The Differentiation of Educational

Opportunity through the Eyes of Students

Marlene Martinez
SOC 201
Coastal Carolina University
November 18, 2016
Abstract
There has always been an obvious and consistent achievement gap between first and continuinggeneration college students success rates and overall experience in college, as well as a
significant difference in colleges and universities academic achievement via statistical research
based on these two populations. In this literature review, there is an unveiling of the most
prominent contributing factors of the immense differences that first-generation vs. non-first
generation college students face during their collegiate career. This is a topic of importance
because if colleges and universities are able to discern these factors and cater to them, their
success, completion and overall quality rates have the capability of significantly rising. Through
a compilation of peer-reviewed articles that each focus on a particular factor and how that factor
effects these two populations of college students, findings have concluded that the capital of any
given student should never solely have the influence to determine whether or not a student
becomes just another statistic; universities must also take action to aid these students.

The Differentiation of Educational Opportunity through the Eyes of Students

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ACKNOWLEDGING THE STUDENTS

Despite popular belief that every person has an equal opportunity at excelling
during the journey of his or her collegiate career, there are many factors that contribute to
the immense differences and hindrances first-generation and non-first generation college
students face during their collegiate career. In 2013, the Center for Student Opportunity
founded imfirst.org. Imfirst.org is an online community that provides first-generation college
students with inspiration, insight and provision throughout the journey of their collegiate career
in hopes of creating a successful college graduate. Editor of imfirst.org states, theres something
special about being first. The first in flight, first man on the moon, and the first AfricanAmerican president. First kisses, first impressions, first place. Being among the first in your
family to attend and graduate from college is special too. By the formation of this online
community and many other first-generation college student resources just like it, it has become
evident that there is indeed a systematic cycle in the way a first-generation college students
journey differs from that of a non-first-generation college students. It is because of communities
like these that researchers have become so enthralled with discovering what exactly those
differences are and why they affect these two populations so differently. Through the dissection
of a plethora of research it is evident that socioeconomic status, culture and family capital,
college readiness, and predetermined notions are conceivably the most prominent factors
that contribute to the immense differences and hindrances first-generation and continuinggeneration college students face as they strive to succeed in college.
WHO ARE FIRST GENERATION COLLEGE STUDENTS?
First-generation college students are generally defined as students whose mother and
father have had little to no college experience during their lifetime. Great concern has risen for

this population because studies show that first generation college students are more likely to drop
out of their post-secondary education unlike their counterparts, continuing-generation college
students, due to varying factors (Jennings et al. 2015). Individuals who attain a higher education,
although either of their parents didnt, embody the realization of social mobility because they
independently strive to succeed despite the obstacles they are faced with. During the twenty-first
century, there has been an excessive rise in the acceptance rate of first-generation college
students among colleges and universities worldwide (Ishitani n.d.). In the United States alone,
there are roughly 7.3 million undergraduate students who currently attend a four-year public or
private university, of that number, about twenty percent are first-generation college students and
a vast majority of that twenty percent; ethnic minorities dominate (Holland 2015; Pascarella et
al. n.d.; Rocha-Tracy 2009; Williams and Ferrari 2015).
According to statistical research by Williams and Ferrari (2015), it is predicted that by
2037 the US will have moved from a majority Caucasian population to majority minority
population. Therefore, a vast majority of the students being admitted into college during the
twenty-first century and centuries to come will likely be first-generation ethnic minorities. While
colleges do have an equal amount of similarities and resources that benefit both first and
continuing-generation students, it is the job of university officials, high school counselors, and
the students themselves to be able to discern how the present and most prominent differences
during the college experience can be overcame.
COLLEGE READINESS
Whether or not a college student is first or continuing-generation, rigors during a
collegiate carrier will inevitably arise. However, those rigors can become much more challenging
if a student is not adequately equipped with a proper foundation to rely on, beginning with high

school. Understanding the dynamics of the college application and acceptance process is vital to
ones collegiate career because that understanding has great potential at being a significant
influence on the way the next four years of life will come to pass (Holland 2015). In high school,
students are provided with a guidance counselor who will guide them through all college
processes. Although independence is stressed virtue, research agrees that utilizing high school
counselors to the best of their advantage is conceivably the most important responsibility
students have in high school in order to attain a substantial amount of college readiness that will
allow great success (Gofen 2009, Holland 2015). Holland (2015) performed a two-year field
study at two racially and socioeconomically diverse high schools to observe and examine the
students and counselors navigation process of completing college applications. Of those
students, both first-generation and continuing-generation students were observed. Her studies
coincided with multitudes of current research that first-generation college students will not
transition as easily if counselors are not properly utilized.
For a continuing-generation college student, utilizing their counselors is likely a given
instilled in them by their parents simply based on their personal experience. Having the
advantage of knowing how to utilize counselors automatically puts continuing-generation college
students a few steps ahead because they are the ones who are constantly in the offices looking for
resources and guidance (Gofen 2009; Holland 2015). Their parents likely hound them constantly
to look for scholarship opportunities, which colleges have better programs to offer for their major
and minor of choice, and overall quality of the of the university according to various statistics.
First-generation college students and their parents however, are seemingly at a loss for the
knowledge or the proper measures that need to be taken in order to ensure an easier transition

from high school to college because they never learned how to build that trust in relationship
with counselors to guide in them in the right direction (Holland 2015).
The intensity of a students ability to apply knowledge also stems from the college
readiness he or she is equipped with in high school. Since students from impoverished
communities are low-income minorities, they are more apt to attend schools whose material is
not properly taught due to lack of resources (Jennings et al. 2015; Kirshner, Saldivar, and Tracy
2011). In consequence, their studying and application skills are far below the preferred necessity
to succeed in college. College readiness and family capital are perhaps the two most influential
reasons as to why factors arise and differentiate the post-secondary education experience for first
and continuing-generation students (Barry et al. 2009; Gofen 2009; Holland 2015). Through
these findings, it becomes evident that in order to succeed in college, a proper foundation must
be established upon entering college. First-generation college students face obstacles and
difference in experiences even before entering college just from the college application and
acceptance process. It is important to equally acknowledge every student and make sure they feel
comfortable with exposing their vulnerability as they begin their journey to entering this
drastically different environment.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Since first generation college students are less likely to attain a strong foundation upon
entering college, countless researchers have studied what kind of factors will arise and attempt to
unveil those factors effects. As previously mentioned, first-generation college students tend to
come from an ethic minority background and according to Barry (2015), the ethnic minority
population tends to consist of mostly low-income families. Upon entering college, continuinggeneration students come from families whose parent/parents likely have a sustainable income

that allows more flexibility than others (Kirsher, Saldivar, and Tracy 2011; Stephens et al. 2012).
This causes a differentiation in experience for students because while the continuing-generation
student is able to focus more on studying and campus life because their parents are able to
support them financially, the first-generation students has to learn to balance a job, school, and
social life.
PREDETERMINED NOTIONS DUE TO CULTURE AND FAMILY CAPTIAL
With the worriment of having to juggle so many responsibilities, first-generation college
students will likely conceive many predetermined notions about the way their collegiate
experience will be affected. According to Stephens (2012), college freshmen enter school with
a predetermined notion that they will eventually drop out of school and never attain their
bachelors degree. These predetermined notions can arise from the yearning of becoming more
than what you come from. Since first-generation college students will likely come from lowincome families, the way they perceive themselves is as nothing more. However, there are
always those whos hopes and dreams become a motivator to accomplish their aspirations. It is
critical to establish a positive attitude from the very beginning because by doing so; any pitfalls
that will transpire can easily be overcome.
Undoubtedly, when in college, a person is automatically perceived as an adult. College
students are held to a standard that gives them no option but to put forth the effort and ultimately,
hope for the best. First-generation students better succeed in an environment where a sense of
community is fostered and most universities believe students should be held at a higher standard
of independence (Stephens et al. 2012). Expectations of first-generation college students are a
huge factor in the way their post-secondary education plays out because if there is no source of
guidance from family capital or high school upon starting school, the only guidance first-

generation college students have is from their personal experiences as their college career moves
forward.
Immigration in the US has always been a known controversy. More often than not, an
immigrant is the child of parents whom have not attended college, if anything; they migrate to a
different country for the sole fact of giving their children a better life. Rocha-Tracy (2009)
surveyed both immigrant and non-immigrant students and her findings found that there is not
anything hindering immigrant first-generation college students success rate, rather they yearn for
a sense of accommodation from professors and their peers. Feeling safe and comfortable in a
new environment is significant for everyone, not just immigrant students, in order to succeed in
college. Studies performed by Gofen (2009) and Rocha-Tracy (2009) include the personal
journals, surveys, and opinions of students and their college experiences. Studies such as these
are a viable asset in deciphering the affects these differentiations will have on college students.
While there are many factors that contribute to the differentiation of experience for first and
continuing generation college students, the mentioned few are the most prominent factors
because from these many other sub-factors will arise.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTION TO STATISTICS
Ishitani (n.d.) studied and analyzed a myriad of current research about the different
factors that negatively impact college persistence. Through his reading he concluded his own
theory; although first-generation college students show a clear struggle in college, the reasoning
is not solely because they are first-generation. The present differences are most definitely not
biological nor do all first-generation college students experience the negative effects and
differences of these factors. However, these factors work in unison and contribute to every
universities statistics on completion or dropout rates, success and failure rates, campus

involvement, and overall college experience for students. Ultimately, there is one major
conclusion that can be drawn from the studies of these various researchers. The statistic that is
most heavily impacted by first and continuing-generation college students is dropout and
completion rates (Jennings et at. 2015; Pascarella et al. n.d.; Stephens et al. 2012).
These factors begin to create achievements gaps in universities statistics because there is
an evident differentiation in performance for these two specific populations. Studies concluded
that there is a high achievement gap between first-generation college students and continuinggeneration college students because the universities norms do not coincide with the firstgenerations norms due to their lack of understanding (Stephens et al. 2012). This leads back to
the lack of familys capital involving college education. If the cycle continues the way (William
and Ferrari 2015) predicted it to be, as the generations continue, all current first-generation
college students will eventually become the parents of continuing-generation students and the
factors that contribute to the difference in experiences may end up declining or ceasing to exist.
RESOLVEMENT FOR ALL
Attaining a post-secondary education is a great challenge all on its own. Through a
myriad of research, it is evident that there are many factors that will inevitably influence every
individual differently whilst completing their collegiate career. These factors derive from the
societal surroundings of each individual student and cause inequalities for the college population,
which is made up of either first or continuing-generation students. Altogether, findings conclude
that first-generation college students perform much lower than their counterparts due to facing a
much more rigorous journey as they are not presented with the same advantages and resources
versus those who are continuing-generation college students. The attainment of this research
should encourage colleges and universities all over the world to take into consideration that the

differences first and continuing-generation college students face are inevitable and attempt to
create better opportunities and policies that will truly make the college experience equal for
everyone. As previously mentioned, there are many online communities that strive to guide
students who need extra guidance, but nothing amounts to the benefits that would arise if
students could receive the aid in person. The hindrances of these factors should never define any
students capability of attaining a college education and later contributing to the society. It is
important to create this equality if universities are competing for the top spot in academic
achievement and completion rates as well as for the well being of the students. After all, the
future of the world lies in the hands of these first and continuing generation college students.

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