffic roads and the incidence of respiratory health problems
among the household members.

Hypothesis:
Ho: There is no significant difference between the near and far residents in the traffic areas in
terms of respiratory diseases
Hi: There is a significant difference between the near and far residents in the traffic areas in
terms of respiratory disease

Conceptual Framework

The Incidence of
Respiratory Problems
In Terms OF

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Age
Sex
Educational Attainment
Economic Status
Usual No. of hours
staying at home in a day
6. Usual No. of hours spent
outside home in a day
7. Length of Residency
8. Crowding

Presence of PM10

Locations
Area Near the Traffic Roads

Area Far From Traffic Roads

Figure 1.1 The Determinants in the nearby and distant traffic area residents
The figure 1.1 shows the determinants in the nearby and distant traffic area that could make an
effect to the air quality risk assessment of the nearby and distant traffic area residents. The
Traffic condition gives Respiratory Health Problems and its presence of PM10 Concentration
6

which can be affecting to the near and far traffic area residents. The number, frequency, duration
and type of respiratory health problems that can give a total affect into the status that shows the
effects of the traffic air pollutants through their demographic profile. It can be quantified through
their Demographic Profile that reflects the health status of the nearby and far traffic area
residents because it showed the vulnerability of the residents to be infected with the rate of the
air pollution toxicants coming from the vehicle emissions. The Age determines the capability of
the organs that has defense mechanism on the air pollution toxicants. The gender determines the
uniqueness of the organs of male and female to fight the air pollution toxicants. The Economic
Status that gives the level of idea on how to establish protection to the hazards occurs in the
environment. The Educational Background could give the chance of diseases to incorporate the
residents without knowing or no prevention that their habitat is closer in inhaling these harmful
toxic traffic air pollutants. The number of exposure in and out of their habitat gives an additional
factor to be considered in their vulnerability to the respiratory problems. The length of residency
that served as a case study that showed the no. of diseases occur in throughout their living
exposure on near and distant on traffic area. The crowding determines the capability of the
pollutants to cover the households. The presence of air pollutants was able to support the health
problems occur in the said area such as the Particulate Matter 10. These two variables make an
association in each two locations in which how the concentration of PM10 affect the incidence of
respiratory problems due to their profile vice versa.

Significance of the Study

The booming city of Cagayan de Oro gives a triple on its traffic because of hundreds of vehicles
coming from the demanding public that can make an effect in air quality among the nearby and
distant traffic area residents. Two of this is the Vamenta Boulevard in Carmen, Cagayan De Oro
City and Claro M. Recto Avenue in Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City. This study would be useful to
the following group:
To the policy and decision makers, the data of this study could be used as baseline information in
order to form rules and regulation which is a perquisite in establishing safety standards that
further aware the public especially the nearby and distant traffic area residents.
To the city planning, the data of this study could be used as forcibility of relocating on which
area of the residents that can be a victim to the large emissions of traffic air pollutants
To the health professionals, this study could produce a sort of efforts to solve the diseases
coming from vehicle emissions and its preventive measures such as right KPA (Knowledge,
Practices and Attitudes) to the residents in the traffic areas.
To the school and local government units, the result of this study might serve as a basis of the
LGUs and the Mindanao University of Science and Technology in determining how the nearby
and distant traffic area residents can avoid the traffic area pollutants.
To the researchers as BS Environmental Science and Technology, investigating this research
would develop skills and ability to assess the environmental health issue to the nearby and
distant traffic area community necessary to take positive feedback to level up the health safety of
the residents.

To the Nearby and Distant Traffic Area Residents, the data of this research would also help them
in making a decision of staying nearby or distant in the traffic area. Additionally, it would realize
their safety towards a better living with a healthy environment.
Furthermore, these findings of this study might serve as a background information and reference
for further studies regarding the societal-environmental concern.

Scope and Delimitation

This study will be confine only in Vamenta Boulevard, Brgy. Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City and
Claro M. Recto Avenue, Brgy. Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City which is the residents near and
distant on the traffic area will be the respondents. The study will be focus on the health status
and the relationship on the factors of acquiring those diseases such as the demographic profile ,
presence of air pollutants of particulate matter 10 and the character of a disease in the near and
distant traffic area residents . The factors that influence the exposure of air pollutants such as the
Weather and Description of the location doesnt include in the study specifically the wet and dry
season due to unavailability of the equipment.
The demographic profile variables will be limited only to age, gender, economic status,
educational background, length of residency, crowding and exposure. Also, the type, frequency,
duration and number of respiratory health problems occur in the near and distant traffic area.
There researchers will choose two locations: Vamenta Boulevard, Carmen Cagayan de Oro City
and the Claro M. Recto Avenue, Gusa Cagayan de Oro City. In the Vamenta Boulevard, Carmen
Cagayan de Oro City, The number of samples will be 809 respondents coming from purposive

sampling based on the 1 % of the 80880 population and the survey questionnaires will be given
in the first week of September 2016 and the duration is on the second week of September 2016.
In the Claro M. Recto Avenue, Gusa Cagayan de Oro City, The number of samples will be 310
respondents coming from purposive sampling based on the 1 % of the 31010 population and the
survey questionnaires will be given in the third week of September 2016 and the duration is on
the fourth week of September 2016.
The target location will be the 200m parameter of the Vamenta Boulevard and also the same on
the Claro M. Recto Avenue. The selection of the site and the respondents is through the wind
direction with the use of the data of the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration Data. The 100m will be cover on the near residential area and beyond
100 m will be the distant residential area. The interview and the survey must be sustained in 10
minutes. The Air Quality Monitoring on the Particulate Matter will start on the 3rd week of
August 2016 and the duration will be on the 4th week of August 2016. The 3 day- composite
sampling in the near residential areas in the Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen Cagayan De
Oro City will last in the 3rd day of 3rd week of August 2016. The 3 day- composite sampling in
the far residential areas in the Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City will
last in 3rd day of the 3rd week of August 2016 .The 3 day- composite sampling in the near
residential areas in the Claro M. Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City will last in
the 3rd day of the 4th week of August 2016. The 3 day- composite sampling in the far residential
areas in the Claro M. Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City will last in the 3rd
day of the 4th week of August 2016. The coverage of the sampling site will be the coverage area
of the survey. There are 3 stations with 2 treatments in 3 trials in the near and far residential
areas on Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City and 3 stations with 2
10

treatments in 3 trials in the near and far residential areas on Claro M. Recto Avenue Brgy. Gusa,
Cagayan De Oro City. PQ100 Air Sampler Equipment will be measure the particulate matter
concentration on an area in just 1 hour interval simultaneously and the data will be input in the
PQ Software. The statistical tool will be the T-test in 0.01 critical value.
The association of the respiratory problems coming from the survey questionnaire and the
presence of PM10 will be analyze through Odds Ratio to be statistically decide on the Simple
Logistic Regression.
ss
To have a better understanding of certain concepts and terms used in this study, these are
defined as follows:
Age Refers to the number of years of birth based on the survey reported by the respondents.
Sex Refers to the biological identity of the respondent.
Educational Attainment Refers to level of education achieved by the respondents.
Economic Status- Refers to the income of the respondents.
Crowding Refers to number of household member which categorized: 4 members, 5 members
and 8 members above.
Risk Assessement Refers to Age, Sex, Educational attainment, Economic status, Hours of
staying home in a day, Hours of staying outside home in a day, Length of residency and
crowding.
Far Traffic Areas Refers to household member under the survey living far from traffic road
beyond 100m.
11

Near Traffic Areas Refers to household member under the survey living near from traffic
road 100m away.
Presence of Particulate Matter Refers to Particulate Matter that is based on the sampling.
Health Risk Assessment Refers to variables that used to assess risk of respondents towards
PM10.
Respiratory Health Problems Refers to health related problems reported by the respondent,
refers to Dyspnea, Lung Cancer, Sinusitis, Asthma, Coughing, Bronchitis, Tuberculosis,
Running Nose, Tightness of chest, Pneumonia and Sore throat.

12

Chapter II
Review of Related Literature
Air Quality
Air quality is a measurement of the pollutants in the air and it is one of the basic qualities of
establishing of a habitat because a person inhales about 14,000 litres of air every day (Air
Domain Report,2014).The presence of contaminants in this air can adversely affect peoples
health which is the introduction of air pollution. Air pollution is an important determinant of
health (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2006). Numerous epidemiological studies have found
an association between air pollution and a wide range of adverse health effects in the general
population; the effects have ranged from subtle subclinical effects to premature death.
Air Pollution Background
Air Pollution has two sources, the natural and anthropogenic. The natural air pollution is made
by nature. It has natural air pollutants include radon, fog and mist, ozone, ash, soot, salt spray,
and volcanic and combustion gases (Green, 2016). The anthropogenic air pollution is made by
humans that consist of industrialization, combustion, use of fertilizers and pesticides, nuclear
explosions and etc. By this two sources which are man-made and nature, it can be classified as
indoor or ambient air quality. Ambient air quality refers to the quality of outdoor air in our
surrounding environment. It is typically measured near ground level, away from direct sources of
pollution (Province of British Columbia, 2016). Pollution in ambient air is generally a complex
mixture. The air pollutants often investigated in these studies particulate matter (PM), black
carbon, ozone (O3),nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides(NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon
monoxide, heavy metals or black smoke may be proxies for the air pollutant mixture (WHO
Regional Office for Europe, 2005). Mostly the ambient air pollution has ingredients on it .Cars
13

and trucks produce air pollution throughout their life, including pollution emitted during vehicle
operation, refueling, manufacturing, and disposal. Additional emissions are associated with the
refining and distribution of vehicle fuel. Air pollution from cars and trucks is split into primary
and secondary pollution. Primary pollution is emitted directly into the atmosphere; secondary
pollution results from chemical reactions between pollutants in the atmosphere. The following
are the major pollutants from motor vehicles: Particulate matter (PM). These particles of soot
and metals give smog its murky color. Fine particles less than one-tenth the diameter of a
human hair pose the most serious threat to human health, as they can penetrate deep into
lungs. PM is a direct (primary) pollution and a secondary pollution from hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and sulfur dioxides. Diesel exhaust is a major contributor to PM pollution. Hydrocarbons
(HC). These pollutants react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ground
level ozone, a primary ingredient in smog. Though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, at the
ground level this gas irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced
lung capacity. Nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants cause lung irritation and weaken the
body's defenses against respiratory infections such as pneumonia and influenza. In addition, they
assist in the formation of ground level ozone and particulate matter. Carbon monoxide (CO).
This odorless, colorless, and poisonous gas is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels such as
gasoline and is emitted primarily from cars and trucks. When inhaled, CO blocks oxygen from
the brain, heart, and other vital organs. Fetuses, newborn children, and people with chronic
illnesses are especially susceptible to the effects of CO.Sulfur dioxide (SO2). Power plants and
motor vehicles create this pollutant by burning sulfur-containing fuels, especially diesel. Sulfur
dioxide can react in the atmosphere to form fine particles and poses the largest health risk to
young children and asthmatics. Hazardous air pollutants (toxics). These chemical compounds

14

have been linked to birth defects, cancer, and other serious illnesses. The Environmental
Protection Agency estimates that the air toxics emitted from cars and trucks which include
Benzene, acetaldehyde, and 1, 3-butadiene account for half of all cancers caused by air
pollution.Greenhouse gases. Motor vehicles also emit pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, that
contribute to global climate change. In fact, cars and trucks account for over one-fifth of the
United States' total global warming pollution; transportation, which includes freight, trains, and
airplanes, accounts for around thirty percent of all heat-trapping gas emissions. Indoor air quality
is an air in enclosed spaces, such as home, schools or workplaces that can also be polluted
(Union of Concerned Scientist, 2014).
Ambient Air Quality and Its Effects
In comparison, the ambient air quality is more dangerous than the indoor air quality. WHO
estimates that some 80% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic
heart disease and strokes, while 14% of deaths were due to chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease or acute lower respiratory infections; and 6% of deaths were due to lung cancer. A 2013
assessment by WHOs International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that
outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to humans, with the particulate matter component of air
pollution most closely associated with increased cancer incidence, especially cancer of the lung.
An association also has been observed between outdoor air pollution and increase in cancer of
the urinary tract/bladder. Ambient (outdoor air pollution) in both cities and rural areas was
estimated to cause 3.7 million premature deaths worldwide per year in 2012; this mortality is due
to exposure to small particulate matter of 10 microns or less in diameter (PM10), which cause
cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and cancers. People living in low- and middle-income
countries disproportionately experience the burden of outdoor air pollution with 88% (of the 3.7
15

million premature deaths) occurring in low- and middle-income countries, and the greatest
burden in the WHO Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions. The latest burden estimates
reflect the very significant role air pollution plays in cardiovascular illness and premature deaths
much more so than was previously understood by scientists.
Air Pollution vs. Water Pollution

It is important to study the pollution because according to the OECD report that
pollution will become the biggest cause of premature death, killing an estimated 3.6
million people a year by 2050. Specifically, it is eager to research about air pollution
than water pollution because urban air pollution is set to become the biggest
environmental cause of premature death in the coming decades, overtaking even such
mass killers as poor sanitation and a lack of clean drinking water, according to a new
report (Harvey, 2013).
Traffic
This situations can be possible to the traffic areas because traffic congestion produces large
number of gases such as ozone, particulate matter, acetaldehyde, acrolein, benzene, 1, 3butadiene, formaldehyde, and diesel exhaust (WHO, 2013). Highways and other roads with high
traffic density may not be evenly distributed throughout the city (Ducret-Stich et al., 2013). The
question of where tunnels and overpasses are built also alters the distribution of pollution
concentrations in a city. Trucks, for example, may only be authorized to pass through certain
routes and this, too, will mean vehicle emissions will be higher in certain zones. Air pollutants
from cars, trucks and other motor vehicles are found in higher concentrations near major roads
16

(EPA, 2014). Research findings indicate that roadways generally influence air quality within a
few hundred meters about 500-600 feet downwind form the vicinity of heavily travelled
roadways or along corridors with significant trucking traffic or rail activities (EPA, 2014). The
type of vehicles and fuel used, traffic activity, and the wind speed and direction can all have big
effects on pollutant levels near major roadways (EPA, 2014). The more traffic, the more
emissions produced. (EPA, 2014). Exposure to diesel exhaust from traffic may render friendly,
cholesterol-fighting molecules incapable of performing their important job (Rosenfeld, 2013).
High levels of small particle air pollution are associated with an increased risk of preterm birth
(Cincinnati Childrens Hospital Medical Center, 2016). It causes inflammation in the body,
which triggers a chain reaction that makes it harder for people to process blood sugar (Gilliland,
2016).
Evidences - International study
The target of this is the Connecticut residents and those work related jobs on roads because they
are totally spend their time on streets. Some groups for example older adults, children,
pregnant women and people with an underlying disease, such as asthma may be more at risk,
and may develop more severe health effects more quickly when exposed to air pollution. In
addition, certain groups may be exposed to higher levels of outdoor air pollution, e.g. people
living near busy traffic routes or those in specific occupational or socioeconomic groups (WHO
Regional Office for Europe, 2005). People, who live, work or attend school near major roads to
have an increase incidence and severity of health problems associated with air pollution
exposures related to traffic including higher rates of asthma onset and aggravation,
cardiovascular disease, impaired lung development in children, pre- term and low birth (EPA,
2014). Ultra -fine particles form traffic areas are toxic to human health (Brugge, 2014). Research
17

on health effects of exposures to particulates and traffic pollution in children is sparse in

developing countries and particularly scanty in Africa, where exposures are higher than in
developed countries (Ezzati et al. 2004). One of the few studies on traffic air pollution and health
in Africa comes from an International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Children (ISAAC)
analysis (Brunekreef et al. 2009), which suggested doseresponse relationships between selfreported truck traffic on the street of residence and current wheeze, rhino conjunctivitis, and
eczema in children 1314 and 67 years of age in two African centersone in the city of Ibadan,
Nigeria, and one in Morocco (Bougas et al. 2016).Children whose mothers were exposed to
traffic pollution during pregnancy may be more likely to develop asthma before the age of five,
research suggests(PA, 2016).Dutch researchers looked at the effects of long-term exposure to
traffic-related air pollutants on 5,000 adults. They found that people who lived near a main road
were almost twice as likely to die from heart or lung disease and 1.4 times as likely to die from
any cause compared with those who lived in less-trafficked areas ( Hoek et al. 2002).
Researchers observed an approximately 10-20% increase in the risk of premature birth and low
birth weight for infants born to women living near high traffic areas in Los Angeles County. In
particular, the researchers found that for each one part per million increase in annual average
carbon monoxide concentrations where the women lived, there was a 19% and 11% increase in
risk for low birth weight and premature births, respectively (Wilhelm, 2002).A study in Erie
County, New York (excluding the city of Buffalo) found that children living in neighborhoods
with heavy truck traffic within 200 meters of their homes had increased risks of asthma
hospitalization. The study examined hospital admission for asthma amongst children ages 0-14,
and residential proximity to roads with heavy traffic (Lin et al. 2002). Amongst children without
an allergic predisposition, air pollution effects on asthma were stronger in males compared to

18

females (Dong G-H, Chen T, Liu M-M, Wang D, Ma Y-N, Ren W-H, et al. 2011) This cohort
study found that two year old children who are exposed to higher levels of traffic related air
pollution are more likely to have self-reported respiratory illnesses, including wheezing,
ear/nose/throat infections, and reporting of physician-diagnosed asthma, flu or serious cold
(Brauer et al. 2002). Studies conducted in the vicinity of Interstates 405 and 710 in southern
California found that the number of ultrafine particles in the air was approximately 25 times
more concentrated near the freeways and that pollution levels gradually decrease back to normal
(background) levels around 300 meters, or 984 feet, downwind from the freeway (Zhu et al.
2002). A study of nearly 10,000 children in England found that wheezing illness, including
asthma, was more likely with increasing proximity of a childs home to main roads. The risk was
greatest for children living within 90 meters of the road (Venn et al. 2001). A 2000 Denver study
showed that children living within 250 yards of streets or highways with 20,000 vehicles per day
are six times more likely to develop all types of cancer and eight times more likely to get
leukemia (Pearson et al. 2000). The study examined children who died of leukemia or other
cancers from the years 1953-1980, where they were born and where they died. It found that the
greatest danger lies a few hundred yards from the highway or pollution facility and decreases as
you get away from the facility. (Knox and Gilman 1997). They found that the blood levels of
benzene in children who lived in the high-traffic-density area were 71% higher than those of
children who lived in the low-traffic-density area (Jerman et al. 1989). People living or otherwise
spending substantial time within about 200m of highways are exposed to these pollutants more
so than persons living at a greater distance, even compared to living on busy urban streets.
Evidence of the health hazards of these pollutants arises from studies that assess proximity to
highways, actual exposure to the pollutants, or both. Taken as a whole, the health studies show

19

elevated risk for development of asthma and reduced lung function in children who live near
major highways. Studies of particulate matter (PM) that show associations with cardiac and
pulmonary mortality also appear to indicate increasing risk as smaller geographic areas are
studied, suggesting localized sources that likely include major highways. Although less work has
tested the association between lung cancer and highways, the existing studies suggest an
association as well. While the evidence is substantial for a link between near highway exposures
and adverse health outcomes, considerable work remains to understand the exact nature and
magnitude of the risks. Many people suppose that respiratory diseases are the main risk from
breathing in polluted air, but in fact the major health risks are from cardiovascular diseases.
Breathing in fine particles from vehicle emissions, power plants, or burning fuels causes
inflammation that spreads throughout the body in the blood, contributing to hardening of the
arteries and increased risks for heart attacks and strokes. Most research on particle pollution in
the air has so far focused on fine particles in the surrounding air. This kind of pollution is not
spread evenly around the world. Very high pollution levels in China and India, for example,
result in approximately two million deaths a year from exposure to fine particles. The effects of
transport-related air pollution on health include an increased mortality risk, due particularly to
cardiopulmonary causes, and an elevated risk of respiratory morbidity. Further, elevated
incidence of non-allergic respiratory symptoms and diseases due to traffic, accompanied by
extended non-allergic inflammation in the respiratory tract, and has been reported. Exposure can
exacerbate allergic reactions in asthmatics (Brugge et al., 2007). CHILDREN living within
500metres of a major road or freeway are at greater risk of developing asthma, while adults face
an increased likelihood of lung and heart related illnesses, a landmark health study has revealed.
The largest international study on vehicle air pollution and health research has found that traffic

20

pollution within a 500metre radius of a major thoroughfare was likely to exacerbate asthma in
children, trigger new asthma cases across all ages, impair lung function in adults, and could
cause cardiovascular illness and death. The US based Health Effects Institute looked at 700
worldwide health pollution studies, and found that while there were gaps in research of traffic
related pollution, there was a clear health risk for those living near arterial roads or highways
(Gough,2010) . Studies that rely on general area monitoring of ambient pollution and assess
regional pollution on a scale orders of magnitude greater than the near roadway gradients have
also found associations between traffic generated pollution (CO and NOx) and prevalence of
asthma or hospital admission for asthma (Lweguga-Mukasa et al., 2005). The prevalence of
respiratory and allergic diseases in early childhood has been rising globally, which is unlikely to
be due to genetic changes only. These multifactorial diseases are associated with both individual
and environmental factors. Recent decades have seen a change in air pollution profile in western
urban areas, with motor vehicle traffic emissions now as a major source of air pollution (Mayer
1999). Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) is known to worsen existing respiratory disease
(Weinmayr et al. 2010). However, despite substantial literature on the relation between TRAP
and the development of asthma and allergy in preschool years, results are still heterogeneous and
some uncertainties persist (Brbck and Forsberg 2009). Living near busy roads could put men at
higher risk of premature death even when air pollution levels are rated as safe, claim
researchers. A major study found exposure to traffic pollutants can push up the risk of dying by
seven per cent, compared with living in quieter neighborhood. There is mounting evidence of the
health dangers of pollution, which is already known to play a part in asthma attacks, heart attacks
and strokes. Microscopic particles largely generated by diesel exhausts have been shown to cause
lung damage and harmful changes in blood vessels and clotting. But the latest study adds to

21

research showing problems occur at levels well below those stipulated in current European
Union (EU) air-quality directives. The new research examined two decades of data from 22
studies involving over 367,000 residents of large cities in 13 European countries.Researchers
looked at the impact of prolonged exposure to tiny particles of soot or dust found in traffic fumes
and industrial emissions, fine-particle matter known as PM 2.5.They estimate that for every
increase of 5 micrograms per cubic metre (5 g/m3) in annual exposure to PM 2.5, the risk of
dying from rises by seven per cent ( Hope, 2013).
Traffic density on the nearest road and total traffic load on all major roads within 100m of the
residence were also recorded.Among the participants, 29,076 died from natural causes during the
average 14 years of follow up, says a report in The Lancet medical journal (must credit).The
results showed that long-term exposure to fine particles with a diameter of less than 2.5
micrometres (PM2.5) posed the greatest threat to health even within concentration ranges well
below the limits in current European legislation. The link between prolonged exposure to PM2.5
and premature death was significant even after taking into account factors such as smoking,
obesity and activity levels.Dr Beelen said Our findings suggest that significant adverse health
effects occur even at PM2.5 concentrations well below the EU annual average air-quality limit
value of 25 g/m3.The WHO air-quality guideline is 10 g/m3 and our findings support the
idea that significant health benefits can be achieved by moving towards this target.( Hope,
2013).
Previous research found pregnant women exposed to safe levels of air pollution have a higher
risk of giving birth to small babies.Jeremy Langrish and Nicholas Mills from the University of
Edinburgh, writing a commentary in the journal, said Despite major improvements in air quality
in the past 50 years, the data from Beelen and colleagues report draw attention to the continuing

22

effects of air pollution on health.These data, along with the findings from other large cohort
studies, suggest that further public and environmental health policy interventions are necessary
and have the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality across Europe.Movement towards
more stringent guidelines, as recommended by WHO, should be an urgent priority.Prof Frank
Kelly, Professor of Environmental Health at Kings College London, said This study enhances
an increasing scientific evidence base that PM2.5 poses a danger to health at concentrations
below current EU limit values and supports the ongoing WHO review of European air quality
policies. Results such as these, plus recently published data claiming combustion emissions in
the US account for 200,000 premature deaths per year, show that policy measures have
enormous potential to create a cleaner and healthier environment. Such action is particularly
urgent in cities where concentrations of pollutants routinely breach current EU limit values, let
alone the more stringent and health-based WHO guidelines - such as London. ( Hope, 2013).

Middle-aged and older adults who live near high-traffic roads may have a heightened risk of
dying from heart disease -- but the odds seem to go down if they move to a less-traveled
neighborhood, a new study finds (Norton,2010).The findings do not prove that traffic pollution is
the reason for the excess heart disease deaths, researchers say. But they do add to evidence tying
vehicle-produced pollutants to the risk of dying from heart problems.In May, the American Heart
Association (AHA) released a report stating that recent studies have "substantially strengthened"
the evidence that air pollution from traffic, industry and power generation is a risk factor for
heart attack, stroke and deaths from cardiovascular causes (Norton,2010).The evidence most
strongly points to particles known as fine particulate matter, which is produced from burning
gasoline and other fossil fuels.The AHA recommends that people with established heart disease
and other at-risk individuals -- including the elderly and people with risk factors for heart
23

disease, like diabetes and high blood pressure -- try to limit their exposure to congested roadways
and spend less time outside on days when air quality is poorer. For this latest study, Wen Qi Gan
and colleagues at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, analyzed data on
more than 450,000 Vancouver-area residents between the ages of 45 and 85.They found that over
nine years, residents who consistently lived within roughly 500 feet of a highway or within 165
feet of a major road The AHA recommends that people with established were more likely to die
of heart disease than those who lived farther from high-traffic roadways.But the researchers also
found "two new twists" to what's been known about the relationship between traffic and heart
disease deaths, explained senior researcher Dr. Michael Brauer, a professor of environmental
health at the university.That is, the risk of heart disease death declined among residents who
moved away from high-traffic roads during the study period, while it increased among those who
moved closer to congested roads. Its sort of like what we see with smoking cessation," Brauer
said in an interview. "The associated disease risks are lower in former smokers," compared with
the AHA recommends that people with established persistent smokers. The findings are based on
450,283 middle-aged and older adults with no known heart disease at the outset. Nearly 53,000
persistently lived within 500 feet of a highway or 165 feet of a major road over the nine-year
study. Of those residents, 607 -- or just over 1 percent -- died of heart disease during that period;
that compared with 0.7 percent of the more than 328,000 people who persistently lived farther
from traffic. The researchers were able to account for a number of other factors that could
explain any connection between living near major roads and having a higher risk of dying from
heart disease -- including residents' age, neighborhood income levels and any diagnoses of
diabetes or major lung disease. They found that living near a highway or major road was still
linked to a 29 percent higher risk of heart disease death, versus living farther away. Among

24

people who either moved away from or closer to a major road, the risk of heart disease death was
also somewhat elevated -- but lower when compared with residents who persistently lived near
busy roads. In addition, the researchers used air pollution data to show that people living close to
highways and major roads would have been exposed to higher levels of particulate matter,
nitrogen dioxide and other traffic-related pollutants. The findings do not prove that air pollution
was the reason for the higher risks. Brauer said that traffic noise, for example, might be involved.
In addition, the researchers had no information on certain key factors in heart disease risk,
including people's smoking habits and weight. However, a body of research has now linked air
pollution exposure to the risk of heart disease death, Brauer pointed out. And, he said, the
evidence suggests that traffic pollution may be a particular risk. A "big question," Brauer said, is
whether exposure to air pollution is linked to the initial development of heart disease -- or
whether its association with heart disease death reflects an effect mainly on people with existing
heart problems. Researchers believe that air pollutants may trigger heart attacks, strokes or other
cardiovascular "events" in vulnerable people by causing inflammation in the blood vessels and
irritating the nerves of the lungs.Brauer suggested that people view traffic pollution as one of the
range of factors that may influence their heart disease risk -- which includes exercise and diet
habits, smoking and the presence of any health conditions that contribute to heart disease, like
diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Living near major roads does not being in
heavy traffic, or living near a busy road, may be even more dangerous than being in other places
in a community. Growing evidence shows that the vehicle emissions coming directly from those
highways may be higher than in the community as a whole, increasing the risk of harm to people
who live or work near busy roads. An a person is destined for heart disease. And, Brauer noted,

25

living in a low-traffic area does not mean a person can slack on following a healthy lifestyle
(Norton,2010).

Being in heavy traffic, or living near a busy road, may be even more dangerous than being in
other places in a community. Growing evidence shows that the vehicle emissions coming
directly from those highways may be higher than in the community as a whole, increasing the
risk of harm to people who live or work near busy roads.The number of people living "next to a
busy road" may include 30 to 45 percent of the urban population in North America, according to
the most recent review of the evidence. In January 2010, the Health Effects Institute published a
major review of the evidence by a panel of expert scientists. The panel looked at over 700 studies
from around the world, examining the health effects. They concluded that traffic pollution causes
asthma attacks in children, and may cause a wide range of other effects including: the onset of
childhood asthma, impaired lung function, premature death and death from cardiovascular
diseases, and cardiovascular morbidity. The area most affected, they concluded, was roughly 0.2
to 0.3 miles (300 to 500 meters) from the highway (Boston, 2010).Children and teenagers are
among the most vulnerablethough not the only ones at risk. A Danish study found that longterm exposure to traffic air pollution may increase the risk of developing chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). They found that those most at risk were people who already had
asthma or diabetes (Andersen Et al., 2011). Studies have found increased risk of premature death
from living near a major highway or an urban road(Finklestein,2004).Another study found an
increase in risk of heart attacks from being in traffic, whether driving or taking public
transportation (Peters et al.,2004).Urban women in a Boston study experienced decreased lung
function associated with traffic-related pollution(Suglia,2008).

26

Particulate Matter
It is a mixture of solid and liquid particles with different chemical and physical properties in air.
PM10 particles are 10 microns (m) in aerodynamic diameter and smaller. PM2.5 particles are
2.5 m in aerodynamic diameter and smaller; PM2.5 particles can penetrate further down in the
respiratory system compared to larger particles.The effects of inhaling particulate matter that
have been widely studied in humans and animals include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular
disease, respiratory diseases, premature delivery, birth defects, and premature death. The World
Health Organization (WHO) estimated in 2005 that fine particulate air pollution (PM(2.5)),
causes about 3% of mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, about 5% of mortality from cancer
of the trachea, bronchus, and lung, and about 1% of mortality from acute respiratory infections in
children under 5 years, worldwide" (Smith, K 2005). Short-term exposure at elevated
concentrations can significantly contribute to heart disease. A 2011 study concluded that traffic
exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of heart attack in the general public, the
cause of 7.4% of all attacks (Benoit Nemery, 2011).
Numerous studies have linked traffic-related air pollution with respiratory problems such as
asthma and chronic bronchitis. Studies have found decreased lung function, increased hospital
visits for people with respiratory diseases, increased absenteeism from work and school, and
increased morbidity (illnesses) and mortality (deaths) associated with exposure to particulate
matter. All of these effects were observed at levels common in many U.S. cities (Pope CA III et
al., 1995).
New studies show that long-term exposure to particulate matter has also been linked to increased
illness and death rates from cardiovascular (heart-related) disease and that sudden increases in air
pollution may even cause more heart-related illnesses and deaths than is seen from lung disease.

27

(Pope; Johnson) Some particles in air pollution, given their tiny size, are able to pass through the
cellular.It is estimated that while particulate matter levels have tissue in the lungs and enter the
circulation system. Their presence in the lungs may also induce a series of events that ultimately
affect the heart. (Utell MJ et al. , 2000) .
Of growing concern to the general public is whether living near a freeway is detrimental to
health. The closer people are to the source of traffic emissions, the higher their exposure is to
many of the constituents of exhaust. Compelling evidence suggests that people living, working
and going to school near roads with heavy traffic may have an increased risk of adverse health
effects associated with exposure to mobile source pollution. These traffic density studies have
observed development and increased aggravation of asthma (Montnmery P et al. 2000),
decreased lung function in children (Brunekreef), and low birth weight and premature births for
mothers living near major roadways (Ritz).
Taking this research into consideration, it is easy to see why new homebuyers are concerned with
how close property is to a busy road or freeway. Unfortunately scientists cannot say exactly how
close is too close at this point. European studies have shown increased respiratory health
problems in children who live or go to school within 100 meters (~330 feet) of a busy roadway,
with the greatest risks appearing in the first 50 meters (~165 feet). Studies conducted by SCPCS
investigators here in LA show that carbon monoxide and ultrafine particles the smallest portion
of particulate matter emissions and potentially the most toxic are extremely high on or near the
freeway, dropping to about half that concentration 50-90 meters (~165-295 feet) from the
freeway. After about 300 meters (~990 feet) the concentration of particulate matter reaches the
ambient level the normal level in the air without the influence of any nearby sources. In 2003

28

the California state legislature enacted a law that new schools must be built at least 500 feet from
very busy roadways.
Epidemiological analysis is needed to quantify the health impact in an exposed population. The
major pollutants emitted by combustion have all been associated with increased respiratory and
cardiovascular morbidity and mortality (Brunekreef and Holgate 2002). The most famous disease
outbreak of this type occurred in London in 1952 (U.K.Ministry of Health 1954), when 4,000
people died prematurely in a single week because of severe air pollution, followed by another
8,000 deaths during the next few months (Bell and Davis 2001).In the 1970s and 1980s, new
statistical methods and improved computer technology allowed investigators to study mortality
increases at much lower concentrations of pollutants. A key question is the extent to which life
has been shortened. Early loss of life in elderly people, who would have died soon regardless of
the air pollution, has been labeled mortality displacement, because it contributes little to the
overall burden of disease (McMichael and others 1998).Long-term studies have documented the
increased cardiovascular and respiratory mortality associated with exposure to PM (Dockery and
others 1993; Pope and others 1995). A 16-year follow-up of a cohort of 500,000 Americans
living in different cities found that the associations were strongest with PM2.5 and also
established an association with lung cancer mortality (Pope and others 2002). Another approach
is ecological studies of small areas based on census data, air pollution information, and health
events data (Scoggins and others 2004), with adjustments for potential confounding factors,
including socioeconomic status. Such studies indicate that the mortality increase for every 10
micrograms per cubic meter(g per m3) of PM2.5 ranges from 4 to 8 percent for cities in
developed countries where average annual PM2.5 levels are 10 to 30 g/m3. Many urban areas
of developing countries have similar or greater levels of air pollution.The major urban air

29

pollutants can also give rise to significant respiratory morbidity (WHO 2000). For
instance, Romieu and others (1996) report an exacerbation of asthma among children in Mexico
City, and Xu and Wang (1993) note an increased risk of respiratory symptoms in middle-aged
non-smokers in Beijing.In relation to the very young, Wang and others (1997) find that PM
exposure, SO2 exposure, or both increased the risk of low birthweight in Beijing, and Pereira and
others (1998) find that air pollution increased intrauterine mortality in So Paulo.Other effects of
ambient air pollution are postneonatal mortality and mortality caused by acute respiratory
infections, as well as effects on children's lung function, cardiovascular and respiratory hospital
admissions in the elderly, and markers for functional damage of the heart muscle (WHO 2000).
Asthma is another disease that researchers have linked to urban air pollution (McConnell and
others 2002; Rios and others 2004). Ozone exposure as a trigger of asthma attacks is of particular
concern. The mechanism behind an air pollution and asthma link is not fully known, but early
childhood NO2exposure may be important (see, for example, Ponsonby and others 2000).Leaded
gasoline creates high lead exposure conditions in urban areas, with a risk for lead poisoning,
primarily in young children. The main concern is effects on the brain from low-level exposure
leading to behavioral aberrations and reduced or delayed development of intellectual or motoric
ability (WHO 1995). Lead exposure has been implicated in hypertension in adults, and this effect
may be the most important for the lead burden of disease at a population level (WHO 2002).
Other pollutants of concern are the carcinogenic volatile organic compounds, which may be
related to an increase in lung cancer, as reported by two recent epidemiological studies (Nyberg
and others 2000; Pope and others 2002).Urban air pollution and lead exposure are two of the
environmental hazards that WHO (2002) assessed as part of its burden-of-disease calculations
for the World Health Report 2002. The report estimates that pollution by urban PM causes as

30

much as 5 percent of the global cases of lung cancer, 2 percent of deaths from cardiovascular and
respiratory conditions, and 1 percent of respiratory infections, adding up to 7.9 million disabilityadjusted life years based on mortality only. This burden of disease occurs primarily in
developing countries, with China and India contributing the most to the global burden. Eastern
Europe also has major air pollution problems, and in some countries, air pollution accounts for
0.6 to 1.4 percent of the total disability-adjusted life years from mortality.The global burden of
disease caused by lead exposure includes subtle changes in learning ability and behavior and
other signs of central nervous system damage (Fewthrell, Kaufmann, and Preuss 2003). WHO
(2002) concludes that 0.4 percent of deaths and 0.9 percent (12.9 million) of all disabilityadjusted life years may be due to lead exposure (Measham et al. , 2006).
Local Study
The health impact of poor housing has been established in several epidemiological studies. These
studies show that poor housing environment cause or enhance the incidence of specific diseases.
Overcrowding raises the risk of respiratory illness. Long-term exposure to traffic related air
pollution causes problems in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Balesteros, 2010)
Factors
The pathways of dispersion vary greatly, depending upon both the emission source and the
pollutant concerned. Rates and patterns of dispersion also depend to a large extent upon
environmental conditions. Pollution dispersal in the air is affected by many factors:
meteorological conditions (especially wind speed, wind direction and atmospheric stability), the
emission height (e.g. ground level sources such as road traffic or high level sources such as tall
chimneys), local and regional geographical features, the source (e.g. fixed point, such as a
chimney, or a diffuse number of sources such as cars and solvents). Many pollutants therefore
31

show extremely complex dispersion patterns, especially in environments such as cities and towns
where there are a large number of emission sources and major variations in environmental
conditions. This complexity means that it is often very difficult to model or measure pollutant
patterns and trends, and thus to predict levels of human exposure. Temporal variations in
pollution levels are important. In many cases long-term trends exist, reflecting underlying
changes in the rates of emission (e.g. as a result of technical or economic changes, or due to
policy intervention). Superimposed upon these there may be annual variations, reflecting year-toyear differences in climate or source activity. Many pollutants also show marked seasonal,
weekly and daily patterns, owing to cycles of activity and short-term climatic and other effects.
Major, short-term pollution episodes may also occur as a result of sudden, accidental releases.
Therefore measurements of exposure will vary according to when, where and for how long air
monitoring is carried out (European Environment Agency, 2008).
Wind Speed and wind direction are critical factors in the case of erosion by particulate matter.
The particles must strike the surface at an angle and with sufficient velocity for deterioration to
occur.
Risk Assessment
Due to the sudden experiences there will be having Risk assessment which is one tool used in
risk management (EPA, 1991). It is the process that scientists and government officials use to
estimate the increased risk of health problems in people who are exposed to different amounts of
toxic substances. A risk assessment for a toxic air pollutant combines results of studies on the
health effects of various animal and human exposures to the pollutant with results of studies that
estimate the level of people's exposures at different distances from the source of the pollutant
(EPA, 1991).While the estimates provided by these risk assessments are far from perfect, they do
32

help scientists evaluate the risks associated with emissions of toxic air pollutants. Using risk
estimates and other factors, the government can set regulatory standards to reduce people's
exposures to toxic air pollutants and reduce the risk of experiencing health problems (EPA,
1991). An Air Pollution Health Risk Assessment can aid this process by answering specific
policy questions. Indeed, in many countries it is required as part of the decision-making process
for new programmes, projects, regulations, and policies aimed at improving air quality that may
affect air quality as a side effect (World Health Organization, 2016).

33

Chapter III
Methodology
Research Design
The study will follow purposive sampling technique and utilized cross-sectional
descriptive type of research. The study will involve the analysis of the differences of the various
demographic backgrounds of the near and distant respondents in terms of their diseases attained
where the data collected through survey are carried out over a short period of time. The study
will conduct to describe the relationship on the number of cases and the type of respondents
whether it is a near or distant residents in Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City, Misamis
Oriental that covers along the Vamenta Boulevard and the Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City
on the C.M Recto Avenue. The study will conduct a particulate matter analysis on the near and
distant residents in Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City, Misamis Oriental that covers along
the Vamenta Boulevard and the Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City on the C.M Recto
Avenue.
Research Setting
The study will conduct at the 200 meter parameter of Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City
beside the Vamenta Boulevard (Figure 3.1) and also in the Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City
on the C.M Recto Avenue (Figure 3.2). The 809 respondents of the study are the families that
live along the near and distant in the traffic area of the Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City
beside the Vamenta Boulevard with the coordinates: 8.481994 and 124.638319. The 310
respondents of the study are the families that live along the near and distant in the traffic area of
the Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City in the C.M Recto Avenue with the coordinates:
8.4775161 and 124.674341.The researchers will set an area of 100 m on its sampling site. The

34

Near Traffic Area Residents will be cover by 100m away on the traffic area. The Distant Traffic
Area Residents will be cover beyond on the 100 M away on the traffic area.
Site and Respondent Selection
The identified sampling sites for the research study will be selected to represent residential areas
along the traffic areas in the city. The Barangay Gusa and Barangay Carmen are the barangays
for residential traffic area. The areas of the respondents will be selected through referring into the
wind direction data coming from the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration Weather Station. In the August- October 2015 Data, the wind direction
is on the North West. The site will be on the North West as well as the area of the respondents.
In selecting the respondents, the less exposure (2-3 Months) on their residency will be exempted.
Map

Figure 3.1 Map of Vamenta Blvd. Brgy. Carmen Cagayan de Oro City First Station

35

Legend:
Yellow Box indicates Near Residential in Traffic Areas
Red Box indicates Distant Residential in Traffic Areas
Blue Circle Sampling Station
Yellow S1- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S1 - Distant Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station

Figure 3.2 Map of Vamenta Blvd. Brgy. Carmen Cagayan de Oro City Second and Third Station

36

Legend:
Yellow Box indicates Near Residential in Traffic Areas
Red Box indicates Distant Residential in Traffic Areas
Blue Circle Sampling Station
Yellow S2- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S2 - Distant Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Yellow S3- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S3 - Distant Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station

Figure 3.3 Map of C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa Cagayan De Oro City First and Second
Station
Legend:
Yellow Box indicates Near Residential in Traffic Areas

37

Red Box indicates Distant Residential in Traffic Areas

Blue Circle Sampling Station
Yellow S1- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S1 - Distant Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Yellow S2- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S2 - Distant Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station

Figure 3.4 Map of C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa Cagayan De Oro City Third Station
Legend:
Yellow Box indicates Near Residential in Traffic Areas
Red Box indicates Distant Residential in Traffic Areas
Blue Circle Sampling Station
Yellow S3- Near Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station
Red S3 - Far Residential in Traffic Areas Sampling Station

38

The Data
The researchers will be collecting the data that can be a reference on the said attainable
problem. It includes socio, economic and demographic profile, the traffic count data and an air
quality data on the area. The Socio, Economic and Demographic Profile, which is the
characteristics of an area in terms of its resources, came from the City Planning. The Traffic
Count Data, which is the number of vehicles passed by in the traffic area, came from the
Department of Public Works and Highways. The wind direction data coming from the Philippine
Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration Weather Station
People Consent
The researchers made contacts to the local government officials of Barangay Carmen,
Cagayan De Oro City and Barangay Gusa Cagayan De Oro City to introduce the research and
obtain informed consent in conducting the survey. An ocular inspection will also be done in the
study area to prepare the researchers to the real situation in the community that needed to be
addressed. A simple provision of food and assurance of the confidentiality to their responses will
be given to the respondents for participating in the study.

39

Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City, Misamis Oriental

And
Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City, Misamis Oriental

Purposive Sampling
809 Respondents of Near and Distant Traffic Area Residents in
the Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City,
Misamis Oriental
310 Respondents of Near and Distant Traffic Area Residents in
Personal Interview
the Claro M. Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City,
Misamis Oriental
Through referring into the Wind direction Data in the PAGASA

Personal Interview
Survey Questionnaire
Air Quality Risk Assessment in Residential Areas Near
and Far from the Traffic Roads of Cagayan de Oro City

Background Info. Of
household Members in
Near and Far from the
Traffic Roads

Incidence of Respiratory
Health Problems among
Household Members near
and far from traffic roads

Figure 3.5 Schematic Diagram of the Sampling, and data collection in the study

40

Sampling Scheme (the Survey Questionnaire)

The survey questionnaire will be conducting on the first week of September 2016 and the
duration will be on the second week of September 2016.The whole sampling in the near traffic
area residents of Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City in the Vamenta Boulevard is the first
three days and the next three days is the distant traffic area residents. On the second week of
September 2016, the whole sampling in the near traffic area residents of Barangay Gusa,
Cagayan De Oro City in the C.M Recto Avenue is the first three days and the next three days is
the distant traffic area residents. A total of 404 respondents on the near traffic area and also 404
respondents on the distant traffic area will be survey and interview in the Vamenta Boulevard
Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City. A total of 155 respondents on the near traffic area and
also 155 respondents on the distant traffic area will be survey and interview in the C.M Recto
Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City. Purposive Sampling procedure will be use in the
collection of data such as the health problems, demographic profile and its relationship on it.
A survey questionnaire will be developing through referring to those objectives that can
be answered on it. The questionnaire will be validated by the adviser. The 809 respondents on
the Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City from near and distant
residential areas and the 310 respondents on the C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De
Oro City served as the respondents in the study will inform about the questionnaire and why is it
related to the objectives and their answer should be confidential. Respondents will be informed
then interview using the survey questionnaire. The respondents will be guided by the researchers
in order to explain the terms on the questionnaire to avoid confusion and it will give us certain
answers. The interview and the questionnaire should be completed in 10 minutes. All
questionnaires will be processed for analysis.
41

Data Collection Method

Data consists of the demographic profile, health problems and the sudden experiences in
the near and distant traffic areas in Vamenta Blvd. Brgy. Carmen, Cagayan de Oro City and C.M
Recto Avenue Brgy. Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City will be collect through interviews and survey
questionnaire as a basis for it.
The survey instrument consists of the following;
1. Demographic Profile
2. Respiratory Health Problems
3. Experiences in their Health Problems
The demographic Profile consists of the age, gender, educational attainment, economic
status, usual no. of hours staying at home in a day , usual no. of hours spent outside home in
a day , residency and crowding. The Respiratory problems consists of the problems exist in
the respiratory system. The experiences in their health problems will be verified through their
type, frequency, number and duration.

42

Air Quality Monitoring on the

Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City and
C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City

Creating a
Transect
in Area

Preparing Materials
for Particulate
Matter Sampling

3 day-Composite Sampling

12 Stations on 24 treatments with 18 trials :

6 stations in Vamenta Boulevard Barangay Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City
6 stations in C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City

Particulate Matter Analysis

with the use of PQ100

PQ Software

Statistical analysis
T-test

Figure 3.6 Schematic Diagram on the Air Quality Monitoring on the Near and Distant Traffic
Residential Areas
Sampling Scheme
The study will be conducted on the Vamenta Boulevard Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City and the
C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City. The Air Quality Monitoring on the
Particulate Matter will start on the 3rd week of August 2016 and the duration will be on the 4th
week of August 2016. The 3 day- composite sampling in the Vamenta Boulevard Barangay

43

Carmen Cagayan De Oro City will start and last in 3rd day of the 3rd week of August 2016. The 3
day- composite sampling in the C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City will
start and last in 3rd day of the 4th week of August 2016. The coverage of an area will be also
being the same on the surveying site. The 100 m in the near residential areas and beyond 100 m
in the distant residential areas is the coverage of the experiment. The type of sampling will be the
Composite Sampling Technique and it consists of 12 stations: 6 stations in the Vamenta
Boulevard Barangay Carmen Cagayan De Oro City and 6 stations in the C.M Recto Avenue
Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City. Each of the near and distant residential areas, there will
be 3 stations with 3 trials in each station on the Vamenta Boulevard Carmen, Cagayan De Oro
City that sustained in just 1 hour. Each of the near and distant residential areas, there will be 3
stations with 3 trials in each station on the C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro
City that sustained in just 1 hour. The implementation of the sampling will be conducted on the
3rd week of August 2016 in the Vamenta Boulevard Carmen, Cagayan De Oro City and 4th week
of August 2016 in the C.M Recto Avenue Barangay Gusa, Cagayan De Oro City. The PQ100
will be the one who will measure the particulate matter in 5 liter per minute in 0.01 increments
with 0.5% calibration in each site. It will undergo on 2 treatments that consists of: Treatment 1
7:30-10:00 A.M and Treatment 2 4:30 7:00 P.M. The data will be input into the PQ software.

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Data Analysis

Descriptive Analysis

Inferential Analysis

Simple Logistic
Regression through
Odds Ratio

Mean
Median
Range
Percentage
Count
Standard
Deviation

Confounder
(change 20%)
retain

EMM for probable

confounder

Not an EMM for

probable confounder

P-value > 1.0

P-value 1.0

Not a Confounder
(change < 20%)

Compare the results

of the Confounder

Figure 3.7 Data Analytical procedure

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Descriptive Analysis
The descriptive analysis will be referred a summary data that gives the overview of the
respondents in terms of their demographic profile that is under the study. One-way table are used
to show frequency distribution according to the independent variables and the dependent
variables. Variables are shown by using the mean, median, standard deviation, range and
percentage in a table. Tables will be used as a comparison.
Inferential Analysis
The traffic roads will be sampled through particulate matter sampling. The inferential analysis
will be used to estimate the capability of the concentration of the particulate matter concentration
to the said incidence of respiratory problems in terms the demographic profile of the
respondents. Investigation will be undergoing through a simple logistic regression.
Simple Logistic Regression will be done to crudely estimate the association between the
exposure and the outcome variables. Odds ratio (OR) will be computed. The first step is to create
probable confounders namely: the demographic profile of the respondents such as the age, sex,
educational attainment, economic status per month, usual no. of hours staying at home in a day,
usual no. of hours spent outside home in a day, length of residency and crowding. To qualify as a
probable confounder, a p-value of greater than the 1.0 will be met in order to say that the one
variable is better than the other. While a p-value of equal or less than the p-value 0f 1.0 will be
referred that there is no difference between the two variables.
The identification of effect measure modifiers (EMM) will be followed the assessment of
probable confounders. Stratified analyses using Mantel-Haenszel (MH) Test for homogeneity to
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determine if the demographic profile of the respondents will be probable EMM. A test of
homogeneity with a p-value greater than 1.0, ORs are on the opposite sides of the null , or when
there is no difference on the two locations upon the confidence interval that crosses on the
variables as a probable EMM. Thus, the OR in the association of the location with the quality of
air and the incidence of respiratory problems will be based upon the category of EMM.
The process of assessing confounders began with building the full model. The full model
contains the outcome variables (concentration of PM10, respiratory incidence) and the exposure
variable (location). Confounding will be determined by using the outcome variables.

The analysis will be started with deletion of the probable confounder with the lowest p-value
from the full model. Then, the OR of the reduced model will be compared with that of the full
model. If the OR of the full model, which contains the exposure, outcome and probable
confounders, differs from the odds ratio of the reduced model by 20% or more, then it is to be
confirming as a confounder.
After confirming of the confounder, each of the result of the cofounders will be compared.

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