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Classification of Volcanic-Associated Massive

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Composition
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Chapter 1
Classification of Volcanic-Associated Massive Sulfide Deposits
Based on Host-Rock Composition
C. T. BARRIE* AND M. D. HANNINGTON
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0E8
4567

Volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits (VMS) are

predominantly stratiform accumulations of sulfide minerals that precipitate from hydrothermal fluids at or below
the sea floor, in a wide range of ancient and modern geological settings (Figs. 1, 2). They occur within volcanosedimentary stratigraphic successions, and are commonly
coeval and coincident with volcanic rocks. As a class, they
represent a significant source of the world's Cu, Zn, Pb,
Au, and Ag ores, with Co, Sn, Ba, S, Se, Mn, Cd, In, Bi, Te,
Ga, and Ge as co- or by-products.
The understanding of ancient, land-based VMS deposits
has been heavily influenced by the discovery and study of
active, metal-precipitating hydrothermal vents on the sea
floor. During the last three decades, excellent descriptions
of sea-floor sulfides and related vent fluids and hydrothermal plumes have provided modern analogs for the landbased VMS deposits (Rona, 1988; Rona and Scott, 1993;
Hannington et al., 1995). Conversely, the geology and
mineralogy of land-based deposits have provided insight
into the plumbing systems and sulfide mineral paragenesis
of sulfide deposits relevant to sea-floor hydrothermal systems. This volume capitalizes on the complementary nature of ancient, land-based VMS deposits and active,
metal-precipitating hydrothermal systems on the sea floor,
much as the Reviews in Economic Geology Volume 2 (Berger
and Bethke, eds., 1985) did with epithermal deposits and
active, subaerial geothermal systems, and draws equally
from land-based and sea-floor VMS research.
This volume attempts to provide a balanced view of VMS
systems, with descriptions of the processes involved in
VMS formation and of important examples representing a
variety of VMS deposits and districts, in modern and ancient settings. It is not meant to be a comprehensive review; rather, it presents a spectrum of current ideas based
on research since the benchmark paper of Franklin et al.
(1981). The contributions are divided into two parts. In
Part I, reviews of the most significant geological, physical,
and chemical processes involved in the formation of landbased and sea-floor VMS deposits are presented. These include: the volcanology of subaqueous settings and the relationship between volcanology and VMS systems by
Gibson et al. (1999); structural aspects of magmatism and
hydrothermal circulation in ocean floor and ophiolitic settings by Harper (1999); the relationship between magma
chemistry and hydrothermal venting, with emphasis on

13-16

1
2
9
3

10

27
28
29

17-20

12
11

23

21

24
25
26
32

22

30

33

31

34
35

CENOZOIC

PALEOZOIC

PROTER.

ARCHEAN

MESOZOIC

PROT/MZ

AR/MZ

AR/PT

FIG. 1. Location of major VMS districts of the world, with total tonnages
in million tonnes (MT). M: Mafic; B-M: Bimodal Mafic; M-S: Mafic Siliciclastic; B-F: Bimodal-Felsic; B-S: Bimodal-Siliciclastic.
1 Windy Craggy, NW British Columbia: 297 MT, Mesozoic M-S;
2 N. Cordillera, Canada (including Eskay Creek): 100 MT, L. Paleozoic, M,
B-M, B-F;
3 Jerome, Arizona, USA: 30 MT, E. Proterozoic, B-M;
4 Slave Province, Canada: 50 MT, L. Archean, B-M, B-F;
5 Flin Flon-Snow Lake, Man. and Sask., Canada: 160 MT, E. Proterozoic, BM, M;
6 Ladysmith-Rhinelander, Wisconsin, USA: 80 MT, E. Proterozoic, B-M;
7 Abitibi-Superior, Canada (incl. Kidd Creek): 500 MT, L. Archean, B-M, BF.
8 Ducktown, Tennessee, USA: 180 MT, L. Proterozoic, M-S;
9 Bathurst, New Brunswick, Canada: 250 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-S;
10 Buchans-Victoria Lake, Newfoundland: 20 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F;
11 Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portugal and Spain: 1000+ MT, E. Paleozoic, B-S;
12 Rouez, Bretagne, France: 100 MT, M. Proterozoic, M-S;
13 Trondheim, Norway: 40 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M, M-S, B-F;
14 Skellefte (including. Boliden), Sweden: 75 MT E. Proterozoic, B-M, B-F;
15 Rana-Grong-Sulitjelma, Sweden, Sweden: 80 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M, M-S;
16 Outokumpu-Pyhasalmi, Finland: 60 Mt, E. Proterozoic, B-M, M-S;
17 Central Urals, Russia: 100+ MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
18 Buribai-southern Urals, Russia and Kazikstan: 100+MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F,
B-M;
19 Turkey (including Murgul): 170 MT, Paleozoic and Mesozoic, B-M, B-F, M;
20 Zyryanowsk, Kazakstan: 500 MT, Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
21 Troodos, Cyprus: 35 MT, Mesozoic, M;
22 Presika, Otjahasi, Matchless, S. Africa-Namibia: 140 MT, M. Proterozoic,
M-S;
23 Gai-Uchali, Kazakstan: 100+ MT, Paleozoic, B-F, B-M;
24 Yidan, China: ?, Mesozoic, B-F;
25 Qilian, China: ?, E. Paleozoic, B-M, B-F;
26 Kang Dian, China: 500 MT, L. Proterozoic, B-M;
27 Hongtouchan, China: ?, L. Archean, B-M;
28 Hokuroku, Japan: 100 MT, Miocene, B-F;
29 Besshi, Japan: 230 MT, L. Paleozoic and Mesozoic, M-S;
30 Big Stubby, Mons Cupri, Whim Creek, W. Australia: 15 MT, M.+L.
Archean, B-F;
31 Scuddles-Golden Grove, W. Australia: 45 MT, L. Archean, B-M;
32 Philippines: 60 MT, Cenozoic, B-F, M, B-S;
33 Mt. Morgan, Queensland, Australia: 50 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-M;
34 Benambra-Woodlawn, Victoria-NSW, Australia: 35 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F;
35 Mt. Read, Tasmania, Australia: 150 MT, E. Paleozoic, B-F.

*Alternate address: Barrie & Associates, 23 Euclid Avenue, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada K1S 2W2.

BARRIE AND HANNINGTON

90

120

150

180

150

120

90

60

30

30

60

90

70

70

60

60

30

30

30

30

60

60

70
90

FIG. 2.

120

150

180

150

120

90

60

30

30

60

70
90

Location of sea-floor hydrothermal vent sites and massive sulfide deposits. Modified after Hannington et al., 1995.

the thickened oceanic crust in the Galapagos area by Perfit et al.(1999), and more generally in bimodal volcanic
settings by Barrett and MacLean (1999); hydrothermal alteration of the oceanic crust by Alt (1999); fluid-rock interactions in VMS systems as recorded by stable isotope
systematics by Huston (1999); the metal transport capabilities of hydrothermal fluids by Seyfried et al. (1999); precious metal enrichment associations and processes in VMS
systems by Hannington et al. (1999); and heat and fluid
flow in VMS systems by Barrie et al. (1999a).
In Part II, descriptions of land-based and sea-floor deposits or districts are given, within the context of the
processes described in Part I. They are arranged in an
order from primitive, mafic-dominant systems to evolved,
felsic and sedimentary rock-dominant systems, similar to
the order in the classification scheme described below.
Deposits in mafic-dominant, ophiolitic settings are described by Galley and Koski (1999). Many of these deposits are believed to represent supra-subduction zone
tectonic settings, and they provide the closest comparison to mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal vent fields. A review of the giant Kidd Creek deposit of the Late Archean
Abitibi subprovince by Barrie et al. (1999b) provides a
view of a bimodal-mafic, primitive arc VMS setting. The
largest Besshi-type, or mafic-siliciclastic type VMS deposit
in the world at Windy Craggy, British Columbia is described by Peter and Scott (1999). In a broad sense, modern analogs for deposits like Windy Craggy are described
by Goodfellow and Zierenberg (1999) in their paper on

massive sulfide-forming hydrothermal systems in sediment-covered oceanic spreading centers. Felsic volcanic
and sedimentary-influenced VMS systems are found in
more mature volcanic or continental arc settings. These
types are represented in this volume by the precious
metal-rich Eskay Creek deposit, described by Roth et al.
(1999), and the incredibly prolific Iberian pyrite belt of
Portugal and Spain, described by Carvalho et al. (1999).
The Classification Scheme
For the purposes of this volume, a simple, five-fold classification of VMS deposits is proposed that encompasses
most of the known ancient and active VMS settings. The
classification draws from a comprehensive database selected from Mosier et al. (1983), the Geological Survey of
Canada VMS database for Canada (Franklin, 1993), the
published literature, annual reports of major mining companies, and our own files. The database includes 878 deposits, of which 811 have proper geological control and accurate grade and tonnage information (mined, mineable,
and geological reserves, and drill indicated resources). The
deposits in the database represent ~60 percent of the total
subaerial continental areas; data from deposits in ex-Soviet
bloc countries, China, and Antarctica are not included.
The five-fold classification is based on host rock composition, with emphasis on the pre-alteration composition of
coeval, or nearly coeval (within 34 m.y.) volcanic host
rocks. Rocks up to ~3 km into the stratigraphic footwall, ~1
km into the stratigraphic hanging wall and up to 5 km

CLASSIFICATION OF VMS DEPOSITS BASED ON HOST-ROCK COMPOSITION

along strike are considered. Previous studies have used the

base metal content (e.g., Hutchinson, 1973; Solomon, 1976;
Franklin et al., 1981; Large, 1992), tectonic setting (e.g.,
Sawkins, 1976; Hutchinson, 1980), host rock textures
(Morton and Franklin, 1987; see Gibson et al., 1999), or
host rock lithology (e.g., volcanic, volcano-sedimentary,
sedimentary divisions: Sangster and Scott, 1976) as the
principal criteria for classifying VMS sulfide deposits.
Given that most of the metals in the majority of VMS deposits are derived from leaching of a footwall substrate
(Large, 1992) which is predominantly volcanic, and that
the composition of the volcanic substrate commonly reflects the gross tectonic setting, it is not surprising that
there is broad agreement and overlap among these classification schemes and with the one presented here. In this
classification, similar VMS deposits group together reasonably well regardless of their age, and many of the ambiguities in classification based solely on metal content (e.g.,
Cu-Zn deposits may include felsic- and mafic-dominant
TABLE 1.

Mafic Type
The mafic type is defined by two principal criteria: a predominantly (e.g., >75%) mafic host rock stratigraphic succession, and rare or absent (<1%) felsic volcanic rocks.
The host rocks commonly have minor (<10%) siliciclastic
or ultramafic rocks, or both. The mafic type encompasses

Total and Average Grade and Tonnage for VMS Types, Excluding China and ex-Soviet Block Countries
n

Total Tonnage1
in billion tonnes

Total Cu1
in million tonnes

Total Pb1
in million tonnes

Total Zn1
in million tonnes

Total Au1
in tonnes
102

Total Ag1
in tonnes
103

62
284
113
255
97

0.18
1.45
1.24
1.29
2.50

3.7
24.3
16.2
7.1
21.5

0.04
2.0
0.6
13.2
24.0

1.3
44.3
9.7
54.2
55.1

2.31
12.91
4.03
14.18
4.11

2.6
38.2
9.2
120.0
60.0

811
(878)2

6.66
(6.93)2
Average size
in million tonnes

Average Cu
grade in wt %

Average Pb
grade in wt %

Average Zn
grade in wt %

Average Au
grade in g/t

Average Ag
grade in g/t

2.8
5.1
11.0
5.2
23.7

2.04
1.88
1.74
1.44
1.10

0.10
0.75
1.83
1.64
1.84

1.82
4.22
2.43
5.63
4.16

2.56
1.52
0.84
2.06
1.13

20.0
36.5
19.8
92.8
84.4

Number
of deposits
>100 MMT

Number
of deposits
50100 MMT

Number
of deposits
2050 MMT

Number
of deposits
1020 MMT

Number
of deposits
510 MMT

0
1
3
0
9

0
6
1
3
4

3
9
10
12
5

1
16
7
19
6

7
20
10
29
11

Number
of deposits
in situ value4
>$1010

Number
of deposits
in situ value4
510
$109

Number
of deposits
in situ value4
15
$109

Number
of deposits
in situ value4
0.51
$109

05
15
15
05
25

0
5
1
2
10

5
16
10
42
16

2
28
10
36
9

TYPE
Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
Total

Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic

Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic

Mafic
Bimodal-mafic
Mafic-siliciclastic
Bimodal-felsic
Bimodal-siliciclastic
1 Grade

successions), tectonic setting (e.g., deposits in metamorphic terrane with unclear origins) or age (e.g., many
Archean Cu-Zn deposits similar to Phanerozoic deposits)
are avoided.
From the most primitive to the most evolved in a chemical sense, the five host rock compositions considered are:
mafic, bimodal-mafic, mafic-siliciclastic, bimodal-felsic, and
bimodal-siliciclastic. The average grade and tonnage of deposits in these groups are given in Table 1, and the average grade and tonnage for each type divided by time period is given in Table 2. These data are presented in a
variety of bar graphs and ternary plots in Figures 36.

and tonnage for combined mined and mineable reserves and resources
deposits with limited information
3 Several small deposits with reported high Au grades disproportionately bias this value
4 In US $, with 1 lb. Cu = $1.10, 1 lb. Zn = $0.60, 1 lb. Pb = $0.30, 1 oz. Au = $350, 1 oz. Ag = $5.00; excludes other metals
5 Kidd Creek: $24.6
109, Brunswick #12: $22.1
109 ; Neves Corvo deposits: $16.1
109; Windy Craggy: $10.8
109
2 Includes

BARRIE AND HANNINGTON

TABLE 2.

Grade and Tonnage for VMS Types by Time Periods

Average
Tonnes
in MT

Average
Cu grade
in wt %

Average
Pb grade
in wt %

Average
Zn grade
in wt %

Average
Au grade
in g/t

Average
Ag grade
in g/t

(4.15)
(0.34)

(1.72)

(5.23)

Total tonnes
in MT

MAFIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic

1
3
0
23
35

1.5
1.9
0.0
60.0
115.9

1.5
0.6

(1.5)1
(4.83)

2.6
3.3

1.77
2.00

(0.05)
(0.10)

2.86
(1.13)

(3.02)
(1.74)

(18.0)
(25.2)

BIMODAL-MAFIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic

1212
73
17
54
19

606.7
410.2
24.5
278.8
130.6

0.5
5.6
1.4
5.2
6.9

1.66
2.20
2.06
1.93
1.74

0.42
0.98
(0.97)
(0.35)
(0.43)

5.04
4.32
2.64
3.02
2.54

1.32
1.47
(1.42)
2.40
(1.60)

38.6
28.7
(37.9)
44.4
28.4

MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic

2
7
16
25
63

1.4
159.8
307.4
256.3
519.4

(0.7)
(22.8)
19.2
10.3
8.2

(1.37)
(2.38)
1.68
1.46
1.81

(0.01)
(2.91)
(1.73)
(0.02)

(1.46)
(1.27)
(2.44)
4.21
0.80

(0.49)
(0.51)
0.80
1.00

(42.5)
(25.7)
(17.4)
(33.2)
(12.4)

BIMODAL-FELSIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic

24
42
14
82
93

170.2
222.9
68.0
375.0
472.6

7.1
5.3
4.9
4.6
5.1

1.09
1.05
1.53
1.53
1.64

1.23
0.72
0.85
2.50
1.52

6.23
4.45
4.07
6.69
5.29

0.83
1.65
1.47
2.63
2.04

125.2
49.3
109.2
85.8
115.7

BIMODAL-SILICICLASTIC
Archean
Early Proterozoic
Middle and Late Proterozoic
Early Phanerozoic
Late Phanerozoic

2
9
4
75
7

0.6
24.6
13.3
2451.1
14.9

0.3
2.7
3.3
32.7
2.1

(1.23)
(1.60)
(1.15)
0.93
(2.06)

(1.67)
(1.82)
(1.61)
1.74
(2.13)

(4.60)
(5.45)
(5.28)
3.83
(4.48)

(1.36)
(1.09)
0.97
0.76
(2.85)

(37.7)
(63.2)
(57.1)
54.8
(238.3)

1 Grades
2 Values

in parentheses for averages based on less than 10 values

in bold highlight data appreciably higher than other grade-tonnage data

ophiolitic settings (Galley and Koski), and the examples

are found almost exclusively in Phanerozoic rocks (Fig. 4).
Modern analogs are found in ocean ridge, advanced backarc rift, and supra-subduction zone nascent arc settings.
The basaltic host rocks are predominantly tholeiitic, and
locally boninitic. Pre-Phanerozoic examples include the
Potter mine in the Late Archean Kidd-Munro assemblage
of the western, Abitibi subprovince, Ontario, Canada, and
the Coronation mine and nearby deposits in deformed ultramafic-gabbroic tholeiite sequence in the Early Proterozoic Amisk Group in northeast Saskatchewan, Canada.
Mafic VMS are fewer in number (n = 62), smaller (average
of 2.8 MT: Fig. 3), and on average, they are Cu-rich and Pbpoor in comparison to all other deposit types (Figs. 4, 6a).
Bimodal-Mafic Type
The bimodal-mafic type is defined as having >50 percent
mafic rocks and >3 percent felsic rocks in the host stratigraphic succession, with subordinate siliciclastic rocks. Most
have a ratio of mafic/felsic volcanic rocks of 3:1 or greater,
but felsic rocks are commonly the immediate host rocks.
They predominate in Late Archean and Early Proterozoic

rocks (Table 2; Fig. 4). In broad terms, the composition of

the host rocks reflects primitive volcanic arc, or rifted primitive volcanic arc settings. The mafic volcanic rocks are generally basaltic and tholeiitic, although they may be transitional to calc-alkalic; felsic volcanic rocks are commonly high
silica rhyolites or transitional with calc-alkalic rhyolites (see
Barrett and MacLean). Classic examples are the deposits of
the Noranda district, Quebec (Gibson and Watkinson,
1990), the Flin Flon deposit in the Flin Flon-Snow Lake belt
of Manitoba-Saskatchewan (Syme and Bailes, 1993), and the
United Verde mine of the Jerome district in Arizona
(Gustin, 1990; Fig. 1). Kidd Creek also falls into this category, but is atypical due to its immense size and its predominantly ultramafic footwall stratigraphic succession (Barrie et
al., see also Economic Geology Monograph 10, Hannington
and Barrie, eds., in press). Bimodal-mafic VMS are the most
common of the VMS types (n = 286), and they have higher
average Cu content than all but the mafic VMS type.
Mafic-Siliciclastic Type
The mafic-siliciclastic VMS type has subequal proportions
of mafic volcanic or intrusive rocks and turbiditic siliciclastic

CLASSIFICATION OF VMS DEPOSITS BASED ON HOST-ROCK COMPOSITION

most of the other types, but their average tonnage (11.0

MT) is second only to the bimodal-siliciclastic VMS type.
Bimodal-Felsic Type
The fourth subdivision is the bimodal-felsic VMS type.
This type is defined by having >50 percent felsic volcanic
rocks, and <15 percent siliciclastic rocks in the host stratigraphic succession, with mafic volcanic and intrusive
rocks accounting for the bulk of the remainder. Bimodalfelsic VMS deposits have a similar age distribution as the
bimodal-mafic deposits, but they are most abundant in
the Phanerozoic (Table 2; Fig. 4). Almost by definition,
they are found in more compositionally mature volcanic
arcs, or rifted volcanic arc settings than the bimodal-mafic
types. The felsic host rocks are principally calc-alkalic,
although transitional, high-silica rhyolite to calc-alkalic
compositions are common. Similarly, mafic rocks are calcalkalic, or transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkalic volcanic
rocks (see Barrett and MacLean, 1999). Classic examples
are the Miocene deposits of the Hokuroku district, Japan
(Ohmoto and Skinner, 1983), the Rosebery deposits of the
Cambrian Mt. Read district, Tasmania (Green et al., 1981;
Large, 1992), and the Late Archean Izok Lake deposit,
Northwest Territories, Canada (Morrison and Balint,
1993). Bimodal-felsic deposits are the second-most numerous, and on average contain the most Zn and Ag of
the five deposit types (Figs. 3, 4). They also commonly
contain barite.
The data for bimodal-felsic types indicate clear temporal trends in terms of relative base metal contents
(Fig. 6b). Collectively, the Archean bimodal-felsic deposits are predominantly Zn-rich, whereas the relative

Cu
wt. %

FIG. 3. Histograms for total tonnage, average tonnage and number of deposits for VMS types in database. The bimodal-siliciclastic type clearly has
the highest total and average tonnage, whereas the bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic types are the most numerous.

rocks; felsic volcanic rocks are minor or absent. There may

be significant amounts of carbonate within the siliciclastic
rocks, but the siliciclastic component always predominates
(Slack, 1993). They are principally of Middle Proterozoic
age and younger, and they are commonly complexly deformed. The Besshi deposits of Japan and the Windy
Craggy deposit of British Columbia, Canada (Peter and
Scott), are type examples on land. The rifted continental
margin in the Guaymas basin of the Gulf of California, the
sedimented oceanic rift of Middle Valley and the Escanaba
trough in the northeast Pacific Ocean (Goodfellow and
Zierenberg, 1999), and the Atlantis II deeps of the Red
Sea (Zierenberg, 1990) provide three distinct tectonic settings as analogs for the land-based deposits. Mafic-siliciclastic VMS deposits are less numerous (n = 113) than

Zn
wt. %

Pb
wt. %

Ag
g/t

Au
g/t

FIG. 4. Histogram of average metal contents for VMS types. Legend same
as in Fig. 3. See Table 1 for values. The mafic type has the highest average Cu content and the lowest average Pb content, whereas the opposite
is true for the bimodal-siliciclastic type.

BARRIE AND HANNINGTON

25

AE SM

MAFIC

Cu

a.

20

15
10
5

KC

140
120

80

.-

IC
AF

.-M

M
BI

Zn

BIMODAL-FELSIC
Cu

b.

20

Tonnage, in MT

AF

-S
F.

M
BI

60
40

IL.

L
FE

.-S

BI

ML

100

IL.

Pb

BIMODAL-MAFIC

MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC WC

250
200

150

100

BIMODAL-FELSIC

Mu

60

MS

20

350
300

40

MC

BIMODAL-SILICICLASTIC
NC
RT
LZ

250
200
150
100
50

3.0

2.0

1.0

Age, in Ga
FIG. 5. Tonnage vs. age for VMS types. The major periods of VMS formation were in the Late Archean at ~27302700 Ma, in the Early Proterozoic at ~18901870 Ma, in the Early Paleozoic and more broadly through
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The largest examples are labeled as follows:
Mafic: AE: Anayatak-Ergani, Turkey; SM: Sirrt Madenkoy, Turkey; M:
Mavrovouni, Cyprus. Bimodal-Mafic: KC: Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada;
G: Geco, Ontario, Canada; H: Horne, Quebec, Canada; R: Ruttan, Manitoba; C: Crandon, Wisconsin, USA; ML: Mount Lyell, Tasmania, Australia. Mafic-Siliciclastic: S: Saladipura, Rajasthan, India; D: Ducktown,
Tennessee, USA; R: Rouez, Bretagne, France; WC: Windy Craggy, British
Columbia, Canada. Bimodal-Felsic: MC: Mons Cupri, Western Australia;
S: Selbaie, Quebec, Canada; P: Pyhasalmi, Finland; M: Mt. Morgan,
Queensland, Australia; Mu: Murgul, Turkey; MS: Matsumine-Shakanai,
Hokuroku, Japan. Bimodal-Siliciclastic: NC: Neves Corvo, Portugal; RT:
Rio Tinto, Spain; LZ: La Zarza, Spain.

proportions of Pb and Cu increase through time. The

average gold contents broadly increase through geological time also. These trends in metal content through
time may reflect subtle differences in source rocks, with
younger volcanic arc systems relatively enriched in comparison to their Early Proterozoic and Late Archean

Pb
L.

T.

HA

50

E.

HA

+L

RO

T.
H. Zn
O RC
R
P
A
E.

FIG. 6. Ternary diagrams of base metal contents in VMS deposits. a. The

five VMS types. The proportion of Pb with respect to Cu and Zn increases
from the mafic type to the bimodal-siliciclastic type, whereas the proportion of Cu with respect to Pb and Zn tends to decrease. b. Bimodal-felsic
VMS types during five time periods, excluding the Middle Archean, Pbrich Mons Cupri deposit. The proportion of Pb and Cu with respect to
Zn tends to increase through time.

counterparts. Radiogenic decay accounts for an increase

of ~30 percent Pb in the crust (over 4.5 Ga), and Pb is
also expected to become enriched in crustal reservoirs
through time because it partitions strongly into the melt
during mantle partial melting. Cu and Au enrichment in
source rocks can be explained by a variety of magmatic
and hydrothermal processes (e.g., Candela and Holland, 1986; Urabe, 1987; Hedenquist and Lowenstern,
1994).
Bimodal-Siliciclastic Type
The fifth type is termed bimodal-siliciclastic, and has approximately equal proportions of volcanic and siliciclastic
rocks. Felsic volcanic rocks are generally more abundant
than mafic ones. The vast majority of bimodal siliciclastic
deposits are Phanerozoic, principally in the Iberian Pyrite
Belt of Portugal and Spain or in the Bathurst camp of New
Brunswick, Canada. The felsic host rocks are generally
calc-alkalic, and in some cases it can be argued that they
were derived by partial melting of sedimentary sources,
consistent with a continental arc, or rifted continental arc
setting (see Carvalho et al., 1999). Mafic rocks are generally tholeiitic, but both the Bathurst district and the Iberian pyrite belt have mildly alkaline basalts high in the
stratigraphic sections (alkaline rocks are rare in VMS host
rocks of any type). The bimodal-siliciclastic VMS deposits
represent the greatest tonnage of the VMS types (2.50 billion tonnes), and they have the largest average deposit size

CLASSIFICATION OF VMS DEPOSITS BASED ON HOST-ROCK COMPOSITION

(23.7 MT, Fig. 3). They have on average the lowest Cu content and the highest Pb content of the five VMS deposit
types (Fig. 4).
Host-Rock Composition and VMS Metal Content:
The Use of Primitive Mantle-Normalized Plots
Host-rock compositions may influence the metal content in VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 1981), and this is
clear in the classification scheme presented here. Mafic
rocks contain ferromagnesian minerals and minor magmatic sulfide (immiscible sulfide-oxide solid solution) that
are preferentially enriched in Cu; the Cu is available to hydrothermal fluids when the crystal lattice of the host mineral is destroyed during hydrothermal alteration. Similarly, felsic rocks contain feldspars that are preferentially
enriched in Pb and Ba, and siliciclastic rocks contain
feldspars and clays enriched in Pb, Ag and Zn. Gold enrichment in host rocks can be due to partial melting of a
residual mantle that has retained Au-enriched magmatic
sulfide to form boninites (Hamlyn et al., 1985), suppression of oxide and sulfide fractionation that sequester
gold in alkaline, high f O 2 magmatic systems leading to
(McInnes and Cameron, 1994), and a variety of hydrothermal processes (Hannington et al.).
The base and precious metal contents for the VMS deposit type averages are presented on primitive mantlenormalized diagrams for comparison in Figure 7, and in Figure 8, a comparison is made between deposits and possible
source rocks. The primitive mantle composition is used for
two reasons: the metal values are reasonably well established (Table 3), and it provides a reasonable comparison
for crustal reservoir source rocks as well as the deposits, so
both potential source rocks and deposits can be compared
from district to district. The ordering of the elementsPb,

Ag, Au, Zn and Cucorresponds to the degree of incompatibility in a source rock during magmatic processes (assuming the presence of trace immiscible sulfide-oxide
solid solution), with Pb representing the most incompatible metal. The ordering also corresponds to the relative
enrichment (enriched to the left) of metals in most VMS
deposits compared to the primitive mantle and to the relative solubility of different metals in modified seawater
with increasing temperatures. A more rigorous comparison would require that the metal contents for the deposit
averages be normalized to 100 percent sulfide, assuming
that the Cu, Zn and Pb are in chalcopyrite, sphalerite and
galena, respectively, with the remaining Fe and S distributed between pyrite, pyrrhotite and magnetite according
to the mineralogy. This approach, which has proven successful with magmatic sulfide ores (Naldrett and Duke,
1980), would alleviate some of the uncertainty in comparing semi-massive and massive ores, but requires knowledge
of the bulk Fe and S contents of the deposits and the
mode of iron sulfide and iron oxide minerals, which usually are not reported. It would also be desirable to include
other VMS metal co- and by-products (e.g., Hg, As, Sb, Ba,
Co, Sn, S, Se, Mn, Cd, In, Bi, etc.). In this way, variable
source rock or magmatic contributions, or the distinctive
physical properties of different hydrothermal fluids, could
be fingerprinted, even within a single deposit, but more
information is needed before such a comprehensive approach can be taken.
As expected, the mafic VMS-type averages have the flattest patterns when normalized to the primitive mantle.
They also have a tendency toward a relative enrichment in
Au in comparison to Ag and Zn. This could be due to: (1)
supergene processes that cause preferential enrichment in
Au in comparison to the other elements; (2) the recovery

TABLE 3. Metal and Elemental Concentrations in Chondritic, Mantle, and Crustal Reservoirs
Metal
Ba (ppm)
Au (ppb)
Ag (ppb)
Pb (ppm)
Cd (ppb)
Sn (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
Co (ppm)
Ni (ppm)
As (ppm)
Sb (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Bi (ppb)
Ga (ppm)
S (wt.%)
Se (ppm)
Mn (ppm)
1 Hofmann,

N-MORB
13.8710
0.8720
3030.00
0.3580
13090.00
1.3500
8480.00
7080.00
47.1100
149.5100
190.00
0.0150
0.3150
790.00
1770.00
0.1010
0.1670
1,00070.00

1988
et al., 1985
3 Keays and Scott, 1976
4 Sun and McDonough, 1989, Joachum et al., 1993
5 Wolf and Anders, 1980
6 Palme et al., 1981
2 Hamlyn

Primitive Mantle

Chondrite (C1 type)

6.04910
1.39000
1950.000
0.17510
4090.000
0.12400
5090.000
2810.000
10410.000
2,08010.000
10050.000
0.00550
0.06350
1090.000
470.000
0.02510
0.04700
1,01070.000

2.4100
15210.00
18030.00
2.4740
64070.00
1.6240
30070.00
10810.00
5160.00
10,50010.00
1,50070.00
0.1650
0.9250
11070.00
1070.00
5.4010
1910.00
1,70070.00
7 Sun,

Bulk Continental Crust9

250.00
3.0.0
80.00
8.0.0
98.00
2.5.0
80.00
75.00
29.00
105.00
1.0.0
0.2.0
1.0.0
60.00
18.00
ND
0.05
1,400.00

1982
Mg number = 70: Doe, 1995
9 Taylor and McClennan, 1985. Values listed under N-MORB are for
average oceanic crust
10 McDonough and Sun, 1995
8 At

BARRIE AND HANNINGTON

105
10

10

10
10

MAFIC-SILICICLASTIC

10

10

BIMODAL-MAFIC

10

10

MAFIC

In Figure 8, a comparison is made between the mafic

type and the bimodal-siliciclastic deposits that represent
the most primitive and the most evolved VMS types, respectively. The relatively flat pattern for the mafic VMS
type at ~103
primitive mantle values is broadly parallel
to the pattern for N-MORB. Similarly, the steep negative
slope for the bimodal-siliciclastic VMS type from 105 to ~5

102
primitive values broadly parallels the relatively
steep, negative slope of the bulk continental continental
crust. Both deposit types exhibit metal enrichments of
313
102
over their potential host rock compositions,
with the greatest enrichment for Pb. The patterns in Figure 8 are consistent with the leaching and transport of
metals by fluids that are undersaturated with respect to all
of the metals, as is generally observed at vent sites on the
modern sea floor (Hannington et al., 1995). Detailed aspects of metal transport are discussed in Seyfried et al.,
1999.

10

10

BIMODAL-FELSIC

EARLY PHAN.
MAFIC VMS AVE.
EARLY PHAN.
MAFIC
VMS AVE.

PM-NORMALIZED

10

10

10

10

10

ENRICHMENT BY
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES

ENRICHMENT BY
MAGMATIC PROCESSES

N-MORB
N-MORB

10

BIMODAL-

Pb

SILICICLASTIC
10

10

10

Ag

Au

Zn

Cu

FIG. 7. Primitive mantle-normalized metal values for average of VMS

types by age period. Archean averages: diamonds; Early Proterozoic averages: squares; Middle and Late Proterozoic averages: triangles; Early
Phanerozoic (Paleozoic) averages: xs; Late Phanerozoic averages: asterisks. Primitive mantle values given in Table 3.

of metals for deposits mined historically (e.g., Zn not recovered from Cu ores in many Troodos deposits), or (3) a
relative enrichment in the source rocks by magmatic
processes (e.g., boninites relatively enriched in Au: Hamlyn et al., 1985). It is noted that there are few accurate gold
grades reported for the mafic VMS types, so the apparent
Au enrichment should be considered with caution. All of
the other types have negative slopes for their primitivemantle normalized patterns, with the steepest slopes for
the felsic-influenced VMS types. Systematic changes in the
patterns through geological time are lacking for all but the
bimodal-felsic VMS deposits. Younger bimodal-felsic deposits have higher Cu, Pb and Au contents.

10

10

10

Au

Zn

Cu

10

PM-NORMALIZED

Pb

10

Ag

E. PHAN. BIMODALSILICICLASTIC VMS AVE.

ENRICHMENT BY
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES

BULK CONTINENTAL CRUST

ENRICHMENT
BY CRUSTALBUILDING PROCESSES

Pb

Ag

Au

Zn

Cu

FIG. 8. Primitive mantle-normalized metal content plots for VMS deposit

type averages and possible source rocks. Metal contents and normalizing
values are given in Tables 2 and 3. a. Early Phanerozoic mafic VMS and
N-MORB plots. In broad terms, there is a 5001,000
enrichment for all
of the metals in the deposit average in comparison to N-MORB. The
average gold content for the VMS average is based on relatively few
deposits and may be anomalously high. b. Early Phanerozoic bimodalsiliciclastic VMS and bulk continental crust plots. Bimodal-siliciclastic
deposits have higher Pb and Ag contents and lower Cu contents than
mafic VMS, and their sloped pattern parallels that of the bulk continental crust.

CLASSIFICATION OF VMS DEPOSITS BASED ON HOST-ROCK COMPOSITION

Deposit Size: Host-Rock Permeability,

Duration of Heat Source
Among the most important controlling factors on the
size of a VMS deposit are the permeability of the host-rock
stratigraphic succession and the duration of the magmatic
heat source. The presence of a significant siliciclastic component to the host stratigraphic succession favors large
VMS deposits, as the largest deposits are either mafic-siliciclastic or bimodal-siliciclastic (Fig. 3). This is perhaps
not surprising if a continuum with sedimentary-exhalative
deposits (SEDEX) is considered. The typical SEDEX deposit is 41.3 MT (n = 62: Lydon, 1996) and is larger than
siliciclastic-poor VMS systems by a factor of 815, but
larger than siliciclastic-rich VMS systems by a factor of only
24 (see Table 1). Turbidites are less permeable than volcanic rocks, and in the absence of abundant faulting, a
turbidite-rich setting can effectively insulate a hydrothermal cell and its heat source from rapid advective cooling,
thus allowing for a longer-lived hydrothermal system, and
relatively efficient, subsea-floor metal deposition (Goodfellow and Zierenberg).
On a local scale, large deposits are also favored by
porous and relatively permeable epiclastic or autoclastic
breccias in the area of metal deposition. Epiclastic rocks
may provide a favorable location for sulfide-after-silicate
replacement in the subsurface, leading to a high depositional efficiency. This is true at the giant Kidd Creek and
Horne deposits in the Abitibi subprovince, for example
(Hannington et al., in press; Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
High level (within 3 km in the footwall), synvolcanic intrusions are reasonable sources of heat, and they can drive
convection of metal-precipitating hydrothermal fluids
through the adjacent rocks (Campbell et al., 1981). They
may also provide some metals to the hydrothermal system
(e.g., Large et al., 1996). Such intrusions are present in the
stratigraphic footwall in ~75 percent of the mafic VMS types,
~50 percent of the bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic VMS
types, but are much less common in the mafic-siliciclastic
and bimodal-siliciclastic types (excluding relatively thin
sills). Tectonic imbrication and other structural complexities can account for the lack of preservation of high level
synvolcanic intrusions in some cases, but it would appear
that such intrusions were not present at the time of formation for as many as one-third of all VMS deposits. The
heat sources for hydrothermal convection in these cases
may have been deeper in the crust. Larger, hotter and
longer-lived magmatic heat sources lead to larger deposits.
Relationships between large, hot heat sources, host-rock
permeability, and the size of VMS deposits are explored
quantitatively using two-dimensional finite element heat
and fluid flow modeling by Cathles et al. (1997; see Barrie
et al., 1999).
Tectonic Setting and
VMS Deposits through Geologic Time
A spectrum of tectonic settings are recognized for VMS
deposits. They include: oceanic ridges (e.g., the TAG

hydrothermal field and associated sea-floor massive sulfide

deposits (Rona et al., 1993), thickened oceanic crust, e.g.,
the Galapagos area (Perfit et al.), sedimented oceanic
ridges and sedimented continental margin rifts (Middle
Valley and Escanaba trough; Guaymas basin, respectively:
Goodfellow and Zierenberg, 1999), and a variety of rifted
arc settings, including nascent arcs (most ophiolites:
Galley and Koski, 1999), primitive volcanic arcs (many
Archean and Early Proterozoic deposits), mature volcanic
arcs (e.g., Hokuroku district, Japan: Ohmoto and Skinner,
1983), and continental arcs (Iberian Pyrite Belt: de Carvalho, 1999).
The vast majority of VMS deposits have at least a minor
amount of mafic volcanic rocks in their host stratigraphic
succession. As most mafic rocks are derived from the
upper mantle, it is implicit that, in the broadest sense,
heat derived from the upper mantle is fundamentally responsible for the thermal anomalies in the crust that lead
to VMS mineralization. A corollary to this is that there are
no known VMS deposits related to anorogenic magmatism
driven principally by radiogenic heat production (e.g.,
many S-type and A-type, minimum melt granitic systems).
The most prolific periods of VMS mineralization in
terms of the number of deposits represented in the rock
record are in the Late Archean (27502700 Ma), the Early
Proterozoic (19001800 Ma), the early Phanerozoic (500
450 Ma) and two periods in the late Phanerozoic (390
250 Ma and 300 Ma: Fig. 5). Bimodal-mafic types are
most abundant in the (Late) Archean and Early Proterozoic, whereas the bimodal-felsic and bimodal-siliciclastic
types are more abundant in the Phanerozoic. This is consistent with a decrease in the global heat flux through time
that favors the generation of primitive, mafic arcs in earlier times, and more evolved, felsic arcs in the Phanerozoic. That the mafic types are found almost exclusively
within Phanerozoic rocks reflects the scarcity of ophiolitic
sections in earlier times. Titley (1993) examined the formation of strata-bound ore deposits, including VMS deposits, through Wilson tectonic cycles during the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. He noted that an abundance of
arc-related (including mafic, bimodal-mafic, and bimodalfelsic) VMS deposits in the mid-Cambrian to Silurian and
in the late Cretaceous corresponded to: (1) periods of high
sea level where the depth of seawater is hundreds of meters
above the average continental shelf edge, (2) oceanic
anoxic events (see also Eastoe and Gustin, 1996), (3) open
stages in the Wilson Cycle, with fragmentation and dispersal of the continents due to craton heating, and (4)
abundant volcanic arc and back-arc tectonic settings.
There are relatively few VMS deposits of any type in the
Middle and Late Proterozoic (Hutchinson, 1980), a time
represented by limited arc magmatism and stable cratonic
environments (Windley, 1977).
In summary, the deposits described in this volume
represent many tectonic settings that have occurred
through Earths history, and they illustrate key processes
that have been responsible for VMS formation in a range
of environments.

10

BARRIE AND HANNINGTON

Acknowledgments
We thank the three organizations that sponsored the short
course that lead to this volume: the Society of Economic Geologists, the Mineral Deposits Division of the Geological Association of Canada, and the Geological Association of
Canada. We also thank the Geological Survey of Canada and
the Chief Geologists office for support for this publication.
Mike Lesher, the former Series Editor for Reviews in Economic
Geology, invited us to consider overseeing this volume, and
we are grateful to him for providing us with this opportunity.
This contribution has benefited from discussions with Ian
Jonasson and John Lydon, and from comments by Wayne
Goodfellow. GSC Contribution No. 1997092.
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