Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REINFORCED
EXTERNALLY
OF
by
John W. Bloxham.
Thesis
for
A. C. G. I.,
submitted
the
Degree
B. Sc. Eng.,
to the
of
the Faculty
University
Doctor
of
C. Eng.,
of
M. I. C. E.
Sheffield
Philosophy
in
of Engineering
September
1980
Dedicated
to my parents.
'SUMMARY
is
It
bonded
Externally
with
sometimes
reported,
in
especially
The present
reinforced
long
Furthermore,
for
testing
term
after
in
cracking
were adhesive
jointing
Test
plates
The deformations
deformations
the
at
larger
to 63% lower
of
than
crack
tests
be reported.
consequently
for
up-rating
normal
their
underface.
tensile
initiated
beams were
plated
The parameters
degree
the
multiple
of
layers
plate
of
the
reinforcement
up to
65%.
the measured
formulae
and
can only
in
carrying
service
were
capacity
(i)
of
up to
thickness,
Within
derived
surface
of
the
the
decrease
thus
making
existing
in
it
Tests
performance
strength
a viable
on
nor
Further
deformations
structures.
width
calculating
interface.
ultimate
up
limitations
strains.
flexural
latter
the
beams-were
the
for
90%.
the
general,
plated
adhesive/steel
enhance
loads,
the
values.
showed no loss
or
in
produced
and concrete
adhesive
In
or plate
widths
beam.
More important'are
increase
load
reduced
spacings
the
increased
were
adhesive
load
ultimate
loads
unplated
weathering
in
increase
service
in
empirical
crack
extent.
the
the
series,
deterioration
limited
an increase
in
widths,
Bonded plate
were
overestimated
any visual
beam to
to
thickness,
plates,
18 months
after
will
for
those
test
present
specimens
of
conditions.
plate
the
although
loads
service
effect.
formulae
rotations,
bonded
and unloaded
on the
17%, the
was only
decreased
prediction
structures
has been
research
behaviour
weathering
to bonding
showed that
results
the
flexural
and steel
to
techniques.
by the bonded
having
to natural
structures.
applied
little
reinforcement
loaded
of
concrete
behaviour.
term
the
plate
studies
exposure
investigation
under
plate
beams with
concrete
However,
to long
investigated
study
situ
performance.
respect
in
strengthen
reinforcement
plate
satisfactory
subsequent
to
necessary
of
and
technique
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author
Mr.
for
R. Jones,
and for
research
their
their
Engineering
Thanks
during
are
also
due to McCall
are
Cement Manufacturers
Portand
the
Dr.
R. N. Swamy and
and helpful
assistance
guidance,
help
Supervisors,
to be thanked
for
their
and Colebrand
throughout
the
thesis.
the Department
of
Civil
and
assistance.
Ltd.,
advice
this
of
presentation
Professors
Structural
his
thank
to
wishes
Ltd.,
Ltd.
the
for
their
the
Technical
Associated
generous
supply
of materials.
The author
Secretarial
of
staff
Finally
patiently
also
typing
the
acknowledges
the
author
the
text
the
Department,
wishes
of
this
in
to
assistance
of
particular
Mr.
thank
Linda
thesis.
(ii)
Bell
and
R. Newman.
and Chris
Harrison
for
so
CONTENTS
No.
Page
(i)
Summary
(ii)
Acknowledgements
(iii)
Contents
List
List
List
of
Figures
(vii)
of
Tables
(ix)
of
Plates
(x)
(xi)
Notation
CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
OUTLINE OF THESIS
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1
EPOXY RESINS
2.1.1
General
2.1.2
Materials
2.1.3
Mixing
2.1.4
Temperature
2.1.5
Surface
2.1.6
Bonding
10
2.1.7
Curing
10
2.1.8
Safety
2.2
2.2.1
General
Uses
12
2.2.2
Surface
Preparation
13
2.2.3
Moisture
2.2.4
Miscellaneous
15
2.2.5
Summary
15
2.3-
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
2.4
2.4.1
General
17
2.4.2
Surface'Preparation
17
2.4.3
Moisture
Effects
18
2.4.4
Miscellaneous
19
2.4.5
Summary
20
2.5
2.5.1
General.
2.5.2
L'Hermite
Introduction
and Mixes
Preparation
and Health
Provisions
11
13
Effects
IN LAP JOINTS
16
21
and Bresson
21
(iii)
'Page No.
2.5.3
Transport
2.5.4
Dundee
2.5.5
Warwick
2.5.6
Miscellaneous
2.5.7
Swiss Federal
and Research
2.5.8
Sheffield
2.6
CHAPTER 3
Road
and
Research
22
Laboratories
24
University
25
University
25
for
Laboratories
Testing
Materials
26
.
27
University
28
CONCLUSIONS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.1
CONCRETE
3.1.1
Experimental
3.1.2
Results
30
3.1.3
Conclusions
30
3.2
EPOXY RESINS
3.2.1
Lap Shear
3.2.2
Tension
3.2.3
Compression
3.2.4
Lap Shear
3.3
REINFORCEMENT
3.3.1
Bars
43
3.3.2
Plates
46
29
Procedure
Tests
- Steel/Steel
33
36
Tests
39
Tests
Tests
Steel/Concrete
41
CHAPTER 4
4.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
4.1.1
Beam Details
48
4.1.2
Material
50
4.1.3
Preparation
4.1.4
Testing
4.2
4.2.1
Deflections
4.2.2
Modes of
4.2.3
First
4.3
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 5
5.1
Properties
of
Test
Specimens
Procedure
54
55
and Strains
59
Failure
Crack
54
and Ultimate
Loads
62
68
'STRENGTH PROPERTIES
71
INTRODUCTION
5.2
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
5.3
TEST PROCEDURE
72
73
(iv)
Page No.
5.4
5.4.1
OF TEST RESULTS
DISCUSSION
First
86
Loads
Crack
Service
86
Loads
5.4.2
Increase
of
5.4.3
Ultimate
Loads
5.4.4
Modes of Failure
93
5.5
CONCLUSIONS
95
CHAPTER 6
91
DEFORMATION PROPERTIES
6.1
INTRODUCTION
98
6.2
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME/PROCEDURE
99
6.3
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.3.1
Introduction
6.3.2
Load-Strain
6.3.3
Load-Deflection
Characteristics
128
6.3.4
Moment-Rotation,
Characteristics
141
6.4
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 7
99
107
Characteristics
151
CRACKING PROPERTIES
7.1
INTRODUCTION
155
7.2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
155
7.3
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
158
7.4
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
7.4.1
General
7.4.2
Maximum Crack
7.4.3
Crack
7.4.4
Relation
Between
7.4.5
Concrete
Surface
Strain
7.4.6
Stresses
Carried
by Concrete
7.5.
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 8
- Statistical
Width
159
Analysis
171
Widths
Prediction
178
Formulae
Crack
Widths
182
184
in
the
Tension
Zone
191
199
8.1
INTRODUCTION
201
8.2
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
201
8.3.
SHRINKAGE TESTS
201
8.4
8.4.1
Introduction
8.4.2
Discussion
202
of
207
Results
(v)
Page No.
8.5
DURABILITY
8.5.1
Introduction
8.5.2
Coating
TESTS
221
221
Details
8.5.3
Experimental
8.5.4
Discussion
222
Procedure
222
of Results
229
8.6
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
LIMITATIONS
230
OF PRESENT WORK
9.1
LIMITATIONS
9.2
OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
230
9.3
232
APPENDIX 1
234
APPENDIX 2
239
APPENDIX 3
242
APPENDIX 4
246
APPENDIX 5
253
APPENDIX 6
263
APPENDIX 7
266
APPENDIX 8
273
APPENDIX 9
STATISTICAL
277
IN A COMPRESSIVE
METHODSEMPLOYED IN ANALYSES
279
REFERENCES
(vi)
OF FIGURES
LIST
Fig.
Page
Title
No.
3.1
Grading
of Aggregates
3.2
Details
of Adhesive
3.3
Mean Shear
3.4
Tensile
Stress
No.
31
Test
Adhesive
v.
35
Thickness
for
Curve
Stress-Strain
34
Specimens
Epoxy Adhesive
37
for
40
CXL 194
Curve
Epoxy
3.5
Stress-Strain
Compressive
Adhesive
CXL 194
3.6
Details
3.7
Experimental
and Theoretical
in a Bonded Steel/Concrete
Compression
3.8
Tensile
Stress-Strain
Diameter Bars
Curves
for
6 mm and 20 mm
3.9
Tensile
Stress-Strain
Curves
for
Steel
4.1
Details
of
Test
Beams : Series
51
4.2
Details
of
Test
Beams : Series
52
4.3
Load-Deflection
4.4
Load-Deflection
4.5
Load-Deflection
4.6
Load-Deflection
4.7
Typical
4.8
Load-Strain
4.9
Load-Strain
Curves
4.10
Load-Strain
Curves
4.11
Load-Strain
Curves
5.1
Loading
Rig
5.2
Details
of Reinforcement
5.3
Variation
of First
5.4
Variation
of Experimental
5.5
Variation
Ultimate
5.6
Effect
6.1
Typical
6.2-6.11
6.12-6.21
6.22
of
Shear
47
Plates
: Series
56
Curves
: Series
57
Curves
: Series
57
'58
Distributions
Curves
: Series
: Series
: Series
: Series
and Mechanical
60
60
61
61
Crack
Gauge Locations
Service
96
Thickness
Load-Strain
Curves
96
108
Load-Strain
Curves
- Internal
Bars,
Load-Strain
Curves
- External
Plates,
Internal
Bar Strain
6.24
External
Thickness
Steel
Plate
6.25
Typical
Strain
88
Load
Load
Plate
Strain
Distributions
76
88
Load
of Adhesive
Longitudinal
75
Instrumentation
and Strain
Steel
6.23
45
56
: Series
Curves
of
Typical
44
Stress Distribution
Lap Joint
under
Curves
Strain
42
Specimen
Strain
v.
Centre
Plate
in
Centre
Section
Distributions
Plate
v.
Section
the
109
116
122
123
124
127
Fig.
Page
Title
*No.
133
Characteristics
6.26-6.35
Load-Deflection
6.36
Central
6.37
Moment-Curvature
6.38-6.47
Moment-Rotation
6.48
Rotation
6.49
Empirical
6.50
Experimental
7.1-7.3
7.4
7.5
Linear
7.6
Experimental
Mean Crack
7.7
Ultimate
7.8
Theoretical
7.9-7.18
Maximum Crack
7.19
Mean Crack
7.20
Modification
of
7.21
Modification
of ACI Crack
7.22
Slope
Slope
Deflection
v.
Plate
v.
and Glue
142
Characteristics
144
and Glue
for
Formula
149
Thickness
152
Rotations
Theoretical
153
Rotations
Theoretical
Regression
Width
Strain
Concrete
v.
163
v. "Plate
Analysis
Mean Crack
Spacing
Width
Plate
v.
Crack
Height
170
Spacings
172
173
Load
and Glue
CP110 Crack
of
169
Slope
Crack
Ultimate
Applied
v.
the
of
Initial
v.
Experimental
Width
167
168
Values
v. Theoretical
Width v. Concrete
Strain
v.
139
Thickness
Relationship
Plate
v.
No.
Thickness
181
Formula
Width
Width
179
181
Formula
183
7.23
Strain
Deviation
of Standard
v.
v. Concrete
Strain
of Mean Crack Width v. Concrete
Theoretical
Maximum Crack Width
v. Experimental
7.24-7.26
Calculated
188
7.27
Modification
7.28
Stress
7.29
Tensile
7.30
Experimental
V. Theoretical
in Concrete
Stress
8.1
8.2
Variation
8.3
Load-Strain
8.4
Load-Deflection
Characteristics
212
8.5
Moment-Rotation
Characteristics
213
8.6
8.7
Slope of
v. Slope
8.8
Durability
Steel
Stress
to Beeby's
Distribution
Stress
Measured
in
Concrete
192
Beams at
Plate
v.
Values
Service
Load
194
197
198
the Tensile
204
Rig
Curves,
with
205
Time
External
Steel
Plate,
Centre
Deviation
the Standard
of Mean Crack Width v.
Test
Strain
Formula
in Plated
Strains
of
v.
Concrete
185
Specimens
(viii)
Strain
v. Concrete
Concrete
Strain
Section
211
219
220
223
Table
3.2
3.3
Modulus
of Elasticity
32
Modulus
of Rupture
32
Details
4.1
Test
4.3
Test
4.4
Test
4.5
Test
4.6
Plain
of
of Plain
Details
4.2
for
Results
for
Results
for
Results
Results
5.1
Details
5.2
Strength
for
Test
of
Increase
of
5.4
Ultimate
Loads
Test
Beams : Series
49
Concrete
Test
Beams : Series
49
Plain
Plain
Plain
Concrete
Beams : Series
65
Concrete
Beams : Series
66
Concrete
Beams : Series
67
Concrete
Beams : Series
67
Plain
74
Beams
87
Service
Deformation
Crack Load
6.1. B
'Deformation
6.2. A
Deformation
6.2. B
Deformation
6.2. C
Deformation
6.3
Deformation
6.4
Concrete
Characteristics
5.3
6.1
89
Loads
92
Characteristics
at
Characteristics
Characteristics
60 kN Load
Design
Load A
102
at
Design
Service
Load B
103
at
130 kN Load
Near Failure
Characteristics
101
Service
at
Characteristics
Deflection
Visible
at First
Characteristics
100
104
Load
Characteristics
Rotations
Comparison
7.1-7.6
Cracking
7.7
Crack Widths
7.8
Ratio
7.9
Comparison of Measured
Concrete
Surface
Strain
Reinforcement
7.10
7.12
7.13
8.1
8.2
8.3
and Theoretical
of Experimental
180
130 kN Load
Tensile
Stress
Mean Values
Tensile-Stress
Equation
Details
Ultimate
of
in
the
Tensile
in
the
180
Width
and Calculated
at the Level
Values of
of the Internal
Stress
Concrete
186
186
195
Concrete
in
the
from
Concrete
196
196
Empirical
203
Beams
208
Moments
Comparison
and Rotations
150
160
Characteristics
at
105
140
6.5
7.11
No.
32
Strength
Compressive
Concrete
3.1
Page
Title
of Experimental
(ix)
and Theoretical
Deflections
215
Table.
Crack Widths
8.5
at
Test
Durability
8.6
LIST
Plate
217
Characteristics
Cracking
8.4
No.
130 RN
218
Results
224
OF PLATES
Page
Title
Test
No.
Page
'Tittle
No.
No.
38
3.1
Glue
4.1
Typical
Beams After
Failure
Series
63
4.2
Typical
Beams After
Failure
Series
64
5.1
Loading
Arrangement
5.2
Crack
Patterns
- PLated
5.3
Crack
Patterns
- Beams with
1.5
5.4
Crack Patterns
- Beams with
3 mm Glue
Thickness
81
5.5
Crack
Patterns
Beams
with
-
3 mm Glue
Thickness
82
5.6
Crack
Patterns
- Beams with
6 mm Glue
Thickness
83
5.7
Crack
Patterns
- Beams with
1.5 mm Plate
5.8
Crack
Patterns
- Preloaded
8.1
- Loaded
8.2
- Unloaded
8.3
8.4
Durability
8.5
Durability
8.6
Crack
Specimens
78
and Unplated
Beams
mm Glue
Beams
Beams
Thickness
Thickness
79
80
84
85
206
Beams
206
Beams After
Failure
209
Specimens
After
Testing
225
Specimen
Details
Patterns
- Age of
Beams 18 Months
(x)
226
227
. 'NOTATIONS
Deflection
acr
from point
Distance
bar
reinforcing
Area,
as defined
Width
of
section
bp
Width
of
plate
cmin
Minimum cover
Coefficient
Effective
depth
dl
Thickness
of
Youngs Modulus,
fbs
Local
fbsa
Anchorage
fbsd
Local
fbsda
Anchorage
fcu
Concrete
fcg
Compressive
fp
Stress
in
plate
fr
Stress
in
reinforcing
f tg
Tensile
fyp
Yield
stress
of
plate
fyr
Yield
stress
of
reinforcing
Modulus
of
Overall
depth
hl
Distance
from
neutral
axis
to
tension
steel
h2
Distance
from
neutral
axis
to tension
face
Moment of
inertia,
Coefficient
or
from
Distance
k,
to the
considered
to
of measurement
surface
of
the nearest
bars
as defined
constant,
centroid
reinforcement
of
adhesive
as defined
bond stress
load
due to ultimate
bond stress
bond stress
due to ultimate
due to service
bond stress
load
load
due to service
load
cube strength
strength
strength
Span
Bending
Mcr
Cracking
Axial
Correlation
Slope,
Srm
to point
1, L
Su,
face
compression
of
glue
bars
of
glue
bars
rigidity
of
section
as defined
as defined
constant,
moment,
as defined
moment for
concrete
force
coefficient
as defined
Ultimate
mean crack
Thickness
tb
Bottom
tg
Glue
of
cover
spacing
adherend
to
the
centre
thickness
(xi)
of
longitudinal
reinforcing
bar
tp
Plate
ts
Side
Axial
deformation
Shear
force
W, Wm
Mean crack
Wcr
Maximum crack
Wk
Characteristic
Neutral
Mean value
Lever
ae
Modular
ratio
'Y
Angular
deformation
Yin
Partial
safety
Strain,
as defined
Curvature
Proportion
Standard
af
Tensile
Shear
thickness
to the
cover
centre
of
longitudinal
width
width
width
crack
depth
axis
arm
of
factor
for
tension
materials
reinforcement
deviation
in
stress
stress
in
the
the
concrete
glue
(xii)
reinforcing
bar
CHAPTER 1
AND OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
In practice,
situations
replacement
to the
related
loading.
damage or deterioration.
external
to increase
the
imposed
it
has
situations
arise,
strengthen
the existing
Unless
strength
properties
problem
Methods
great
of
care
generally
techniques
between
generally
and control.
However,
deal
or
Strengthening
external
integrated
another
method
structural
steel
of
plate
based
with
element
because
fact
the
of
connection
structure.
and disruption
but
out,
and
may need
is
required,
involved
whether
strengthening
its
The main
construction.
to carry
an
that
adequate
concrete
can be carried
reinforcement
slab
repair
glue.
they
along
there
the
at
in which
has,
These
steel
glues
effective
with
guniting
to restore
Qf about
resins
provide
element
used
a cost
by several
out
More recently
used.
successfully
on synthetic
epoxy
shown that
and the
of
successfully
have been
structural
element
has been
additional
concrete
glues
that
structures
have been
techniques
of
to
to strengthen
any attempt
when extensive
concrete
of
reinforced
development
and it
of
prestressing
impregnation
When such
concrete.
Provision
techniques.
requirements
it.
operation
plant
faults,
more economical
straightforward
labour,
of
is
ensuring
are
a great
it
whether
is
strengthening
load.
design
original
service
under
from
and
may be
constructional
may arise
during
reinforcing
behaviour
or
determined
the
be steel
structure
the
a difficult
essentially
strengthening
action
composite
it
can be provided,
generally
are
Alternatively
to replace
supports
is
structure
design
above
member or
to its
materials,
to be considered
additional
existing
in
loading
Such inadequacy
the member or
of
a con-
of
to be inadequate,
found
becomes necessary.
strength
ultimate
beam is
concrete
then
or strengthening
arise
can often
or prestressed
reinforced
ventional
is
OF THESIS
plates
have
to be strengthened.
dis-
sq m (75).
hand,
other
are
adequate
composite
polymer
a severely
35 per
on the
and
bonded
action
However,
opened
the
to
bonding
The
strength
between
careful
the
up
is
attention
necessary
in
bridges
in
gantry
limited
which
concrete
difficulty,
so that
failure
bonding
would
is
there
to
when prepared
in
strengths
surfaces,
on this
to ensure
existing
structures
on the
tolerances
latitude
the
of
should
which
attainable
in
In
much
Although
concrete.
needed
care
2.
Chapter
the
of
7 N/mm2 without
can reach
glue
only
A review
in
given
(56).
Zurich
technique
the
crane
a concrete
in
exchange
is
subject
considerable
of
(53),
been reported.
by shearing
occur
a degree
the
the
of
of
potential
has so far
research
emphasis
adherend
preparing
allow
the
satisfactory
on site.
OUTLINE OF THESIS
The purpose
out
carried
Points
and short
steel
plates
to investigate
the
of
reinforced
glued
to
their
effects
of
of
the
glue
(b)
thickness
of
the
reinforcing
(c)
number
(d)
plate
(e)
degree
stress
tension
lapping
of
of
(ii)
(iii)
faces.
The tests
were
varying:
layer
plate
plate
to bonding
prior
cracking
were
concentration
of
the
formed
in
on the plates.
some beams by cutting
notches
in
were:
study
the
i. e.
behaviour,
deformation
load-deflection
and
characteristics.
To determine
strains
beams strengthened
concrete
tension
flexural
static
techniques
To investigate
moment rotation
the
faces.
The aims
(i)
layers
to investigate
term,
thickness
of
is
work
(a)
of
concrete
long
bonded
by externally
the present
of
in both
behaviour,
their
operation
and England
a telephone
of
and future
systematic
(4)
joints
(51)
Japan
slabs
the advantages
amount of
literature
and floor
a variety
strengthen
(55),
France
(54)
France
Despite
1.2
strengthening
interaction.
adequate
great
the
of
stages
at all
through
To determine
the
the
internal
elastic,
the
first
bar
strains,
inelastic
crack
load
external
and ultimate
in
the
plate
strains,
and
regions.
concrete
and study
crack
and distribution.
propagation
(iv)
To investigate
(v)
To compare
The properties
18 months
out
bonding
durability
Before
studying
the
technique
4 gives
(Series
B) were
plates
In
details
forming
stress
of, the
the
tested
effects
long
term
bond.
plate
3 reports
Chapter
tests
the
i. e.
the beams,
an
reinforcement
carried
epoxy
concrete,
testing
in
of
uniform
of
centre
at
the
testing
are both
to
by a reduction
face
a single
over
the
span,
were
a beam
All
techniques.
span.
on reinforced
of
of
lapping
with
beams
concrete
which
was started.
to
susceptible
These deformations
the
The
series.
thickness
glue
tension
the
together
points
and creep.
shrinkage
in
was performed
1/3
in both
series.
loading
point
and tapering
steps
programme
resins
accompanied
both
for
technique.
beams were
eighteen
used
were
unreinforced
the plating
Altogether
systems
on plain,
safety
in
of
structural
cohesive
or
time
dependent
may be critical
to
elements,
adhesive
strength
of
resin.
Eight
subjected
resin
and sometimes
if
A and B.
programme
and epoxy
serviceability
the epoxy
approxi-
beams tested
similar
experience
was studied,
under
testing
due to
particularly
beams tested
bonded
of
gain
same material
concentrations
Concrete
to
series
deformation
in
results.
concrete/epoxy/steel
some preliminary
B the provision
series
The major
the
in
was made.
of
Two epoxy
A the
Firstly,
and (b)
of externally
was performed
used.
series
In
(a)
were
studied.
studied
the manufacture
was made up of
two sizes
tested;
experimental
and bars.
plates
testing
in
used
beams which
concrete
with
the
of
involved
the materials
Chapter,
steel
on the plates
the
steel
This
above were
To study
on the materials
resin,
analysis
(vi)
of
properties.
plating.
after
appraisal
stress
theoretical
mentioned
14 days after
mately
interfacial
to
beams,
sustained
all
of which
loading.
have
identical
The parameters
internal
under
reinforcement
investigation
are
are:
being
(a)
glue
layer
constant
-3
mm
(b)
glue
layer
constant
-6
mm
glue
layer
variable
-3
mm to 8 mm
(d)
glue
layer
variable
25
25
x
mm notches
mm
-
(e)
single
plate
layer,
central
(f)
single
plate
layer,
laps
(g)
two layers
(h)
two layers
(c)
of
of
load
at
points
lap
the
at
plate,
central
lap
plate,
laps
1/3
at
1/3
points
of
in
outer
layer
the
of
points
span
span in
the
outer
layer.
beams have plates
All
were
in
will
to
open
8.
in
The short
test
(a)
plate
thicknesses
(b)
plate
thickness
(c)
plate
and glue
(d)
glue
theoretical
(f)
90% theoretical
four
from
are
loaded
given
specimens
long
on beams
tests
1.5
3 mm, central
lap
these
with
additional
and 6 mm
1.5,3
thicknesses
mm
1.5
mm, glue
prior
the
to 50%
thickness
to 50% and
to plating.
to plating
prior
load
thickness
the
shear
tests
were
6 mm diameter
tested.
spans
of
all
these
failure.
The results
eight
left
beams
unloaded
These results
thickness
3 mm, glue
control
75 mm centres
Eight
beams were
are
3 mm, no plate
load
ultimate
An unplated
at
thickness
thickness
plate
the
thickness
ultimate
for
the
There
exposure.
twenty
of
All
thickness
plate
months.
5 years
after
above
investigation:
eighteen
unloaded
series
under
(e)
after
eight
described
to those
parameters
provided
testing
due course
term
beam.
elements.
of
470 N/mm2.
stress
the
effects
The remaining
be tested,
identical
for
0.27. proof
internal
stress
yield
to each loaded
the weathering
to be returned
Chapter
bars,
beams corresponding
two unloaded
outside
20 mm diameter
3x
reinforcement
1.5 mm thick,
reported
as follows:
beams,
stirrups
were
to prevent
shear
Chapter
5-
strength
Chapter
6-
load-strain;
Chapter
7-
cracking
characteristics.
In most environments
the hardened
are
to be very
said
trate
This
sealing
in
placed
a fog
for
conditions
load
point
Lastly
design
Appendix
Appendix
lap
the
first
of
the
under
in
kept
were
eventually
coated
18 months
fog
tested
are
different
with
were
in
then
to
and in
a single,
with
testing.
dry
central
8.
Chapter
investigation
the present
may be
prior
chamber
given
pene-
100 x 100 x
prisms
The specimens
the
are
the
Appendix
5 gives
calculations
compared
loads
concrete.
Appendix
outline
of
of
the
of
the
theoretical
stress
the
for
the
ultimate
3 gives
load
stresses
of
methods
for
the main
the
crack
used
in
of
calculation
beams A and, B.
series
of
24 beams.
24 beams by methods
calculations
between
in
distribution
test
these
6 gives
calculations
statistical
for
overall
technology.
the methods
preliminary
deflections
Appendix
interfacial
8 outlines
the
the
work,
work.
adhesives
used
Appendix
calculations
by CP110,
7 discusses
of
future
for
in
terms
of
the present
of
and proposals
compression.
4 gives
Appendix
limitations
calculation
and ultimate
crack
a brief
were
of
the
a glossary
Appendix
gives
layer
The results
results
9 concerns
1 gives
joint
recommended
and glue
for
epoxies
or concrete
concrete
humidity
heat
cured
will
and steel
of moisture.
recommendations
2 outlines
bonded
the
adhesives,
small
also
both
undergo
moisture
resin
characteristics.
by others.
Chapter
conclusions,
were
will
using
These prisms,
possible,
found
those
no sealant
over
the
100% relative
at
comparison.
Wherever
with
ingress
the
chamber
beams with
Control
The plate
to prevent
agents
However,
was investigated
problem
resins
many other
unlike
to water.
resistant
on one face.
500 mm plated
but
epoxy
most epoxies
weakened.
load-deflection
changes,
and moisture
variation
characteristics.
glue
rotations.
and steel
widths
the
for
or
and Appendix
analyses.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1
EPOXY RESINS
(Appendix
I gives
2.1.1.
a glossary
The use of
be traced
jointing
for
art
animal
for
for
back
boat
their
bonding
and blood.
were
the
made until
nineteenth
The advent
and organic
process
impetus
being
Ages
made from
the materials
and, no real
products
chemistry,
has led
in
in
used
was
progress
to
the
approach,
to
was, given
the
than
rather
are
research,
by the
of
physical
the
synthetic
invention,
any specific
now engineering
need
lightweight
the
of
to understand
development
adhesives
in
especially
respect
by scientists
has led
turn
in
particularly
to an attempt
intellectual
or joints,
bonds
strength
natural
a new dimension:
adhesives
it
cases
as a crude
By the Middle
glues
progress,
to
glue
of
used bitumen
can
century.
This
A change
A tremendous
from
systematic
adhesion.
adhesives.
craft
of
chemistry,
of
has given
From these
together
used a type
purposes.
sealing
obtained
all
and for
timbers
Egyptians
The Phonecians
coffins.
adhesives
of making
bones
The Ancient
their
onto
technology.
adhesive
I
two or more objects
to join
materials
centuries.
decorations
stick
the
adhesive
to
relating
(1-5)
Introduction
General
terms
of
materials.
to form
high
'of the
structures
air-
industry.
The first
in
Switzerland
decades.
several
and they
the
1930's,
Limited
became available
Epoxy
combination
practical
formulations
of
properties
application
of
although
their
production
of
in
the
early
developed
which
until
took
epoxy
resins
basic
chemistry
epoxy
1950's
resins
started
were
for
Germany and
on a commercial
there
place
in
available
in
the
for
1940's
late
scale.
systems
with
use as an adhesive
a
with
Epoxy
concrete.
of
Because
is
of
is
there
the high
little
degree
tendency
of
between
linking
cross
to creep'under
of water
by-products
or other
low autogenous
have
reaction,
a condensation
release
without
cure
systems
resin
long
sustained
loading
chain
(3).
shrinkage
epoxide
molecules
and moisture
resistance
good.
The confusingly
large
variety
of
available
products
the
epoxy
resins
for
structural
uses
of
progress
industry.
use of
The engineer
found
conditions
temperature
to formulate
Materials
A single
It
are
with
is
for
It
material,
the
resin
in
no loss
or
load
sustained
the
it
weather
prevailing
and
manufacturers
materials.
engineering
be found
systems
that
use of
which
must
temperatures
techniques,
and application
labourer.
such that
to
sold
are
which
in
who specialise
and fillers
it
is
all
suit
commercially
the
modifying
to meet
important
applications.
to
specific
system
end-use
follow
the manu-
use.
successful
in
cannot
resin
follows
for
resistance
any misunderstanding
site
structural
diluents
specification
preparation
manufacture
must
in mind
properties
formulators
of
mixing/application
and chemical
the
epoxy
logically
recommendations
an adequate
system
extenders,
Conversely,
surface
that
the products
flexibilisers,
facturers
these
construction
show little
to moisture,
or on exposure
satisfactory
resin
reason
generally
formed
the
and Mixes
epoxy
this
requirements.
of
With
variations.
be able
2.1.2
time,
of
the
the
under
curing
in
to have a consistency
and satisfactory
on site.
as a function
adhesion
should
requires
application
ease of
allows
resin
the
has hindered
thermal
a resin
include
expansion,
The specification
these
provisions
of
resin
such
for
should
system
from
as;
curing
creep
anyone
on the
requirements
and techniques,
etc.
the
depends
system
abrasion
be so worded
the
adherend
temperatures,
properties,
concerned
preparation
in
formulating
the
as to avoid
design,
chemist
to
2.1.3
Mixing
The accuracy
important
the
of
and a tolerance
tolerate
a wider
on both
variation
compound.
proportioned
units
by the
supplied
can be emptied
strengths
continue
until
2.1.4.
if
the
the
of
of
the
properties
by the
so that
other,
cures
the
use of
the
the
cured
pre-
contents
of
one
into
hardener
usually
resin,
the
homogeneous.
paddle
air
with
and hardener
is
when mixing
a mixing
can introduce
system
is
resin
which
can reduce
The manufacturers
two distinct
often
which
colours
and
adhesive
Mixing
entrapped.
air
the
should
facilitate
form
merge to
complete.
Temperature
Most epoxy
temperature
difficult,
flame
100F
temperatures
resin
during
40 - 150F,
range
temperature
the
of
system
heating
which
of
prior
to mixing.
turn
reduces
may also
or
is
2.1.5
Surface
Preparation
The strength
of
heaters
radiant
the
be necessary
surfaces
concrete
a bonded
cohesive
usually
may be shortened
system
in
as the
life
so it
is
tendency
to heat
difficult
too
helpful
This
reduces
air
adhered
to control
the
becomes
In
much.
to
to whip
the
in
favourably
react
60F mixing
40F
heating
as well
below
below
culation
adherends
the pot
today
available
although
often
are
resin
It
mixing.
formulations
resin
and above
Britain,
the
the
with
mixers
the mixture
by giving
one colour
into
drill
type
paddle
cohesive
this
effect
can
together.
mixed
caution
complete
of proportioning
manufacturer
if
be allowed
is
very
Some compounds
only
resistance
and chemical
method
desirable.
show the
which
is
and hardener
resin
should
such variations
available
accurate
container
and then
data
mechanical
The most
component
but
of
2% is
or minus
of plus
variation
has test
manufacturer
proportioning
required
Great
raise
the
the
viscosity
into
the
of
compound
Direct
surfaces.
and warm air
cir-
are preferable.
joint
depends
strength
-8-
of
on the
the
degree
resin.
of
adhesion
The aim of
to
surface
the
is
preparation
is
to
2.1.5.1
in
link
the weaker
that
ensure
the
develops
adhesion
to
the
extent
to remove
all
substances
that
the
cohesion
system.
Concrete
Concrete
to bond of
of
debris
by jetting
to
extent
the
from
resulting
method
with
in
incorporated
is
the
the
shotblast
particles
be taken
compressed
air
to ensure
that
and
dust
remove
be a surface
and free
exposed
good water
to prevent
system
and then
should
are
dirt
The simplest
operations.
surface
detrimental
dust,
compounds,
The result
air.
aggregate
Care should
contaminants.
2.1.5.2
to
curing
preparation
compressed
large
that
surface
is
this
achieving
blasting
such as laitance,
compounds
epoxy
debris
other
must be cleared
surfaces
abraded
from
and oil
dust
and
traps
are
after
contamination
and
shot-
completed.
Steel
As rolled,
thick
that
metal
itself.
the metal
a contaminated
surface
There
contaminants:
have
metals
three
are
solvent
exhibits
the
methods
cleaning
or
surface
the
of
properties
which
layer,
which
is
layer
and not
can be used to
remove
these
mechanical
abrasion;
or
degreasing;
so
usually
the
surface
chemical
etching.
For
chemical
using
site
would
is
practical,
solvents
before
into
the
field
consistent
After
cleaning
surface
must
is
cleaning
of
assuring
the
susceptible
by jetting
to
time
corrosion,
is
they
otherwise
adhesive
bond.
bonding
The only
particularly
their
deeper
practical,
is
shotblasting.
by the mechanical
created
compressed
for
can be forced
surface
that
unlikely
and degreasing
must be allowed
any dust
with
it
Cleaning
scale.
an adequate
and shotblasting
be removed
very
treatment,
of
industry
construction
adequate
weakening
method
solvent
but
mechanical
causing
metal
the
be used on a large
treatments
evaporation
in
applications
A cleaned
air.
in
a humid
metal
atmosphere,
so the work
after
possible
2.1.6
be planned
should
the
to permit
epoxy
application
as soon as
cleaning.
Bonding
its
In
broadest
to the
adhesive
sense
adhesive
and holding
adherends
bonding
includes
the
them in
position
until
application
the
of
joint
the
acquires
some strength.
The applicator
by the
affected
contact
This
wetting.
complete
or when fillers
systems
the
resin
penetration
by'applying
pressure
In
is
pressure
air
the
in
necessary
remove
region
the
by inspecting
2.1.7
the
heating
applied
of
the
a rate
at
Both
system.
are
applied.
be taken
should
to achieve
with
to ensure
higher
viscosity
adherend
the
adherend
further
this
also
of
during
away the
joint
This
it
is
resin
pressed
out
process.
hardly
moves when
taking
out
to
more adhesive
indication
an
gives
curing
the
out
can be increased
squeezed
usual
and squeeze
to assist
pressure
adhesive
is
glue
of
penetration
the
the
surface
reason
amount
surface.
joint
of
completed
a certain
apply
excess
under
of how even
along
the
joint.
the
physical
unwanted
pressure
the
is
than
pressure
to
was
Curing
To cure
chemical
applies
closed
amount
is
measures
more difficult
the
This
is
epoxy
and all
to
For
epoxy
present.
the
but
bubbles.
air
often
process
it.
with
is
of
applied,
bubbles
essential
are
The application
the
at which
is
the
of hardening
and rate
temperature
Intimate
that
ensure
life
the pot
with
compatible
should
change.
or
the
an epoxy
This
use of
resin
usually
a catalyst.
system
means to alter
means polymerisation
This
causes
the
brought
union
of
about
properties
by
by either
adjacent
molecules
of
adhesive,
often
interaction
During
at
curing
progresses,
is
a liquid
development
the
Fillers
stage.
of
2.1.8
Safety
Just
and Health
as there
etc.,
cement,
resins
are
there
are
sensitisation,
are
which
Safe handling
and using
readily
disposable
available.
as eyeglass
is
differential
expansion
Initially
the
becomes a gel.
as both
liquid
increases
so that
and gel
shrinkage
shrinkage
but
do not
practices
for
handling
this
can
in
and results
shrinkage
a
be
cannot
have
during
occurs
resin
During
These observations
stresses.
most
of moisture.
led
the
gel
affect
adversely
amounts.
proper,
also
safe
precautions
used with
health
handled
the
continues
in which
can develop
Provisions
and materials
Two typical
carelessly
normal
it
starts
strength
when used in
adhesion
such
compounds
ingress
The process
internal
producing
without
accommodated
its
some point
The
resin.
cracks
due to polymerisation.
change by flowing.
At
polymer.
up due to
set
important
not
solid
known as cross-linking.
the
bond
by
of
are
and also
is
a tough
be moved otherwise
loss
to
strains
shrinkage
volume
accommodate
is
and as polymerisation
or paste,
autogenous
lead
could
and adherends,
resin
period
are
must not
As curing
the
epoxy
joint
which
of
to
the
molecules
form
to
chains,
chain
interface
the
hard
such long
of
as long
existing
problems
skin
which
encountered
Goggles
adjustment
with
such
when handling
epoxy
as burns
materials
and rashes,
when
and skin
reaction.
can be accomplished-by
equipment
be observed
should
portland
them.
irritations,
an allergic
acids,
whenever
are
should
working
be avoided.
a well
Disposable
possible.
strongly
in
recommended,
In
the
ventilated
suits
area
and gloves
and involuntary
case of
direct
habits
skin
contact
dilute
merely
the
used for
a fire
are
initiating
fire
other
devices
Chlorinated
toxicological
the
solvents,
immediate
the
with
the
particular
not
dangerous
are kept
of
be barred
not
presenting
takes
in
will
place
the
area
Smoking
required.
area
a fire
for
substitute
should
must handle..
as reasonable
the
be avoided.
should
of
use.
hazard,
will
or
if
and
present
a fire
in
occurs
when inhaled.
epoxy materials
they
from
skin.
care
worker
be informed
The handling
is
taken
Those
education.
of
of
the hazards
of
is
epoxy materials
and equipment
and personnel
clean.
handling
of
sensitisation
losing
time
practices
are
the
of
possibility
makes knowledge
accidents
absolutely
but
rare
burns,
and observance
of
loss
of
safe
essential.
2.2.1
General
Uses
have been used in
Epoxy
resins
(7)
describes
Tremper
and Apton
Ciesielski
(14)
was found
shear
use of
as long
Levy
smoking
materials
Instances
2.2
while
equipment
is
solvents
require
and these
points
the
cleaning
should
Most
into
penetration
low flash
area.
No amount
involved
if
problem
be used.
not
and equipment
precleaning
and if
hazard
should
their
aiding
Many have
precautions.
Ketones
compound,
epoxy
The solvents
additional
than
other
solvents
(9)
for
(11)
and direct
repair
describe
reports
that
the
their
bond
use of
of
use in
strengths
tension.
epoxies
runways
resin
concrete
were
repairing
repair
greater
of
cracked
of
work
the
since
concrete
precast
than
pile
caps
and Blye
and beams;
elements.
concrete
1950's.
highways;
Wakeman, Stover
and roads;
injection
the
in
repair
strength
In
Gaul
(10)
and
general
in
and
flexure,
(8)
it
2.2.2
' Surface'Preprtion
The generally
discussed
vary
with
Moar found
that
will
methods
ment.
strength,
which
laitance.
For
increased
greatly
but
he was only
this
with
considered
(24)
found
preparations,
term
grease
and
aggregate
"as
stripped",
joints.
that
This
equip-
short
exposed
to be inadequate
but
state
treatment.
surface
dirt,
of
of
for
to be adequate,
surfaces
brushing
nor
(6),
and availability
important
these
of
joint.
compression
wire
convenience
amount of mechanically
the
of
are
preparation
removal
adequate
concrete
with
working
other
the
durability
the
Hallquist
on the
strength
site
was less
treatment
mainly
surface
The relative
construction
of
mechanical
term
(23)
Gorgol
location
depended
long
(22).
Moar
and
(21)
by Batchelar
concrete
of
methods
accepted
porous
does not
recommendations.
such as concrete
surfaces
incorrect
be
to
shown
has been
compare
require
by many other
researchers.
(12)
Guttman
bonding.
structural
in
found
Skin
in
bond strength
were
tabulated
Johnson
suggested
blown,
followed
and then
air
sensible
to degrease
tend
2.2.3
to
force
Moisture
the
deposits
minute
in most
curing
(13)
properties
grease
some cases,
inhibit
to
the
the
on the
contaminants
surfaces
quantities
of
the
surfaces
by degreasing
and remove
26 adhesives
of
dirt
before
deeper
into
of
for
suitable
led
to
75% reduction
used for
solvents
cleaning
adhesives.
should
be cleaned
and flushing.
shotblasting
the
It
by sand blasting
would
as this
seem more
operation
would
surface.
Effects
(6)
state
that
moisture
accelerates
the
curing
process
in
with
agreement
mechanical
findings
the
(24)
(25)
high
comparitively
Shaw (27)
describes
long
the
the
the
these
dilutents
of
the
surface
etc.
resin
(28)
dry
mixes
opinion
of
term
Caron,
different
three
joints
dry
the
polyamides
joint
exhibit
strengths.
in both
wet
but
curing
the
and dry
rate
was
in
The strength
resins.
epoxy
the
and 24 -
term
short
of
the
researchers
preparation
that
system
concrete
four
of
relation
prisms,
adhesive
after
with
450 glued
in
resins
strength
Three
scarf
resins
in
joints,
gave only
water,
whereas
strength.
only
techniques
the
can be accounted
A full
used.
could
systems.
8 weeks immersion
only
disagreements
can be added to
in
affect
on initial
strength.
tested
prisms
apparent
compositions
the
tested
to have no apparent
resistance
of
drawn by individual
also
can reduce
affected,
showed an increase
resin
Some of
chemical
containing
was not
16 - 65% of
long
and Smith
strength
fourth
(21)
use of
moisture
for
the water
compare
from
found
to be beneficial
Cusens
the
resins,
which
the
from
ranging
term.
Moar (22)
25% of
the
reduced
on 7 day strength.
certain
strength
contradicting
varied
that
and Batchelar
in water,
of wet joints
to
water
to humidities
exposure
effect
absorption,
The ultimate
conditions.
but
found
who also
after
epoxies
state
water
(26)
Shue Fai
tested
no significant
Geigy
Ciba
75% in
of
properties.
Hallquist
slower
(29)
Caron
be made considering
used.
basic
to moisture.
comparison
The various
resin
can all
for
by the
the
of
this
fillers,
affect
different
conclusions
factor
and
flexibilisers,
the behaviour
2.2.4
Miscellaneous
(18)
O'Brien
joints
of bonded
Johnson
long
that
the main
(15)
performed
term
may also
(16)
Taylor
still
tests
loads
greater
than
tests.
No shear
in
but
or
is
is
after
He suggested
is
not
scarf
in
control
50% of
the
working
for
stress
stress,
stress.
joints
in
than
for
as a shear
failure
the
the
translittle
given
specimens.
The shear
structural
less
joints
mortar
cycles.
only
of magnitude
were
epoxy
million
suitable
results
concrete
than
Flexibility
order
test
of
seven
approximately
an epoxy
joints
compression
showed
which
strength.
beams using
approximately
and in
tensile
term
vibration
and compression.
concrete,
joints
lap
on glued
short
on composite
formulated
his
earlier
so its
glue
use in
clear.
Summary
(6),
Hallquist
(28)
strength.
found
and Gorgol
contrary
to
Guttman
(12),
(6),
gap filling
use to
to be no greater
creep
as it
by shear
the
term
was evident
2N/mm2 which
(20)
mitting
2.2.5
reports
significant
Johnson
50% of
long
the
(17)
was a maximum of
anything
term behaviour
creep.
and found
No debonding
connector.
is
cause
tests
of
a series
investigated
compression
Kreigh
but
long
the
of
their
restricting
to be only
strength
vibrations
under
factor
of knowledge
joints.
compression
the
is
lack
the
that
stated
moisture
Hallquist
(24),
the
(23)
found
(13)
Caron
(29),
and Cusens
Moar
to be advantageous
Shue Fai
(26)
(22)
to
and Smith
and in
curing
and Batchelar
surface
(21),
of Batchelar
conclusions
Johnson
no special
preparation
Moar
(28).
one system
and in
(21)
(22),
Cusens
some cases
found
moisture
and
joint
had
on joint'strength
no effect
(28)
Smith
found
(15)
Johnson
this
the
with
properties
that
its
affects
whereas
tested
joint
strengths
to
resist
to produce
and
one with
However,
temperature
moisture,
and Cusens
considerably.
as concrete.
of magnitude
(25)
Geigy
systems
resin
various
same order
ability
Ciba
reduced
moisture
(20)
Shaw (27),
cycling
creep
to what
extent
is
etc.,
not
reported.
It
and comparisons
available
could
deal
a great
only
preparation;
surface
chemistry;
is
there
of
involving
facts,
the
curing
application;
information
contradictory
and test
method
glue
technique;
are known.
2.3
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
External
homogeneous
a uniform
highest
forces
body.
fail
first
The earliest
very
stiff
adherends
the
loading
adherends
apart.
that
Goland
account,
is
theoretical
of
and Reissner
considering
assumed to bond
do not
which
a lap
shear
joint
(31)
two distinct
flexible
gives
the
failure
of
lap
forces,
in
joints
the
rise
cases.
Firstly,
and secondly
joined
together
(ratio
of
elastic
follows.
layer,
adhesive
It
(30),
for
the
case
tending
taking
a thin
of
moduli
joint
the
an
due to Volkersen
to bending,
a theory,
the
specimen.
of
bend on loading.
formulated
adherends,
of
and size
analysis
of
including
in
even
concentration,
on many factors
and a progressive
distribution
the
considered
The stress
shape
stress,
of
of
likely.
and the
field
a uniform
consists
depends
and adhesive,
areas
stressed
produce
less
even
to mean stress),
adherends
of
seldom
When a body
is
stress
IN LAP JOINTS
to peel
these
stiff
vice-versa.
the
stresses
layer
of
into
adhesive
(32)
Cornell
simple
Wooley
finite
(54)
in
concrete
both
tension
and tension
and are
in
critically
carried
lap
compared
out
joints.
(35).
by Mylonas
in bonded
distributions
stress
springs.
(34)
and Yashida
like
behave
adherends
concentrations
stress
for
a theory
gives
Fujii
and Amijima,
theories
joints
(33),
the
by shear
represented
to investigate
analyses
Bresson
is
adhesive
and Carver
element
Many other
2.4
varied
by assuming
theory
this
steel/
and compression.
2.4.1
General
Delmas
Gilibert,
specimens
and apparatus
different
glue
Allen
failure
to ensure
into
research
(38)
that
states
of molecules
to
that
long
full
fabrication
of
was little
there
of
for
tests
in
scatter
test
comparing
their
results
term properties.
loss
a primary
achieve
the
studied
good reproducibility
The fact
systems.
facilitate
should
(36,37)
and Collot
of bond
strength
due to poor
linking
cross
is
due to
batching
the
and
mixing.
2.4.2
Surface
Cagle
the most
would
(39)
important
states
role
that
in
the
the
generally
service
selection
and life
environment
of
surface
understanding
of
the
play
This
techniques.
preparation
bonding
expectancy
process
than
abrasion
prior
is
accepted.
Smith
solvent
Preparation
(40)
cleaning
and Olsen
(41)
as contaminants
both
criticise
can be driven
mechanical
deeper
into
the
metal.
to
(42)
Shields
surface
in
consisting
(43),
It
likely
during
time
not
displacement
resin
system.
of
Ramel (44)
hand,
surface
that
the
(37)
showed optimum
adhesion
of
of
from
air
contact
a resin
the
If
due to the
surface
of
40 - 50% rusting.
increased
factor
in
loss
does
are
resins
of
viscosity
(45),
De Lollis
a rough
surface
filled
heavily
is
pockets
to
resin
on bonding
effect
adherend.
change with
Thus a rough
area.
had little
rusting
same metal
application
concentrations.
was an important
corrosion
the
properties
and so the
specific
that
for
size
grit
is
and humidities
temperatures
resins,
displacement
stress
withstand
(42)
surface
Ciba
Geigy
strengths
if
Flushing
after
Chemical
treatment
2.4.3
(36)
for
the
various
on the
other
of bond,
soon after
action,
chemicals
preparation.
Shields
modify
resulting
may be incomplete
air
found
Some could
stated
each other
fluid
the
of
causing
mean a high
used,
that
by viscosity,
air,
necessarily
resins.
a peened
produce
over
optimum
The rate
controlled
can trap
surface
different
give
curing.
essentially
shots
bent
different
However,
be remembered
also
should
as round
of metal
and Collot
and Delmas
by shotblasting.
most
pieces
grits
layer.
Jennings
achieved
sharp
of many loose
a weak surface
would
recommends
jagged
not
Moisture
found
that
physically
(25)
point
in
used
addition
unlikely
to
their
cleaning
and chemically.
out
that
correct
to remove
treatment
is
the
in
can lead
chemicals
or
strength,
traces
of
to be used in
the
all
for
inferior
to
the
chemical
duration.
right
is
bond
also
very
industry,
construction
important.
however.
Effects
(46)
immersed
lap
shear
specimens
for
up to
1000 hours
in
water
and water
vapour.
20C;
(47)
and Gledhill
Kinloch
in
water
that
joint
20C the
at
strength
was not
At 45C there
affected.
was found
It
strength
in
distilled
humidity.
56% relative
the
reduced
joints
lap
exposed
They
considerably,
water
20,40,
at
that
considered
at high
particularly
temperature.
2.4.4
Miscellaneous
(48)
Tests
from
ranging
pressures
joint
when the
low pressure
the
of
rate
number of
McNicholas
premature
loading
tests
performed
tests
It
practically
stresses.
so that
one.
were
adversely
0.35
to
in
in
26.5
natural
weathering
conditions
In
series
high
on
another
In
limited
the
However,
was observed.
the
at
was no effect
tons/minute.
strength
together
There
affected.
showed that
which
(37)
and Collot
was found
optimum
partly
the body
the
of
a filled
the
to be 0.5
mm.
of
the
thick
In
this
resins
joint
that
in
joint
loading
As the
between
thinner
the
a joint
joint
the
shrinkage
could
joints
rates
produced
possibly
0.05
mm to
1.5 mm
increased
thickness
i. e.
failure,
failure
the
a fracture
plane
adherend
and adhesive,
failure
was completely
adhesive.
when thicker.
Theo-
became brittle
should
from
thickness
and cohesive
interface
glue.
joints
filled
adhesive
the
mean stress
thicker
In
varied
along
from
was concluded
retically,
curing.
were placed
change
which
failure.
passed
through
from
was varied
joints
no significant
(49)
Delmas
and the
bonded
during
joints
when the
except
strength,
400 lb/in2
2-
joints
on
out
increase
to have
with
air
and temperature
be stronger
joint
bubbles,
than
thickness,
flaws
stresses
and partly
but
internal
and
a thinner
unfilled
Cusens
in
systems
of
found
was
surface,
and
slightly
in
had
little
+35C
and
-70C
effect
factory
fatigue
all
4.5
107
N/mm2 for
water
curing
was
on joint
found
that
included.
Temperature
There
strength.
cycling
was satis-
a stress
contamination
slight
It
blasted
the
of
sustaining
specimens
The effects
were
roughness
resin
range
of
dust
with
or
harmful.
was not
application
is
It
difficult.
very
It
cycles.
The practical
is
with
cycling
temperature.
curing
between
performance,
the
with
loading.
cyclic
temperature
increased
increase
with
and
on four
tests
comparative
static
and of
strengths
shear
performed
under
temperature
elevated
that
have
joints
lap
steel/steel
at
curing
(28)
Smith
and
in
techniques
of
to
easy
test
small
all
these
findings
the
surface
control
but
specimens,
breaking
to predict
and application/
preparation
in
more difficult
loads
actual
site
is
shot-
applications.
2.4.5
Summary
There
blasting.
is
general
for
sizes
grit
recommended but
that
differentresins,
However,
optimum
agreement
these
the
temperatures
same metal
again
the best
would
adherend.
depend on the
preparation
surface
and humidities
Various
type
glue
glue
of
different
give
thicknesses
for
etc.
are
optimum
strength.
Smith
(40),
and chemical
solvents
cleaning
completely
from
mechanical
blasting
driven
deeper
the
into
surface
is
not
a loss
in
joint
Shields
(42)
treatments
prior
and Ciba
can lead
to bonding.
recommended as this
the metal
(41),
Olsen
(25),
Geigy
agree
of bond if
to loss
The use of
would
all
chemicals
lead
to the
not
prior
that
removed
to
solvents
being
water
immersion
surface.
(46),
and Kinloch
strength,
which
and Gledhill
increased
(67)
with
found
temperature.
(49)
McNicholas
is
it
Again,
knowing
without
techniques
and others
loading
the
of varying
on the
results
effect
impossible
the
chemistry;
resin
different
the
to compare
surface
exact
findings
author's
loading
preparation,
etc.
2.5.1
General
The application
of
under
(a)
resin
used as a filler
(b)
applications
(50)
Tabor
uses of
in
epoxies
Type
(b)
depend
gives
examples
civil
(52)
Quinton
telephone
bonded
with
2.5.2
upper
epoxy
L'Hermite
joint
(53).
from
In
crane
of
adhesive.
his
general
in
and Bresson
contaminants
must be bonded
first
(51),
review
the
of
surfaces.
Britain
the
(54)
France
(57)
describes
a spherical
In
by the
South
the
bridge,
the
of
addition
Africa
use of
have
at
Switzerland
used
(56)
bars
reinforcing
tank.
concrete
prefabricated
steel
has been
technique
and in
had
11 bridges
technique
(55)
to repair
confined
by 1975,
loading,
vehicle
largely
and are
and a motorway
Franke
strengthen
From L'Hermite's
be freed
uses
rare
In Japan
and lower
floors.
to
strength
(a)
remain
and in
a travelling
exchange
shear
type
increased
against
and Swanley
to strengthen
of
still
strengthened
similarly
on the
of bridges.
their
to
glued
engineering
civil
engineering.
applications
been strengthened,
plates
to
resins
which
strengthening
and/or
epoxy
may be
structures
classified
the
contradictory
2.5
been
give
rate.
almost
the
(48)
(54,55,58,59)
experiments
and surface
quickly,
or
he concluded
oxidation,
alternatively
-21-
that
the metal
and to prevent
a primer
oxides
applied.
surface
mus t
reforming
Beams with
shearing,
with
Beams with
behaved
their
but
the
plate
loads
is
In
tests
plates
with
is
m long,
reinforced
cases
full
nearly
in
and crack
steel
plate
fact
were
double
For
deflections
glue
type,
premature
on six
and sudden
failure.
(61)
the
they
etc.
the
of
edges
(62)
beams.
concrete
towards
a corbel
However,
by 20%
preparation,
secure
reinforced
with
half
increased
to
(60)
capacity,
sustained
surface
indispensible
effect.
horizontally
to
in
action
for
external
was developed
benefits
a given
the
study
the
by horizontal
that
term
columns
stiffening
used
a joint
structural
failure.
Laboratories
I shaped
of
without
was found
to prevent
loading,
cyclic
shear
information
useful
The
was
The columns,
corbel.
be regarded
could
as under
beams.
composite
(a)
level,
observations
occurred
The main
it
slabs
local
The tests
Failure
the
increase
to
sides,
long
one year
angles
Tests
concrete
thickness,
cycles
on stress
were positioned
plate
on their
used were
from
after
given
bonded
had a considerable
4.9
was delayed
between
or
beams,
concrete
cracking
action
of beam, under
types
on plated
Flexural
obtained
of
combined
a close
one million
that
Transport
specimens
for
stated
no information
2.5.3
onset
reinforcement
and both
well
ultimate
It
however,
reinforced
crushing
beam.
and concrete
also
as normal
the
by concrete
failed
all
They behaved
indicating
reduced
propagation
load,
failure
to
plates
reinforcing
by debonding.
not
regard
tension
crack
shear
in
effects
of
changes
reinforcement
between
the
the
concrete
in
type
and load
of
adhesive,
cycling.
steel,
resin
adjacent
to
In
and concrete.
the
glue
layer.
were:
width,
an unplated
the
beam.
applied
load
for
the
all
plated
beam was
(b)
The post
(c)
There
loading
before
immediately
in
cracking
the
to failure
beam that
Long
term
was not
exposure
industrial
and high
the prisms
are
beams under
All
beams from
debonded.
The control
priming
such
after
only
epoxy-bonded
for
are being
Beams of'3.5
m length
flexural
this
indicate
that
less
was considerably
sites
than
on full
of
investigated
On the
(a)
Four
different
resin
(b)
Four
different
glue
(c)
Different
concrete
(d)
Jointing,
end bolting
of
amounts
showed no signs
bridge
being
corrosion,
used
of
additional
to
investigate:
strengths.
-23-
layers.
corrosion.
may
and surface
with
thicknesses.
plate
steel
failure
structures
and checked
and multiple
the
systems.
line
whole,
stronger.
preventing
at present
failure
the
tests.
are
Half
period.
shown that
sites.
adhesive,
scale
prisms,
in marine,
exposure
have
laboratory
the
Methods
their
showed varying
the
concrete
and 10 years.
1,2,5
tests,
were
with
in
plates,
and marine
exposure
contact
steel
during
rainfall
exposure
years.
techniques
from
on small
of
periods
loading
high
occurred
a-few
12 - 24%.
under
out
carried
1 and 2 year
beams kept
corrosion
was cracked
the plate
are being
during
had been in
from
ranging
precracked.
from
the
by 35 - 105%.
The results
in
strain
sustained
for
it.
to
with
load
sustained
which
occur
to
lower
corrosion,
If
which
sites
to date
slightly
the
been tested
tests
rainfall
subject
The results
were
load
the
loads
failure
was bonded
plate
prior
a similar
in
was an increase
A seventh
was increased
stiffness
exposure
2.5.4
Development
investigating
the
bonded
epoxy
steel
as formwork
(63)
the
plate
For
these
of
problem
a lack
purposes
a resin
required
concrete
important
fresh
beams 2m
long
onto
the
is
decking
for
medium
reinforced
with
directly
on to
cast
both
serves
plate
the
glue
of
that
ductility
was good,
The smaller
temperature,
beams,
cyclic
type
of
of
The
compaction
would
through
of water
as
as well
layer.
to
for
344 mm long,
of
Solomon
with
with
flexural
loading
the presence
quality.
permeation
corrosion
to study
adhesive
facilitate
reinforcement,
especially
in
during
line
glue
was probably
which
inhibiting
has a rust
the
tests
1 mm was required
failure
strength
on the behaviour
coated
static
its
on to hardened
plates
the mode of
also
glue
report
plate
on the
thickness
tests
the
the
steel
as external
and thickness
fatigue
in
(28)
type
curing
Dundee,
Thus the
steel
retains
could
Cusens' earlier
plate
a steel
concrete
cause
of weakness
in
penetrating
as this
to
and glue
points
using
is
resin.
of bonding
which
and which
particles
of
of
slabs
concrete
epoxy
with
ductility
of
used.
aggregate
seem to be most
forming
case the
method
thickness
damp is
prolonged
this
used
He found
concrete.
the
concrete
of
consist
Unit,
forms
two main
of
In each
Research
and reinforcement.
Solomon
due to
forms
Both
plates.
steel
which
plate
feasibility
practical
Span bridges.
and long
(70)
Bridge
the Wolfson
at
work
(63)
(44)
(28)
Dundee University
the
and the
It
behaviour.
bond between
ensure
thicker
were
glue
used
immersion
and
seemed to have
to
of
effects
of
that
concrete
casting
(28),
tests
was found
2.0
feasibility
procedure
In more recent
ductility
beams of
the
confirmed
with
epoxy.
the
concrete
adhesive
a minimum
and
and steel
layers.
investigate
in water.
little
the
In both
significance.
effect
of
static
The
and
majority
70% of
all
their
surfaces
static
failure
except
the
of moisture
as formwork
for
a new type
of
floor
concrete
length.
entire
2.5.5
in
this
The loading
rig
testing
Warwick
This
to
plates,
combination
failed
of
at
stress
the
top
forming
level
2.5.6
by
a feasibility-study
in
durability
made of
hold
flexure
tests.
their
along
plates
reinforcing
which
sheet,
beams failed
therefore
would
strengthening
the
plate
ends onto
internal
at
the end of
zone would
the
these
plate
The results
produces
its
achieving
would
additional
Most beams
towards
and spreading
plate
specimens,
it
than
provide
the
be in
failure
flexural
resisted
which
the
central
shows that
a shear/bond
full
to a
subject
shear.
and vertical
reinforcement.
member from
and shear,
a concrete
bonding
by epoxy
bridge
bending
end of
the
in
of
supports.
of
probably
as bending
compression
ingress
formed
steel
of
the
is
had the
supports
the
at
greater
effect
All
however,
section
the
to
were part
buildings.
tension,
concrete
is
for
above
longitudinal
the
prevents
as well
the
surface,
concentration
thus
indicating
surface
conditions.
concerns
by a crack
section
strength
on
University
work
the
flexural
applied
The tests
No mention,
beams mentioned
the
sealed
on beams similarly
adhesive
to
of
tests
report
fresh
the
onto
concrete
wet
loss
of beam specimens
on the plate
corrosion
(70)
and Gopalani
Solomon
pouring
causes
serious
52 and
between
range
interface.
the
at
top
immersion
Water
a load
having
cycles
load.
due to
mainly
some adhesives,
acts
1.5 million
of beams survived
the
and
This
strength.
longitudinal
a beam, where
the
tension
deeper
stiffness.
Miscellaneous
(65)
Lerchenthal
reinforced
reinforced
with
with
0.25
strips,
carried
mm sheets.
in
both
out
tests
on model
Simultaneously,
directions,
cut
300 x 300 x 30 mm
slabs
tests
from
were
the
carried
sheets.
out
For
on slabs
the
same
of
quantity
the
steel
showing
the exploitation
bonding
were used;
sheets
layer
ally
the
with
problem
the
depth
the
reduced
the
of
edges
(66)
Fleming
(67)
Failure
capacity,
Three
methods
slabs
thin
a grip
with
was found,
reinforced
sheets
and all
The sheet
convention-
were
used no
by Bresson,
as found
onto
concrete
a sheet
of
plates.
beam tests
with
and King
reinforcement.
angle
describes
The resin
concrete.
Because
was encountered
bonded
to
relative
cracks,
onto
the
by debonding.
not
concrete,
reinforcement.
lifting
edges
down with
Cirodde
of
of
or
fresh
difference
No significant
sheet
and spacing
poured
twice
sheet.
pouring
concrete
it.
the
of
concrete;
cured
to
of
same area
strength
and fresh
applied;
were by rupture
failures
onto
grit
of
bonding
resin
with
the biaxial
of
had almost
sheet
a complete
with
slab
amount
of
in
the
creep.
along
concrete
bonded
plates
no internal
plated
occurred
and aluminium
steel
a plane
to
parallel
the
layer.
adhesive
(68)
Kaifasz
describes
beams having
concrete
bars
reinforcing
occurred,
tests
bonded
externally
simply
satisfactory
carried
to
glued
results
the
were
out
bars
and plates.
underside
of
obtained
and T section
on rectangular
Except
with
in
the
case of
debonding
with
theoretical
predictions.
2.5.7
of
were
carried
and the
concrete
effects
as applied
at E. M. P. A.
out
joint.
a steel/epoxy/concrete
ends
Laboratories
of
to
long
floor
term
slabs
The tests
fatigue
in
for
Testing
to investigate
studied
loading.
a Zurich
Materials
the
ways of
bonding
anchoring
The technique
telephone
exchange
properties
the
plate
of
plated
is
reported.
to
The first
short
be given
to anchor
subjected
to both
deflection
after
load
two'million
are
A second
ends.
given
special
tests
of
attention
0.8
and 1.2
Tee beams,
static
of
times
the
working
and formu-
thickness
glue
preparation,
should
on plated
between
cycles
surface
of
that
series
loading
and dynamic
static
indicated
tests
static
the plate
No details
load.
term
lation.
The efficiency
Deflections
measurements.
for
in bending
increase
At present
techniques.
2.5.8
Sheffield
the
of
the
the
steel
and crack
and short
term
an
widths.
in
testing
and thickness
quality
no report
type,
glue
Beams were
tested
the
steel
range,
but
of
from
thickness
plates
of
types,
glue
long
strengthening,
had provided
strengthening
deflections
series
used reinforced
adhesive
addition
of bonded
the
reducing
an extensive
different
(71)
serviceability
glue
that
and after
and
on these.
University
to plating.
that
is
So far
Bouderbalah
investigate
thereby
during
before,
by field
was checked
strengthening
was concluded
stiffness
there
lapping
prior
It
investigating
progress,
slab
were measured
loadings.
different
floor
the
of
thickness,
plate
in
to a precracked
lapping
plate
flexural
the
modes and it
flexural
ultimate
on the
shear
8 mm had no significant
beam,
and precracking
and shear
increased
had no effect
1.6 mm to
concrete
of bonded
and lapping
capacity
and
The variation
capacity.
effect.
was found
The application
plates
shown to
were
be successful.
Reinforced
investigate
and three
plates
the
over
increased
concrete
effects
reinforced,
bending
1.6
of
plate
before
stiffness
Five
thickness.
For
plating.
and flexural
5
3
mm thick
mm,
mm and
plates
-27-
beams were
the
under-reinforced
under-reinforced
capacity
failed
and reduced
in
to
a flexural
beams the
crack
widths.
mode by
the
of
yielding
10 mm thick
steel
failed
plate
due to plate
The mode of
the
face.
compression
failure
crushing
separation
in
increase
gave an
Both
was by debonding
at
of
concrete.
at
its
on its
One over-reinforced
the
by local
followed
end.
face
tension
capacity
of
and the
on
22%.
approximately
ends followed
the plate
other
by shearing
of
concrete.
The failure
loads
of
all
the
be satisfactorily
beams could
plated
by CP 110 methods.
predicted
A limited
loading
during
capacity
of
series
glue
with
were
the
study
not
effect
loaded
of
cyclic
on flexural
effects
showed no adverse
beams which
control
to
was performed
The results
curing.
when compared
(73)
tests
during
the
curing
period.
2.6
CONCLUSIONS
is
It
are
still
not
evident
from
lack
detail
of
apparent
fully
that
understood,
the published
in
many factors
the
and consequently
literature
information
(a)
glue
composition
(b)
plate
thickness,
(c)
behaviour
(d)
long
(e)
durability
there
given
is
not
fully
some degree
on the
of
bonded
controlled.
of
disagreement
following:
and thickness
lapping
of precracked
term behaviour
of
the behaviour
affecting
epoxy
techniques,
end anchorage
beams
under
sustained
resin
bonded
load
joints
exposed
to moisture.
joints
As is
and
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL
Practical
and test
experience
Chapter
2 illustrate
that
varying
conditions.
The possibility
Nevertheless,
engineer.
having
engineer
strengthening
the
of
concrete
cracking
is
important
the
to minimise
elasticity
is
addition
to
the
respectively,
3.1
importance
tensile
in
the
Experimental
A trial
properties
the
in
controlling
analysis
of
control
and in
of
application
Modulus
of members,
the
of
steel
to
in many
this
bond.
deflection
strengths
and compressive
such
The resistance
concrete/epoxy/steel
the
in
a structure;
of
continuity
on the
limitations.
their
and the
strength
reinforcement
of
the
of
and in
and concrete
members.
structural
practice
Procedure
the
concrete,
beams used
strengthening
concrete
would
use of
: 2.45,
Febflow.
with
in
bridge
is
often
of
the
19 mm aggregate
the
out
Bearing
after
and acquired
concrete
for
480 kg
1124 kg
450 kg
lm3 are
several
substantial
constituents
ratio
that
with
construction.
carried
of
and strength
workability
was consistent
a water/cement
The quantities
sand
cement
which
have matured
The proportions
1.05
to assess
of
prestressed
1:
tensile
corrosion
of
importance.
considerable
civil
CONCRETE
3.1.1
the
of
degradation
of
of
under
simply
the
depend
involved
and concrete,
steel
in maintaining
prevention
the
of
to
will
and knowing
retained
structures
interest
adhesives
properties
on its
depends
cracking
in
properties
are
the
use of
are
concrete
particular
in
outlined
adhesives
epoxy
reinforcing
be of
their
such as were
of
of
could
in
operations,
results
properties
efficient
confidence
Similarly,
cases
the
epoxies
using
and effectively
PROPERTIES
0.4
given
were
used
in mind
years
increase
precast
in
that
in
service,
in
strength.
approximately
and plasticised
below.
in
by the
water
177 kg
Febflow,
140 cc/50
hardening
Rapid
Ferrocrete,
cement,
maximum,
uncrushed
gravel
gradings
for
are
these
The mixing
with
0.127
the
addition
for
compaction
of
fine
shown in Fig.
concrete
aggregate
for
and the
was natural
dry
were
a further
in
out
was carried
specimens
river
a non tilting
were
in
cast
for
mixed
steel
pan type
vibrator
(b)
for
modulus
of
rupture
for
modulus
of
elasticity.
The moulds
in
stripped
were
a mist
room
21C
at
strength
24 hours
after
the
and
specimens
humidity,
100% relative
and
and after
as follows,
moulds
26 - 100 mm cubes
compressive
mixer
was used
(a)
4-
The
sand.
two minutes,
A poker
two minutes.
for
was 19 mm
aggregate
3.1.
The materials
of water,
The coarse
was used.
and the
m3 capacity.
(c)
placed
kg cement
until
then
were
for
required
testing.
Compressive
in
carried
out
3.1.2
Results
accordance
3.1
Table
Modulus
at
results.
strength
modulus
tests
of
kN/mm2 with
of
a Poisson's
rupture
results.
elasticity
ratio
of
0.16.
results.
at
N/mm2.
Conclusions
for
The results
Modulus
Young's
acceptable
were
mean compressive
and their
consistent
strength
modulus
standard
of
rupture
deviations
fell
adhesive
were
and
within
limits.
EPOXY RESINS
In
the
were
Standards.
British
of
recommendations
compressive
3.2
the
and Young's
rupture
of
N/mm2.
3.2
Table
3.1.3
with
shows the
modulus
strength,
preliminary
test
series,
Type A
CIBA GEIGY
XD 808
Type B
COLEBRAND
CXL 194
two types
-30-
of
used.
at
_
)
W
J
Q.
Ln
r-
m
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`Io
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Ci))
0
r
LO
ca
C?
N
0
zQ
V)
a"
U)
E
Co
l'r
M
uJ I-N-
N-.
N
W
LL
w
>
w
N
tD
Z
O
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oN
o
cD
co
w
o
o
w
0
LO
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vOOOO
cm
Co
LC)
ONISSVd 30b1N3083d
Q
r
0^
(A
c
0
U_
E
LO
COMPRESSIVE
3 DAYS
N/mm
STRENGTH
7 DAYS
N 1mm2
mean
14 DAYS
N/mm2
mean
47.6
60.3
48.0
64.1
46.0
62.4
70.1
48.4
61.4
64.4
46.7
62.4
47.2
43.5
52.3
65-2
47.0
55.0
56.8
47.6
63.0
50.2
64.5
TABLE 3.2
64.7
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
mean
Pols
ris
36.2
35.7
36.0
0.16
37.7
34.5
TABLE
3.3
MODULUS OF RUPTURE
N /mm
28 DAYS
PJ/mm,
N /mm'
5.71
5.52
5.64
5.21
5.82
5.37
mean
5.59
5.33
5.47
5.65
6.00
5.31
5.91
coe. tt
69.6
68-4
28 DAYS
kN/mmz
N/mm2
mean
70.4
64.8
60.6
mean
28 DAYS
o1
variation
4 lo
69.5
In
the main
series
long
of
term
and short
tests
only
A was
type
glue
used.
3.2.1
Lap
Shear
Tests
A qualitative
glue
by the
average
3.2.1.1
same sheets
of
The glue
Bonding
took
place
at
thicknesses
of
least
glue
at
used.
were
but
two minutes,
were
slightly
used
for
to
with
grit
N/mm2.
at
the
shorter
Four
testing.
for
type,
humidity.
in
failure
days before
ten
The
shotblasting.
three
induce
the
series
at
for
each glue
after
operating
offset
to cure
allowed
steel
- 0.75
no more than
conditions
from
cut
preliminary
using
one hour
within
3.2
the
of 0.55
a pressure
controlled
were
in
to bonding
prior
together
using
plates
The specimens
side.
bonded
under
lapping
The central
the
as judged
plate,
as shown in Fig.
reinforcement
340 microns
of
then
for
of
find
to
out
thicknesses
glue
were prepared,
was shotblasted
was mixed
a paddle,
with
was carried
two layers
various
used as external
size
were
pieces
steel
the
of
specimens
steel
a mean particle
tests
Procedure
The steel
tests.
lap-shear
of
strength
Experimental
lap
Tension
shear
Double
of
series
thickness
optimum
in
-'Steel/Steel
each
thickness.
3.2.1.2
Results
3.3
Fig.
shear
average
These
of
range
scope,
tests
and the
to
used,
results
enable
each glue
linear
0.5
should
a choice
mm - 3.5
in
reduction
be treated
This-series
mm joint
pieces
in
glue
thickness.
strength
over
the
in
limited
The control
thickness
of
against
was very
qualitatively.
0.5
of
and plotted
mm.
The value
tests.
shear
was
between
lapping
is
important
plates.
Conclusions
to
induce
peeling
efficient
of
variation
suggest
for
lap
the
of
showed an almost
The alignment
not
results
was found
stress
thicknesses
sufficient
3.2.1.3
shows the
that
of
the
all
stresses
in
the
for
any batch
some specimens
had better
glue
the
lap
joint
when load
varied
from
alignment
-33-
1 to
than
is
very
applied.
rather
so as
The cowould
than
any
330
C
v
13D
\I',
25R
20
30
8D
40
L-14-
8D
DOUBLE LAP SHEAR
-
SPECIMEN
20 R
0
Co
20R
LD
CD
lf')
(0
type B
type A
IV
2-5
40
1
thickness 25mm
...
l
Rmm%
thicknPcc
.... _.... _.. _ ........ -
40
t"
TENSILE
SPECIMENS
150
50
.0
0
LO
COMPRESSION
FIGURE 3.2
SPECIMEN
DETAILS OF ADHESIVE
-34-
TEST SPECIMENS
aE
E
CXL
194
X0
808
5.0
p
4.5!
4.0
3"51
39
w
cr
Lo
w
=
N
3.0
it
w 2.5
w
2.0
po
XD
CXL 194
1.5
1"o.
0.5
0.5
1.0
FIGURE 3.3
2.0
2.5
1.5
ADHESIVE THICKNESS
3.0
3.5
THICKNESS
4.0
mm.
in
fault
the
itself.
resin
The general
(37)
others
0.05
0.5
the
3.2.2
grit
Tension
tests
cast
in
types
steel
prisms,
shape after
type
(C),
length
in
steel
for
adhesive
as the
resin
different.
were
were
drawn
from
strain
To determine
readings
3.4.
(A)
Type
the
set
gauges,
shown in Plate
are
to
and 12
3.4.
2 mm gauge
with
to obtain
demec points
50 mm.
of
(B)
angles
right
at
stress-strain
specimens
fitted
curve,
a gauge length
over
(C)
each casting
and cut
in
Fig.
as shown
each type
were
(A) was
24 type
specimens;
for
Type
milled
and subsequently
6 type
Histograms
3.2.
(B) and
types
shape;
moulds,
of
resistance
strain
The test
were
also
results
are
3.1.
Results
(a)
Tensile
(A)
Type
deviation
of
(ftg)
strength
specimens
0.92
N/mm2, coefficient
of
(B)
gave corresponding
values
Type
values
Modulus
Young's
3.4.
of
Modulus
Between
zero
of
Type
(b)
three
treatments,
in
Fig.
as
shown
used
were
(C) specimens
ratio.
3.2.2.2
and chemical
required
A total
type
shown in Fig.
the
cast
were made.
for
fitted
performed
specimen
of
curing.
electrical
Poisson's
of
were
Three
that
Procedure
moulds
which
fact
the
of
from
ranging
seems to be coincidental
cases
blasting
were
Experimental
Three
However,
optimum.
findings
the
with
thicknesses
glue
with
mm as the
agreement
Tests
Tensile
3.2.2.1
0.5
for
size
joints
shear
in both
optimum
formulation,
Fig.
lap
who tested
seemed to be in
conclusions
of
N/mm2,0.77
of
16.6
N/mm2,0.79
considerably
with
specimens.
(c)
Poisson's
ratio
('
7%.
14.7
of
variation
(Etg)
elasticity
varied
13.2
tg)
-36-
the
stress
range
as shown in
values
are
the
average
of
vi
3i
..
Type C
Type A
-2
1E
:3
z
--I
I
IiIIi
12 .0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5
15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
Tensile stress N/mm 1ROOM TEMPERATURE Tensile stress N /mmt
20.
AGE
28 DAYS
tn
1a. a
tn
s
Type B
-4
16.
L
4!
i
-2
"E
E
Z
F-L-j
14
'
Z
T1
12
uNi
w
1o
zW
1-
Type C
4J
Elastic Modulus
2-
2.060 kN/mm
,
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 100001100012000 13000
10-b
STRAIN
FIGURE 3.4
FOR
EPOXY
a-
compressive
-cornpr?
c-
tensile
ssrie
A *o
PLATE
3.1
-38-
compressive
; rir ,,
strength
Youngs
youngs
and
modulus
lap shear
The average
3.2.2.3
calculation
adhesive
testing
system
The value
over
the
the
tensile
range
7000
to
zero
and in
3.2.3
2000 N/mm2
vtg
0.33
ftg
16 N/mm2
of variation
from
chosen
were
(B)
type
specimen
expected
the
of
when
within
the
sometimes
occurred
at
varying
because
seems realistic
specimens
fracture
specimen
order
specimens
(A)
type
of
of
(C)
the
of
types
type
properties
as:
Etg
deformation
was considerable
of
taken
polymers
by 12%.
the values
purposes
The coefficients
testing
the
there
machine's
jaws.
Compression'Tests
Compression
3.2.3.1
fitted
tests
Experimental
The type
with
determining
results,
stress
strain
specimens
after
3.2.3.2
Results
(a)
pieces
strain
stress
from
2500 microstrain
type
glue
is
shown in
electrical
from
The prisms
strain
gauges
length
was drawn
for
3.1
shows the
were
for
de-
50 mm for
of
as shown in Fig.
Plate
prisms.
3.2.
on a gauge
A histogram
curve.
the
Fig.
resistance
on 50 mm cubes,
tests
curve
the
3.5,
compressive
together
with
compressive
failure.
Compressive
of
Modulus
(c)
used
ratio,
deviation
(b)
for
out
Procedure
(f
strength
carried
2 mm gauge length
the
strength
were
test
of
Poisson's
termining
the
specimens
Conclusions
For
jaws,
three
was 0.33.
microstrain
epoxy
from
value
2.27
strength
from
three
ratio
of
cubes
variation
(Ecg)
specimens
eighteen
N/mm2, coefficient
of Elasticity
from
cg)
(vcg)
-39-
zero
and
..
4
3
FZ,
Trr
39
38
36 37
Compressive stress
40
KUUM
41
42
I tMIJtKA
1E
-T
43
44
I UI'tt
45
N/mm
-
AGE 28 DAYS
403 8.
36-
3 4_
32.
30-.J
28
26_I
wE
24-
E
22-,
Z
2
cn
w
1
>1
Ln
%SPECIMEN1
c SPECIMEN2
+-SPECIMEN3
140-
2:
012u
Elastic
Modulus
2.200 kN /mm
lo
8.
from
three
was 0.36
specimens
the
over
range
to
zero
7000 microstrain.
3.2.3.3
Conclusions
For
the
calculation
tests
taken
were
the
purposes
compressive
strength
found
properties
from
as:
Ecg
3050 N/mm2
40 N/mm2
V=0.36
cg
fcg
3.2.4
Lap
Shear
Shear
3.2.4.1
tests
carried
were
two 3 mm thick
as shown in
and the
with
place
within
surface
two hours
were
at
shearing
off
had to be taken
to
to
was abraded
with
surface
of
locations
one of
all
plate
loose
concrete
a disc
strains
faces
right
and dust.
After
were
3.6.
very
angles
then
at
twenty-eight
rate
five
at
failure
to
adhesive
the
Results
by the
The average
efficient
of
Fig.
3.7
area
of
value
from
the
variation
both
at
stress
total
for
3.2.1.1
and
took
days
the
4 kN/minute,
of
during
was by
layer
as shown
LIBRARY
The theoretical
in
of
SHEFFIELD
UNIVERSITY,
axis
sanded
stages
The mode of
close
in
hand
in Plate 3.1.
3.2.4.2
the
The bonding
a loading
taken
and
layer
glue
the
ensure
grinder,
preparation.
machine
mm thick
cubes
was as described
steel
particles
shown on Fig.
the
and at
the
of
a compression
Readings
the
each other
preparation
of
in
tested
failure.
loading,
a3
care
to remove
nitrogen
specimens
only.
were parallel
concrete
blown
up to
Great
The surface
plates.
CXL 194
type
glue
plates,
3.6.
be loaded
would
for
Compression
Procedure
steel
Fig.
out
specimens
shear
in
Steel/Concrete
Experimental
Three
the
Tests
of
being
glue
three
was calculated
the
failure
(80 x 80 mm x4-2.56.104
sheared.
test
by dividing
specimens
was 2.87
N/mm2, with
mm2).
a co-
6%.
stress
the
failure
axial
is
distribution
stress
in
the
-41-
derived
plate
in
Appendix
and the
shear
2 and shown
stress
in
the
concrete
C
N
cube
C
co
0
N
steel plate
C)
N
CV
0
CO
_-T -^=
__ - -
glue
80
100
f
100
f
1--
- --------------r
ii
i
I
I
I
I
,...
_
IED
25
---+
PLATE
E OF CUBE
1" C3.i
STRAIN GAUGE
I
I
i
i
L-
----.
FIGURE 3.6
glue.
The theoretical
distribution
factor
(maximum stress
to mean stress)
plate
properties
experimental
in
stress
Assuming
used.
shear
the
stress
The experimental
from
obtained
3.2.4.3
electrical
concrete,
it
glue
to
the
the
and
mean
maximum shear
of
3.7.
Fig.
axial
The experimental
strain
the
values
2 mm gauge
of
gauges
in
stress
plate
were
length.
Conclusion
distribution
The assessed
confirmed.
5.2
axial
of
value
tensile
the
the
of
strength
shear
in
stress
of maximum shear
as the
by Bresson
proposed
stress
(54)
glue,
is
concrete
5 N/mm2.
approximately
REINFORCEMENT
Prior
behaviour,
3.3.1
to manufacturing
of
the
steel
the
beams,
preliminary
bars
reinforcing
the
stress-strain
was investigated.
and plates,
Bars
3.3.1.1
Experimental
Procedure
determine
the Young's
tensile
tests
recommended
in
stress,
readings
BS 18:
50 mm gauge
then
same manner,
bar
diameters
3.3.1.2
are
first
loaded
without
high
steel
strength.
carried
the
out
as
of
nominal
an extensometer
bars
"straightening".
any initial
in
Fig.
shown
yield
to
yield
The initial
released.
using
used
lack
25% of
to about
and then
were
any initial
were measured
The 20 mm diameter
but
specimens
To eliminate
The strains
taken.
bar
round
by the manufacturer,
length.
the
were
tensile
and ultimate
strength
yield
2,1970.
Part
diameter,
6 mm standard
specimens
as specified
were
Modulus,
on the
the
straightness,
each bar
from
Two specimens
were
tested
The results
for
of
in
both
3.8.
Results
The high
point.
the
intensity
a stress
N/mm2 for
values
resistance
was
The
for
5.2
of
and theoretical
The theoretical
3.3
gives
and applying
value
a value
as shown in
1.82
of
this
gives
stress
shear
failure.
at
glue
of
tensile
The elastic
steel,
modulus
for
unlike
the
both
steels
mild
-43-
steel,
had no definite
The yield
yield
stress
1-0-1
r
W
U
FQ
W
J
-9
--
0-8-1
`-o"a
07- 1
-0-7
0.6-1
r-o-6
"
Max.
x
1
W
V
W'
0"5I
'0.5
Z
N
M9
N_
rt"o
o"4
0"4
N
LOi
w;
=0"3LO
cr
w
c=i 0-2-i
-0-3
a-
-o- 2
`-0.1
. 0"1 -a
-i
iIIIIIIIi
0-7 0"8
0-9
1"0
FIGURE 3.7
EXTENSOMETER
1000
FIGURE3.8
2000
3000
4000
STRAIN
5000
10 6
6000
7000
8000 -
6 mm &2 0 mm BARS
of
the
for
320
N/mm2
and
was
6 mm bar
20 mm bar
the
the
proof
stress
was
470 N/mm2.
3.3.1.3
Conclusions
The samples
the
satisfied
3.3.2
of
steel
requirements
of
British
behaved
tested
as expected
and
Standards.
Plates
3.3.2.1
Procedure
Experimental
The external
different
thicknesses
thickness
of
steel
commended in
mechanical
was in
reinforcement
i. e.
1.5
were
plate
tensile
and ultimate
strength
extensometer
of
of mild
to
determine
The strains
50 mm gauge
steel
Young's
were
The results
from
Modulus,
carried
were measured
length.
plates
Two specimens
their
The tests
strength.
3,1970.
Part
BS 18:
form
the
out
three
of
each
yield
as re-
by demountable
are
shown in
3.9.
Fig.
3.3.2.2
Results
The elastic
modulus
3 mm and 6 mm thicknesses
The respective
3.3.2.3
fracture
236 N/mm2,258
stresses
were
steel
plate
stresses
for
1.5
mm,
310 N/mm2,316
Conclusions
The samples
for
were
which
use as the
of mild
external
reinforcement
behaved
to
the
as expected
plated
beams.
and were
satisfactory
165
65 II-
500
0
N
20
30
10
40
400.
44E
E
z
300
N
w
U-)
w
J
N
z
w
200thick
1.5
mm
d
thick
o3mm
+6
mm thick
100J
3d00
4000
STRAIN
FIGURE 3.9
_L
10
5600
6000
FOR STEEL
7600
PLATES
Bobo
CHAPTER 4
OF TESTS
SERIES
PRELIMINARY
INTRODUCTION
fully
not
affecting
the
behaviour
and consequently
not
fully
so many factors
Since
understood,
a preliminary
series
of
(a)
to
(b)
to investigate
tests
some knowledge
gain
for
of
the
of
surface
joints
bonded
it
controlled,
be performed
would
of
two main
of
properties
the
are
still
was decided
that
reasons:
epoxy
resin
systems
used
in
strengthening
would
It
was felt
have
less
The
preliminary
in
results
testing
was
beams,
series
were
plates
4.1.1.1
of
wastage
two
up of
made
resin
used for
Series
tested
and were
the
produce
series
large
of
materials
beams
test
be
would
series
B.
and
-A
supports
would
were
Al,
In
series
the
beams were
The other
rig
therefore
bending
support.
Eight
beams were
eighteen
no tension
tested;
two sizes
strengthening
on a loading
a particular
this
beams with
concrete
plain
used
in
were
the
both
series
A and series
B.
both
for
same material
B) were
The
series.
a roller
all.
Altogether
systems
studied.
and unplated
tested.
at
and that
Two epoxy
steel
with
the main
that
PROGRANNE
A and B plated
reinforcement
used.
at
ensure
would
Beam Details
In
bar
this
variation
EXPERIMENTAL
4.1.1
of
that
application
beams.
concrete
unreinforced
and resin
preparation
to a minimum.
reduced
4.1
simple
methods
4.1)
(Table
3,5,7
which
cause
had no roller
a relative
were
bonded
support.
increase
in
type
A resin
The friction
force
with
the
applied
load
to
moment.
A2,4,6,8
effects
tested.
were
of
uniform
Beams Al
reinforcement
bonded
with
and tapering
type
B resin
glue
thickness
the
supports,
and tested
were
reinforcement
to
avoid
shear
TABLE 4.1
BEAM
ADHESIVE
CONCRETE
M K.
AGE AT
NO.
TESTING
TYPE
THICKNESS
das
PROFILE
mm
Uniform
Al
86
4.0
A2
114
4.5
A3
85
3.5
=_
A4
114
5.0
==_
AS
88
3.8
Tapering
A6
114
B"
4.0
A7
84
Unplated
A8
114
=0_
TABLE 4.2
BEAM
DETAILS
AGE AT
NO.
TESTING
glue thickness
"_
glue thickness
beam
CONCRETE
MK.
SERIES A
TYPE
PROFILE
THICKNESS
days
mm
B1
83
3.5
B2
108
3.0
B3
83
5.0
B4
108
3.0
B5
77
B6
106
B7
77
B8
Uniform glue
"
Uniform
thickness.
Unplated
beam.
Unplated
notched
,
106
B9
85
3.5
810
100
3.0
average
thickness
at
midspon.
beam.
failure
thickness,
In beams Al
stopped
short
4.1.1.2
over
Series
Series
were
studied.
Fig.
4.2
B consisted
steel
The steps
and the
were
series
75 x 1000 x1
these
with
latter
a cover
thickness
lines.
beams,
of
approximately
This
was intended
precast,
prestressed
unplated
control
were
bonded
numbered
i. e.
Bl,
again
centre
span of
4.1.2
Material
Properties
soffit
the beam
of
as shown in
used,
The cover
the
short
each
stepped
beams were
plates.
other,
with
a glue
glue
consisting
of
marks,
a roller
bonded
supports.
stepped
deck
and
even numbered
were
the
was bonded
a bridge
of
soffit
with
supports
of
butting
plate
longitudinally.
and tested
the
the
mm.
3,5,7,9
at
stopped
were
plates
mm thick.
beams with
All
glue
whilst
support.
an effective
with
tested
i. e.
B2,4,6,8,10
Beams with
odd
A resin
and were
tested
central
point
support.
type
under
loading
1100 mm.
Concrete
The concrete
used
mm thick,
simulate
B resin
over
4.1.2.1
0.5
A the
type
with
a roller
without
under
uniform
face
tension
reinforcement
beams.
of
on the
steps
of
had shear
series
marks,
glue
to
effects
beam's
the
thickness
75 x 400 x1
plate
As in
tested
and were
4.2.
Table
this
the
provision
into
cast
were
in
the beams in
plates
of
of plates
and detailed
All
mm thick,
610 mm.
span of
an effective
100 x 500 x1
The beams were
50 mm.
by about
supports
beams.
were
plates
steel
glue
as shown in
thickness
glue
control
unplated
lapping
thickness,
the
to AS, the
the
of
loading,
point
A2,
whereas
4.1.
Fig.
Beams Al,
length.
the plated
outside
in
Section
bridge
chosen
for
construction
the
using
prestressed
to be consistent
beams as detailed
with
that
in
3.1.
The concrete
properties
for
the
two series
of
tests
were
as follows.
For
Q
-v
C
E
E
v
c+
Q
c0
tn
(0
c
0
N
.Q
.a
J3
_J
Q
1W
cD
.t
p
--y
IL
-51-
BEAMS
Bt and B2
600
tI
0
U')
1000
100
1100
1200
Nominal glue thickness
3mm
Plate 1000 x 75 x1 mm thick
BEAMS
B9 and
B10
NOTCHED BEAM
333
BEAMS B3cndB4
LAPPED
PLATES
.q
Nominal
FIGURE 4.2
DETAILS
200
glue
OF TEST
thickness
3 mm
BEAMS :
SERIES
3-6
mm,
beams of
varied
from
rupture
of
the beams at
N/mm2 with
were
tested
5.22
from
this
at
rupture
4.1.2.2
the beams
of
The modulus
and 4.94
of
N/mm2 with
a mean
of
70.6
N/mm2.
to
82.7
N/mm2 with
5.1
from
67.2
from
varied
to
of
N/mm2 with
N/mm2.
The
a mean value
had an average
of 0.16
ratio
elastic
and an average
36 kN/mm2 at
of
modulus
3 months,
shrinkage
of
bars
used for
Steel
stress
yield
plates
tensile
4.1.2.3
reinforcing
two series
were
carried
to determine
were
strength
used for
the
tests
modulus
elastic
steel
in
as detailed
were
and hanger
stirrups
3.3.1
Section
with
bars
a
320 N/mm2.
of
Tensile
steel
in
and bottom
top
of
the main
the
out
tensile
on standard
tensile
specimens
The average
strength.
yield
the
test
plates
as detailed
series,
in
This
from
cut
stress
the
and
The ultimate
plate
the
was not
same as
3.3.2.
Section
Adhesives
Two epoxy
A was a2
part
Glue
factured
by Colebrand
Based on these
properties
liquid
results,
part
detailed
system
but
were
in
Section
with
the
shear
carried
mm thickness
used
in
Geigy
a paste
series
Ltd.
A and B.
and designated
consistency,
manu-
CXL 194.
of
lap
double
were
by Ciba
manufactured
strength
specimens
0.5
systems,
and designated
shear
plates,
tensile
were
a2
Ltd.
the
filled
system
B was also
To determine
as the
both
adhesives,
XD 808.
glue
N/mm2.
4.37
N/mm2 with
testing
age of
the
age varied
The 6 mm diameter
sheet
65.5
56-60
N/mm2.
a Poisson's
Clue
of
between
varied
B,
71.9
at
the
a mean value
series
a mean value
varied
of
at
from
N/mm2.
75.2
of
testing
the beams of
For
modulus
N/mm2.
28 days varied
at
cube strength
64 to 66 N/mm2 with
4.65
of
the
58.3
of
mean value
value
A,
series
glue,
tests
out,
the
on specimens
as detailed
was chosen
3.2.
and hence
for
plate
best
cut
in
from
Section
lapping.
thickness
the
same
3.2.1.
The other
4.1.3
' Preparation
All
humidity,
relative
fog
room,
surface
All
preparation
to
pressure
plate
resin
were
and the
the
to
prior
in
this
body of
the
where
its
days
after
glue
to cure.
4.1.4
which
surface
distribution,
technique,
mechanical
layer,
air
and not
is
to
the
Small
all
cloth.
emery
nitrogen.
tests,
shear
under
operations
to both
was applied
of hardened
pieces
The plate
thickness.
the
epoxy
was then
left
for
least
were
generally
another
ten
for
left
days
to
interface,
glue/steel
or
glue/concrete
at
be restricted
generally
would
The weights
greatest.
and steel
the
in
the
under
stage
steel
plate
a single
central
and the
state
between
and over
the
load.
concrete
of
at mid-span
length.
100
gauge
mm
on a
face
point
deflection,
central
were measured
strains
compression
ages varying
tested
At each
stages.
extensometer
at
The glue
any entrapped
strain
The concrete
3.2.1.1.
glue
to remove
and bonding
Mixing
the
brushed
four
to allow
the
Procedure
in
loaded
lap
visually.
of
to remove
with
the
the beam.
grinder
100 grit
with
operations.
by weights.
position
All
as for
Section
wire
by blowing
removed
to control
on bond
Testing
at
prepared
glue
effect
measured
in
then
following
the
of
by hand,
sanded,
as judged
used as spacers
Using
were
gritblasted,
grade,
as described
and held
applied
tested
from
removal
24 hours
a disc
with
They were
were
were
plates
a uniform
performed
steel
they
and debris
dust
face,
tension
aggregates.
Finally
The steel
were
the
and expose
remaining
the
for
1007.
21C,
room at
After
atmosphere
of
on the
abraded,
particles.
were
a warm dry
a fog
testing.
or
plating
in
cured
preparation.
The surface
loose
in
castings.
and then
for
required
until
four
24 hours
after
stripped
were
specimens
test
the
Specimens
of'Test
were
of
(at
ages
the
strains
beam.
from
noted.
a demountable
The concrete
depth
strain
cracking
using
The beams
14 to
were
after
gluing).
The concrete
testing
given
were
in
the
age of
4.1.2.1.
Section
The load-deflection
two typical
load-strain
4.3
and Tables
4.6
under
the
4.2.1
' Deflections
show the
glued
reinforcement
are
shown in
Figs.
and 4.6
for
beams of
series
has four
range
2.
It
increases
the
stiffness
3.
It
increases
the
ultimate
4.
It
uniform
beams of
reinforcement
plates
(Fig.
4.11
failure
below
discussed
but
flexural
beams of
These results
A (Figs.
the beam,
of
capacity
showed better
show that
a tapering
higher
at higher
presence
of
the
comparable
thickness
of
beam A2 with
than
this
beam A4
that
seen
glue
stiffness
loads
and
than
performance
Beam A6 with
cracking
is
it
and 4.4),
4.3
showed initially
with
B.
for
the beam.
of
supports
hand,
thickness,
stiffness
became
of beam A2.
series
beams;
behaviour
lapped
to
behaviour.
elastic
reinforcement.
other
In beams of
unplated
of
series
at
shear
that
than
4.8
effects:
the
3 to 6 mm, on the
better
distinct
increases
glue
are
and 4.4
4.3
curves
It
beam A2 without
shows
beams after
show typical
The properties
results.
1.
shear
less
4.5
Figs.
Considering
with
test
and 4.7
Figs.
section.
concrete
and 4.2
4.1
4.6
to
and Strains
The load-deflection
series
across
the
4.3
Figs.
sections.
relevant
A and in
shown in
Plates
curves.
to
are
curves
distributions
strain
show the
with
also
B,
the
plated
beams,
than
showed marginally
the notched
uniform
better
on
effects
showed no adverse
notches
Beam A4 with
thickness.
glue
than
performance
4.6).
The measured
Fig.
at
strength
4.2
the
flexural
and the
cube strength
4.7
for
distribution
loading
whereas
approximately
in
the
tensile
the
over
two typical
remained
range
strain
distribution
linear
These
in
zone the
the
depth
of
diagrams
the beams is
show that
compression
strain
distribution,
the
in
shown
strain
zone throughout
approximately
the
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LA-
COMPRESSION
1000 750
6
(10
BEAM A2
500 250
20
E
E
40
60 2
a
W
O
i
80
loo
120
140
250
COMPRESSION(10
6)
BEAM B5
E
S
CL
W
O
40
..
60
...
80
100
W
m
120
140
a.
250
FIGURE 4.7
TYPICAL
STRAIN
DISTRIBUTIONS
linear
low
at
cracking.
Within
assumption
that
As expected,
the
wards
became increasingly
loads,
limits
the
face
compression
The variation
in mind
of
and 4.9
4.8
Figs.
for
the
that
strength
yielding
stage,
in
strain
4.8
Figs.
in
series
the
but
crack
glue
only
ing
was observed.
in
tensile
plate
in
all
the
is
for
the
the
low yield
of
to
the
the
past
The
deflection
In
discussed
earlier.
side
showed better
tension
Bearing
two series.
similar
behaviour
B.
were well
plates
in
beams tested
shown in
series
A and B are
With
plate.
crack
extended
two or
into
compression
cases
only
one major
the
load,
the
behaviour
in
formed
series
B, only
crack
developed
the
additional
the
one or
tension
cracks
Because
zone.
tensile
no extensive
cracks
in
concrete
in
three
beams of
the
increase
reinforcement,
longer
in
beams occurred
the
all
the
beams,
point
by vertical
largest
propagated
In
(or
in
up to
the
(Plates
nearly
4.1
the
the
shorter
vicinity
load
the
Yielding
crack.
point
beams the
failed
by tensile
vertical)
and 4.2).
of
cracking
concrete
occurred
beam A3,
except
by vertical
loading
initiated
the
and 4.11
show that
to-
axis
failure.
at mid-span
series
on the
neutral
4.6).
Generally
in
followed
central
the
the
beams as well.
the
of
that
concrete
crack-
beams of
shorter
two cracks
leading
of
were
to a simple
failure.
All
sheet
in
tensile
A, whereas
evidence;
Fig.
and the
internal
lack
series
plated
plate
4.10
the
notches
one major
the
of
for
due to
Failure
The first
formed
the
all
zone above
steel
- 4.11
curves
4.2.2
valid
strains
than
the
used for
plates
confirms
approached
A and Figs.
failure,
at
loading
loads
4.7
showed a movement
as the
series
steel
(125 N/mm2),
steel
distributions
strain
is
plane
higher
at
Fig.
experimentation,
remain
sections
plane
the
of
non-linear
of
the
crack
Failure
yielding
in
all
then
failure
plane
a position
and the
steel
the
beams was
the
layer
the
towards
propagation
glue
at
of
with
coincident
debonding
concrete
of
the
crack
failure.
leading
to
failure
plane
sometimes
developed
along
a shear
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Extensive
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locally
above
at
to be due to
the bonded
reduced
of
the
the
4.2.3
loads
ultimate
The experimental
in
both
as the
concrete
and in
observation
is
first
(composite)
section
with
first
load
the
section,
crack
assuming
further
tests
and 4.6
show the
in
the
line,
glue
However,
had
which
at
94%
crack
and
beam failed
the
was
beam.
bonded
A and B respectively.
loads
relate
to
is
based
strength
After
values
of
strength
crack
(composite)
4.3
These values
glue.
test
preliminary
to Tables
first
the
in
as described
glue
transformed
The theoretical
transformed
60 N/mm2 in
Chapter
but
3.
loads
4.5
Tables
the
using
16 N/mm2 as determined
and failure
were
was complete
series
and 4.4,
The
thickness.
glue
6 kN/mm2.
of
glue
the
more approximate
the
to
cracks
observed
on an uncracked
on a cracked
of
visually
necessarily
based
the
the
equal
strip
is
for
on the
first
and experimental
experi-
are
given
in
crack
loads
in
3.
concrete
the
latter
concrete
good agreement
show that
consistently
even then
the
is
corresponding
The results
but
occurred
and this
series
concrete
an E value
Sample calculations
Appendix
that
in
glue
in
4.1),
in
to a thin
load
performed
50%.
The latter
glue.
a tensile
were
of E=2
mentally.
the
the
by the manufacturer.
as supplied
values
in
about
only
crushing
(Plate
plate
voids
theoretical
crack
confined
theoretical
crack
and although
were
of
were
cracks
Loads
show the
first
the
correctly
all
load,
and signs
air
by about
a similar
and 4.4
of
the
occurred,
ultimate
of
large
of
and Ultimate
4.3
Tables
the
debonding
presence
for
First'Crack
never
beams,
crack.
cross-section
load
ultimate
crushing
concentration
longer
80-95% of
strain
failure
the
concrete
about
severe
the
whereas
span),
shear
vertical.
generally
the
short
in
is
the
is
with
slightly
composite
clear.
the
theoretically
underestimate
overestimated
effect
the
experimental
as they
on delaying
The theoretical
experimental
predicted
values
first
are
the
loads.
based
formation
crack
when assuming
-62-
first
loads
It
is
on visual
likely
examination,
of
the
first
in
the
glue
60 N/mm2 for
the
crack
show
glue's
BEAM Al
'IV
_.
uniform
tapering
PLATE
41
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TEST
TABLE 4.5
GLUE FIRST
CRACK MOMENTS
FAILURE
BEAMS
RATIO THEORYTHEORYTHEORYTEST
MK
No.
TEST /
THEO
kNm
kNm
Al
1.40
5.15
A2
1.40
A3
d.
SERIES A
MOMENTS
BEAM THEORYTEST
b.
RATIOS
e.
EST/
T6T/
THRY THE
TEST/
Y
THECF
Nm
3.68
2.91
3.02
2.05
5.71
1.96
1.89
2.79
5.32
3.80
3.04
3.15
'2-05
6.43
2.12
2.04
3.14
1.40
4.24
3.02
2.78
2.89
2.04
5.34
1.92
1.85
2.61
A4
1.40
5.32
3.60
3.17
3.28
2.07
6.87
2.17
2.09
3.32
AS
1-40
4.81
3.44
2.86
2.97
2.05
5.60
1.96
1.89
2.73
A6
1.40
4.56
3.26
2.91
3.02
2.05
5.95
2.04
1.97
2.90
A7&8
as o
table
kNm,
4.3
TABLE 4.6
MOMENTS
FAILURE
CRACK
MOMENTS
BEAM THEORYTEST RATIO THEORYTHEORYy
THEORYTEST
MK.
No.
TEST /
THECR
kNm
kNm
Si
1.10
4.18
B2
1.10
B3
c.
e.
SERIES B
RATIOS
TEST/
TEST/ TEST/
THEORYTHECRY THEORY
kNm
kNm
kNm
kNm
3.80
2.09
2.17
1 "53
4.74
2.27
2.1B
3.09
3.30
3.00
1.99
2.07
1.53
4.13
2.08
2.00
2.70
1.10
4.18
3.80
2.38
2.46
1.54
5.73
2.41
2.33
3.71
B4
1.10
3.30
3.00
1.99
2.07
1.52
4.57
2.30
2.21
2.99
B5 - B8
cs o
table
B9
1.10
3.56
3.24
2.09
2.17
1.54
4.70
2.25
2.17
3.06
B10
1.10
3.98
3.61
1-99
2.07
1.52
4.26
2.14
2.06
2.81
bcd-
4.4
e-__=__=
on ultimate
stress of plate,
tensile
but
strength
first
in
load
crack
when assuming
the
The theoretical
on a rectangular
value
of 0.6
fcu.
the
sults
to
interface
large
together
to
spread
with-the
local
of
yield
the
of
the
crack
positions
the
of
on
give
redid
plates
leading
This,
steel.
of
based
glue
the
each side
at
the
a stress
considered
although
at
hardening
zone are
in
are
with
computations
force
that
and 4.4
compression
the
place
plate
4.3
tension
the
appears
and strain
are. below
leads
a crack,
debonding.
first
The theoretical
show poor
agreement
glue
tests
are
different
when the
and failure
crack
experimental
strength
is
glue
of
It
16 N/mm2,
the
the
glue
the
tensile
properties
steel
almost
all
and con-
plate
twice
the
(Tables
strength
the
although
tensile
actual
and 4.6
4.5
that
appear
with
moments were
in Tables
given
would
compositely
failure
16 N/mm2 for
assuming
loads
values.
acting
The experimental
values
etical
with
gave a tensile
beam.
crete
strains
the
that
had taken
straining
shear
in
It
in
concrete
suggest
values.
considerable
shown in Tables
and including
plate
to experimental
closest
fracture,
not
The results
the
of
strength
ultimate
3.
the
loads
theoretical
possible!
distributions
stress
in Appendix
as detailed
for
block
not
loads
failure
stress
Three
is
which
concrete
ultimate
based
16 N/mm2 the
theor-
4.5
and
4.6).
4.3
CONCLUSIONS
From the
be drawn.
results
is
It
The use of
face
tension
due to
those
that
emphasised
this
these
following
the
chapter,
conclusions
conclusions
limited
are
to
the
can
variables
here.
studied
the
in
reported
(a)
it
(b)
for
the
in
of
it
in
plain
a given
load,
of
form
of
elastic
reduces
the
the
concrete,
of
steel
following
plates
glued
to
effects:
behaviour
tensile
glue
strains
and steel
in
the
plate,
concrete,
compared
to
beams
delays
service
action
range
it
the
concrete
the
composite
in
reinforcement
increases
unplated
(c)
increase
external
the
loads
appearance
of
the
first
visual
cracks
with
a resulting
(d)
it
increases
at
corresponding
(e)
it
enhances
(f)
it
increases
deflections
For
increased.
Lapping
with
the neutral
is
gauge reading
the
position
crete
the
beams,
of
This
tests.
first
to
glue
in unrestrained
loading,
above
with
the
strain
depends
which
strain
an average
this
series
plates
of
low yield
the
glue
that
ultimate
in
the
the
tests.
glue
it
was found
and the
glue
were
exhibits
the
of
far
on
from
However,
further
found
those
tests
section.
based
on exin
observed
by testing
would
con-
makes a
when acting
properties,
different
load,
those
plain
glue
composite
ultimate
below
in
that
the
strength,
strength
properties,
and concrete,
steel
is
Strain
arm.
the
in
load
crack
suggests
the
was linear
once
but
strain,
reinforcing
with
it
axis
lever
throughout
plane
remained
because
studied
determined
perimentally
neutral
in
increase
beam
to a corresponding
compared
the
thickness
as glue
cracks.
contribution
The values
due to
is
beams increased
the
stiffness
sections
true
variables
with
significant
the
the
the
of
For
plane
This
not
reduces
capacity
of
increased
Below
and thus
failure.
at
stiffness
probably
others.
with
ductility
the
plates
axis.
flexural
ultimate
the
showed that
measurements
irregular
the
plate,
a continuous
loading
throughout
stiffness
loads
area,
plate
a constant
flexural
the
compositely
samples
be needed
to
of
confirm
this.
indicate
The results
if
it
the
in
the
line,
in
the
these
to
to
sustain
glue
There
approaching
up to 50% of
find
the
94% of
cannot
loads
was,
be cracked
failure
at
would
be approximately
however,
some evidence
because
half
of
of
surface
failure.
that
width
the
load
the
critical
voids
were
present
section
in
beam A3,
by a similar
achieved
beam with
in
the
no
glue.
Experience
from
by experiment.
glue
the
failure
theoretical
was interesting
It
glue
the
found
values
cracking
the
then
were
that
tests
with
the
emphasises
preparation
the
for
need
of
the
care
-69-
steel
at
all
and concrete
stages.
With
surfaces
plates
gained
only
1.5 mm thick
warping.
interfaces
critical.
it
was essential
Applying
the
and confines
glue
to grit
to both
them to
blast
concrete
the body of
both
sides
and plate
the
glue
of
the
minimises
where
to prevent
plates
they
voids
are
less
at
the
'CHAPTER 5
STRENGTH' PROPERTIES
5.1
INTRODUCTION
The performance
the methods
Plain
Flaws
even before
propagation
of
In
order
The poor
in
strength
of
the
of
concrete
conditions
loads
service
should
not
The preliminary
plain
steel
concrete
plate
of
to
the
It
should
face
tensile
producing
(b)
(c)
a reduced
(d)
reduced
the
higher
crack
and magnitude
showed the
of
provides
tensile
strength
since
the
the
tensile
a member.
design
serviceability
Codes of
practice
deflections
based
at
of
that
external
the
concrete
addition
member should
a bonded
of
result
cracking
propagation
i. e.
rotation,
up to failure.
-71-
deflection,
on
reinforcement
loads
of
such
on criteria
elements.
effects
a reinforced
bars
refined
the
of
are
which
follow,
therefore
cracking
deformations,
loading,
in which
of
considerations.
limits,
certain
series
(a)
throughout
materials,
structures
cracks,
the
strength
to
necessary
ignore
to
and
on loading.
is
increase
strength
strength
surface
it
flexural
or damage to non-structural
test
beams.
than
exceed
aesthetics
as corrosion,
high
enlargement
the
and micro-
reinforcing
techniques,
crack
manufacture,
fracture
element,
does not
design
using
the
The use of
it
reason
members produces
the width
and
to
volumetric
due to
to brittle
to it.
concrete
and slender
is
lead
member but
towards
during
strength
when estimating
trend
the material
a load-bearing
this
techniques
that
in
resistance
due to inherent
which
a structural
reinforced
The present
recommend
tensile
flaws
For
in
applied,
properties
itself.
concrete
strength
internal
resistance
establishment
is
load
to use concrete
tensile
tensile
the
the
its
of
the materials
of
and little
strength
develop
or microcracks
changes.
structural
by the behaviour
design.
their
any external
determined
turn
concrete
propagation.
of
for
adopted
a structure
in
members which
component
impart
of
is
strains
etc.
in:
This
service
in
load
width
5.2
EXPERIMENTAL
Previous
concrete
increasing
post
in
5.1
the
and
glue
layer;
adhesive
to 219 had a6
were
of
were
used,
thicknesses
steel
onto
plates
deformations
The main
series.
and
the
of
the
beams
are
in
described
were
used
materials
were
variables
Details
techniques.
For
beams 203 to
215 had a3
layer.
mm thick
mm thick
thicknesses
three
glue
of
layer
adhesive
thickness
each
beams 203,207,211,212
mm thick
of
beams
plate;
and 219
plate.
Beams 206,213
beams with
a single
layer
beams having
continuous
of
1.5
mm thick
for
plate
comparison
3 mm plate.
of
Beams 211,212,213,214
of
in
their
plates
for
comparison
before
their
plates
were
plate.
preloaded
and cracked
on.
Beam 220 had an adhesive
its
rotations,
members.
this
properties
of
controlling
lapping
had 6 mm thick
bonded
in
and
beams 207 to
used;
204,208,215
with
in
flexural
of
tested
were
thickness
plate
Three
with
deflections,
4.
Chapter
plate
stiffness
beams
four
Table
of
beam,
the unplated
of
bonding
beams to be effective
cracking
thickness;
criteria
The
methods.
strains.
(54-73)
work
Twenty
different
the
that
above
crack,
PROGRAMME
reinforced
given
bar
and steel
beams,
first
experimental
by accepted
calculated
the plated
of
the
compares
those
with
as a basis
using
crack
glue
loads
service
studied,
investigation
the
of
and ultimate
increase
is
part
layer
of variable
thickness,
3 mm to
8 mm, along
length.
Beam 221 had
to produce
points
of
'V'
notches
stress
cracking
of
the
in
its
tension
face,
at
the
loading
points,
concentration.
cut
glue.
layer
3 mm thick,
but
without
a plate,
to
beams were
All
tested
four
under
5.3
TEST PROCEDURE
The beams were manufactured
in
as
the preliminary
test
cubes
for
strength
compressive
testing,
with
After
to
taken
to a commercial
to
spans
shown in
are
4, with
Chapter
same manner
three
control
for
were
24 hours
after
stripped
of
modulus
in
and cured
prepared
The plates
were
degreased
trichlorethylene
of
shotblasting
large
the
as described
in
and then
with
of
size
company where
corrosion
to
returned
4.
Chapter
A minimum
of
for
and bonding
The mixing
and contamination.
steel
immediately
laboratory
the
had to be
with
abraded
were
as
24 hours
they
the plates
they
for'bonding
and testing.
plating
resistance
bar
prior
to
casting.
glued
to
the
at
Electrical
external
strain
reinforcement
as shown in
was roughened
in
the
surface
200 mm along
same materials
days
to prevent
longitudinal
and in
fourteen
mean size,
Electrical
viewing.
shear
and three
340 micron
out
the
described
Because
shotblasting.
carried
locations
the
in.
conditions.
4.
Chapter
prior
between
in
and instrumentation
specimens
approximately
in
described
were
2.3
each beam.
laboratory
uncontrolled
bonding
and
on a span of
were provided
from
series
of
plate
and 5.2.
5.1
grit
bending
point
Figs.
rupture
nor
glue
155 mm wide,
size:
75 mm centres,
at
failure.
shear
prevent
in
identical
all
6 mm diameter
Stirrups,
neither
comparison.
having
externally,
side
testing
were
of
and cleaned
of
gauges
strain
being
after
plates,
as shown in
Fig.
to
glued
were
one day
5.2,
6 mm gauge length
bonded
onto
the
the
were
beam,
at
5.2.
Fig.
to
locations
three
resistance
reinforcing
7 mm gauge length
of
gauges
used
locate
the beam at
with
acetone
the
a mechanical
centre
prior
section.
to gluing
-73-
to
facilitate
extensometer
crack
on a base
The concrete
on the
discs
with
of
surface
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2300
Icrosshead of
reaction frame
hinge
roller support
support
spreader
beam
}load cell
1 and jack
767
(a)
766
LOADING
that gauges
inclinometer
(b)
MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTATION
beam
section
FIGURE 5.1
9sz
a,
v
dn
j
(-!
Lr)
I-
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cr)
pcnN
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vi
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r)
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4
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LO
htn
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cr
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r ZQ
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CD
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cc
V:6
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cr
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cr
IW
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ttD
n
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co
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w
Ul)
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w
0
Fn
LL
o
ZU)
oz
-76-
w
0
N
oz `n
oi+OZ
l+
"-
Co.
"
LL
ia
the first
In
Padding'.
but
midspan,
as the
discs
beams the
subsequent
For measuring
150 mm apart
divisions
0.01
were
were measured
at midspan
mm divisions.
On the plated
beams the
Fig.
5.1.
The beams were
in
to be consistent,
on steel
nuts
An inclinometer
tested
and measurements.
either
of midspan
side
beam resting
The load
glued,
were
with
one second
the jack
between
between
positioned
secured
pairs
the
at
top.
longitudinally.
rollers
in Plate
supports
The ends of
bars
Macalloy
beam were
the
other
that
on
moving
The test
rotation.
allowed
load
up to crossheads
and the
support
mid point.
is
rig
shown
5.1.
Load was applied
detected
visually
load
gradually
Each increment
the
stage
concrete
glass.
first
rotations;
crack
width,
crack
appeared,
was approximately
deflection;
strains;
the
until
a magnifying
using
up to failure.
strains;
35 mm diameter
of
beam.
its
at
spreader
and a calibrated
voltmeter
spreader
flange
wide
jack
crack
383 mm on
positions
150 mm deep,
differential
and the
to facilitate
uppermost
hydraulic
the
of
shown in
is
gauges
at
having
gauges
movement
dial
of
upwards
hand operated
capacity
dial
with
vertical
face
tension
a stiffened,
by a linear
was measured
relative
by means of
on a 50 ton
placed
their
with
and support
The location
measured.
observation
each
the beam at
of
only.
resting
points.
Deflections
to
were
bearings
and loading
support
face
on each
on one side
sides
was used.
plate
cell
ball
to both
stuck
readings
glued
rotations,
the
at
showed the
results
were
the
and height
spacing
in
applied
reinforcing
steel
which
loading
bar
were
was
increments
range.
At
and plate
measured
and
recorded.
The beams were
of
the
lined
Plates
loaded
5.2
to
black
5.8.
marking
in
failure
composite
plate/glue/concrete
by thick
to
system.
order
to
After
beams were
observe
the mode of
failure
the
then
cracks
photographed
rupture
were
out-
as shown in
test
b-
beam
spreader
loading
jack
hand
pump
tie rods
cdetgh-
PLATE
beam
a-
51.,
crosshead
gauge apparatus
strain
digita! voltmeter
DING
,
ARRANGEMENT
UNPLATED
BEAM
- noglue
3 rrur
or
glue
plate
thicknes
rio
,
plate
,, T ,!,
centre
j,.;
i"
'. 3i
plate
FIIf'
If1i
plate
Fi
, 1! t'
thickness.
K,
: ap
52
CRACK
PATTERNS
sapped
plates
PLATED
AND
",
1 5mm
plate
3 mm plate
6mm
5-3
-RACK
PATTERNS -
thickness.
plate thickness.
2 layers
PL:. -
thickness.
of 1.5 mm plate.
GLUE
THICKNESS.
1.5 mm plate
3mm
thickness.
thickntss.
pkitt
S mm plate thickness.
6 mm plate
PL:, : 5.4
RACK PATTERNS .
BEAMS
thickness
WITH
3 mm
GLUE
THICKNESS
3mm
plate
thickness
plate tap.
P'_t,'
55
: RACK PATTERNS
3mm
GLUE THICKNESS
above
15 mm
3 mm
6 mm
, 5-6
plate thickness
Platt thidtn
plate
thickness.
.5 mm
clue
].
...
_.
F'
c'"_
:. '
5.7
:. :
'r
2mm-8mrr
3Tm.
form
! h! cknes,.
icKneSS
vcricbte
glue ! hir/resc
gimme'hicness
with notnes
c. ',
cbove the
stress
concentrations
RNS -'
Smm
P'-ATE
TH'CKNESS.
'oad
o r'
:i
50%
plate thickness
5rrv
1
loader:
pi...
vA
-1n
Rness,
c,
,
. _,,
.x.,
bonding the plate on
load before
ultimate
r"
3mm
give thickness,
3 mm glue thickness,
50 'Is
PLATE
5-8
ultimate
CRACK PATTERNS -
load
3mm
piate
thickness
3mm
PRELOADED
to
BEAMS.
to
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.4
5.4.1
Crack
First
The first
the value
based
For
theoretical
glue
given
above.
glue
thickness.
load
for
5.3
Fig.
range
of
glue
and plate
load
is
well
above
from
for
was 0.35
6 mm thick
the
Increase
of
Service
The deflection,
bars
load;
the
at
centre.
This
100 M.
were
being
defined
by 1.6.
deflection
(b)
rotation
(c)
maximum crack
(d)
steel
respective
experimental
113 x 10-4
width
found
for
as the
for
with
it
is
load
the
of
two ratios
on the
the
beam the
deflection,
rotation,
All
and
plate
load
cracking
clear
the
that
Ym - 1.15
for
and 1.5
steel
load
to CP110 service
1.5
beams with
(Table
respectively.
the
width
mm, 3 mm and
5.2)
ultimate
in
and strain
its
beam at
unplated
The properties
load,
as found
described
above
the reinforcing
CP110 service
by CP110
were
as follows:
radians
0.09
mm
1020 x 10-6
strain
each plated
results.
and 0.32
load
be
would
4.6 mm
(a)
For
crack
maximum crack
section
bar
first
load
effect
beam.
with
the
The experi-
the
However
glass.
Loads
rotation,
divided
recommendations,
load,
times
from
effect
unplated
0.45,0.37
were
the
CP110 failure
beam.
crack
used.
for
value
1.38
restraining
was little
there
of experimental
unplated
plates
that
first.
The
a magnifying
and the
apparent
and using
prisms.
the
is
of
thicknesses
the
the
The ratio
However,
variation
with
accurate
width
test
on average,
unplated
are not
crack
shows the
can be seen
It
was calculated
5.4.2
of
the
the beam,
of
inertia
moment of
observed
was,
the
visually
increase
on the
concrete.
for
had initiated.
cracking
after
cracking
obtained
were
load
being
values
the
5.2,
Table
face
tension
from
concrete
and plate
for
transformed
the
of
the
at
concrete,
uncracked,
in
given
value.
recorded
the
rupture
of
values,
the plated
mental
on the
of modulus
experimental
for
loads
crack
calculated
were
Loads
these
m/m.
corresponding
crack
values
width
are
loads
which
and strain
given
in
produced
were
Table
found
5.3.
the
same
from
the
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
TABLE 5 .2
(1)
CP 110
EXF-ERN61T
BEAM
2 ' NUMBER FIRST (1) SERVI
(2)
LOAD
CRACK
kN
LOAD kN
(4)
(2)
E
Ju
E
wU
201
35.0
100
0.35
145
232
1.45 2.32
202
39.9
102
0.39
153
245
1.50 2.40
203
501
116
0.43
169
270
204
50.1
134
0.37
169
270
205
548
166
0.33
133
213
6.0
206
55.0
135
0.41
138
220
1.02 1.631.5
2x1.5
207
55.0
119
0.46
164
262
1.5
208
49.0
135
0.36
165
264
3.0
2 09
52.4
167
0.31
138
220
210
50.1
166
0.30
134
215
211
54.8
119
0.46
158
253
212
47.0
117
0.40
155
248
213
50.1
135
0.37
158
253
1.5
214
50.1
135
0.37
158
253
15
215
49.8
134
0.37
156
250
30L
216
54.0
118
0.46
164
262
1.5
217
480
135
0.36
161
257
218
51.4
168
0.31
121
194
6.0
219
55.0
168
0.33
138
220
0 82 1.31 6.0
6.0
220
54.8
118
0.46
164
263
1.5
221
548
117
0.47
161
268
222
51.1
117
0.44
168
268
144 2.29 30
223
53.0
118
0.45
165
264
224
47.2
136
0.35
156
250
115 1.83 10
L -lapped
plates
P- precracked beams.
-87-
00
30
1.5P
30P
55-
50-
Z
.x
45-
x-1.5
mm plate thickness
3 mm
o=
mm
0-6
=
40-
U- 35
NO PLATE
30
3.0
4.0
1.02.0
ADHESIVE THICKNESS mm.
FIGURE 5.3
5.0
6.0
170 -i
160-1
150
NO PLATE
S
140
cr
W
LO
130
2:
120-
110
1.0
FIGURE5.4
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
ADHESNE THICKNESS mm.
VARIATIONOF EXPERMENTAL SERVICELOAD
6.0
TABLE 5.3
BEAM
NUMBER
(1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
100
EW
z
WY
tt Ft
202
101
102
106
102
203
104
106
144
120
1.5
204
110
124
153
151
3.0
205
131
138
170
171
206
113
123
158
155
207
111
106
153
116
1.11
208
126
134
160
150
209
130
144
184
210
3.0
z"1o
6.0
210
133
146
199
170
6.0
211
111
117
145
130
1.11
212
11}
114
137
130
111
213
110
130
138
154
110
214
119
137
142
153
215
120
133
158
168
3"0L
216
111
113
145
143
1.5
217
123
133
145
165
218
134
156
190
1.34 1.56
219
136
160
180
200
220
104
106
146
130
1.5
221
111
111
148
128
1.11
1.5
222
100
120
123
143
223
85
108
123
140
0.85
1.5
1.23
1.40
3.0
1"5P
1.oa
172
160
1.20 1.33 1.60 1.72 3.0 30P
224
133
120
P- precracked beams.
L- lapped plates
*-CP110 service load - unplated beam.
.
LOAD 1- load in plated beam corresponding to 4.6 mm defection (urplc ted beam at 100 kN )
fad
113x10
LARD 2-=
rotation (
009 mm crack width (
LOAD3-=
1020
(___)
LOAD4'
microstrain
=__=
5.4.2.1
Deflection
beams were
The plated
before
11% for
beams strengthened
6 mm thick
beams again
113.10-4
of
rotation
plates
Maximum
5.4.2.3
10 to
23% for
37% for
beams strengthened
7 to
beams
with
Bar
Steel
5.4.2.4
1.5
In
general
1.0,
for
except
flexural
capacity
the
safety
would
service
gave the
367 for
3 mm thick
1.5
mm thick
for
the
38 to 60% for
plates;
beams
corresponding
3 mm thick
plates.
bar
steel
the
strains
50 to 68% for
plates;
increases
corresponding
3 mm thick
were
and 70 to
plates
5.4
thickness.
load
16
1107
increasing
to
ratio
the
their
mode of
varied
All
failure.
1.02
to be greater
to
than
external
reinforcing
serviceability.
load,
service
plates,
from
for
states
load.
the
of
of experimental
6 mm thick
beams with
be expected
limit
the
CP110 service
plates
addition
these
ratios
which
did
(experimental
are
their
not
reach
The ratios
for
the
1.46,
a mean value
1.0
with
than
greater
beams with
as CP110 includes
1.28.
of
material
factors.
Fig.
plate
the
due to
mm and 3 mm thick
value
deflections
25 to
plates;
increases
the
6 mm thick
shows the
= 1.6),
load
ultimate
it
effect
5.2
Table
mm thick
reaching
plates.
had the
plates
beams as for
before
Strain
mm thick
6 mm thick
loads
plates.
width
crack
When considering
43% for
1.5
6 mm thick
plates
17% for
37 to 50% for
as follows:
higher
sustain
Width
Crack
When considering
This
as follows:
varied
beam
the unplated
plate;
The corresponding
10 to
to
able
were
radians.
increases:
following
1.5
and 30 to
than
Rotation
The plated
for
The increase
mm.
plate
loads
plate.
5.4.2.2
to
higher
sustain
1.5 mm thick
with
3 mm thick
with
strengthened
were
of 4.6
a deflection
reaching
to
able
whereas
those
with
experimental
service
and 3 mm thick
plates
of
1.5
6 mm plate
thickness
-90-
load
with
glue
and
show an increase
in
show a decrease.
5.4.3
Three
the
Loads
Ultimate
(a)
Ultimate
(b)
Strain
Compatibility
- glue
cracked.
(c)
Strain
Compatibility
- glue
uncracked.
The general
assumptions
in
calculations
of
the
with
of
are
in
given
and experimental
theoretical
moments for
compatibility
including
when the
marginally
series
a low yield
a large
testing
differences
cut
in
of
plates.
moment
5.2
Plates
from
1.09,1.06
of
3% in
each
case.
glue
is
in
force
the
large
due to
1 nun thick.
in
force
tensile
4,
Appendix
to
included.
fact
the
experimental
actual
the
was not
glue
to
form
beams without
cracked
stress
these
preliminary
used had
plate
therefore,
was providing
was no internal
strain
condition
mm thick
failure.
concentrations
notches.
the
only
for
curve
More
compatibility.
a3
at
strain
respectively,
the
stress
stress
with
that
to
compatibility
varies
In
as there
CP110,
ratio
the
experimental
and strain
This
the beam,
the
between
and 1.05
The glue,
showed that
face
glue
were
condition.
tension
the
of
i. e.
calculation,
on beam 202,
similar
an
ultimate
16%.
The test
from
in
glue,
to be done to determine
the
5 to
the
and no plate,
there
contribution
in
As shown in
needs
mm and 3 mm thick
from
moments.
was very
the
that
methods
proportion
composite
notches
three
tensile
the variation
reinforcement.
glue
the
force
strength
of
Thickness
failure
of variation
a coefficient
1.5
that
over
showed a decrease
beam varying
unplated
no tensile
tensile
the
beams with
plates
can be seen
theoretical
with
moment capacity
failure.
it
5.4
From Table
17% for
1.5 mm Plate
Beams with
5.4.3.1
flexural
reinforcing
beams after
show the
8 to
6 mm thick
compared
capacity
the
and examples
the ultimate
from
beam varied
the
loads
ultimate
4.
unplated
test
theoretical
to CP110.
State
Limit
The increase
with
the
calculating
beams.
test
Appendix
5.8
used for
were
methods
in
the
adhesive
Beam 221,
glue
in
layer
with
had no significant
ULTIMATE
TABLE 5-4
LOADS
STRAIN
ER1V1ENT
STRAIN
CP 110
TBUI UIMATE
ULTIMATE CCWATBLMCOMPS
MOMENT ULTIMATE ULTIMATE OMENT
(4)
m
MOMENT MOMENT
-(1)
(NO GWE) (" CLUE)
LLJ
kNm
kNm
kNm
kNm
mz
(4)
(2)
(3)
(1)
(4)
-(2)
(4)
-(3)
FAILURE
MODE
w
Zw wY
Q. --
201
81.2
83.7
83.7
88.9
1.09
1.06
1-06
FLEXURE
202
82.8
85.9
87.0
93.9
1.13
1.09
1.08
FLEXURE 3.0
203
90.1
92.4
92.8
103.5
1.15
1.12
1.12
204
100.1
102.5
102.9
103.5
1.03
1.01
1.01
205
118.7
120.3
1246
81.7
0.69"
0.61`
0"G>
&LEAR
13l
1.5
3.0
1.5 6.0
206
100.9
104.3
104.9
104.3
1.03
1.00
0.99
FLEXURE/
3-EARBCNC1.5 2x1.5
207
92.2
95.5
966
1046
1.09
1.05
1.04
FLEXURE 3.0
1.5
208
100.9
103.6
104.2
101.2
1.00
0.98
0.97
SURE/
BCT 3.0 30
209
11919
122.1
122.4
84.3
0.70`
0.69'
0.6T
210
118.9
1208
121.2
824
0-69'
0.0
0.68`
aim9al
211
92.7
96.3
97.2
97.3
1.05
1.01
1.00
FLEXURE 30
212
90.4
92.9
93.5
95.8
1.06
1.03
1.02
213
103.4
101.0
104.0
96.9
0-96
0.94
3.0
EXURE/3.0
0.93
B. /
6.0
1.5L
"5L
214
101.3
104.2
104.9
97.0
0.96
0.93
0.92
215
102.0
105.2
106.0
95.8
0.94
0.91
0.90
c9-
216
91.9
951
96.7
100.6
1.09
1.06
1.04
30
-51.
3'0 3-OL
EXURE/
217
101.3
104.2
105.5
98.6 '
0.97
0.95
0.93
218
120.2
1223
122.7
74-5
0.62
0.61
0.60'
219
120.8
123.1
124.3
84.3
0.70
0.68
0.68
6.0 6.0
220
91.7
95.0
96.3
1008
1.10
1.06
1.05
FLEXURE 2-8
1-5
221
91.3
93-9
94.6
98.9
1.08
1.05
1.04
FLEXURE 3.0
1.5
222
91.4
93-9
96-3
102.7
1.12
1.09
1.07
FLEXURE 3.0
1.5P
223
92.8
96.3
96.9
101.2
1.09
1.05
1.04
0.91
FLEXURE/
E4RBa 10
224
102.0
105.1
105-8
95-8
0.94
1.05
0.91
-01
a-ENRIM
6.0 3.0
30P
5.4.3.2
Two Layers
of 1.5'mm'Thick
Plate
of 3 mm Thick
Beams with
One Layer
theoretical
it
5.4
From Table
can be seen
and 0.95
0.98,0.95
case.
There
given
above,
of
were
4% in
of
each
as
moments,
two layers
or
the
as before,
failure
of
3 mm plate
of
between
variation
one layer
for
a coefficient
between
was no difference
or
moments.
with
respectively,
there
that
failure
and experimental
Plate
1.5
of
mm
plate.
5.4
From Table
5% in
and thicker
the
of
from
5.2.
1.83
to
CP110.
in
the
5.4.4
This
indicating
is
difference
strain
load
than
In
those
the
plates,
the
material
safety
the
general
strain
the
uses
this
load
values
1.60
with
plates
from
beyond
CP110 service
to
compares
due to
largely
loads.
hardening
6 mm thick
This
thicker
CP110 calculation
of
2.08.
the
thicker
adding
proof
point.
are
given
in
from
ranged
as recommended
included
factors
method.
1.5 mm Thick
Beams with
of
the
concrete
in
yielding
the
of
to yield,
at
the
a faster
a spread
Plates
1.5 mm thick
beams with
by combined
increased
beams with
of
higher
the
ultimate
that
of
to increase
possible
by simply
service
variation
Modes of Failure
All
started
the
a mean value
with
CP110 design
5.4.4.1
crushing
for
at
of
not
point
that
no account
experimental
of
Except
2.33
by
and takes
it
were
fact
the
that
be noted
should
properties
due to
a coefficient
is
failure
theoretical
with
a certain
CP110 calculations
is
steel
The ratios
Table
deformational
This
compatibility.
it
Nevertheless,
the
found
mean ratio
therefore,
a beam beyond
to
experimental
of
and 0.67
apparent,
of
plates.
enhance
stress
is
capacity
ultimate
greatly
It
case.
each
Plate
were 0.68,0.67
as before,
moments,
the
6 mm Thick
Beams with
5.4.3.3
width
rate.
of
yield
reinforcing
bar
tensile
the
of
one or
With
in
and plate
compression
the
steel
in
bars
in
As the
at
load
or
the
and plate
a flexural
tensile
near
mode
followed
reinforcement
zone.
two cracks
increase
failed
plates
the
adjacent
along
by
reinforcement
critical
section,
cracks
grew wider
the
beam.
The
increase
in
towards
the
crack
None of
glue
and/or
then
occurred
This
debonding
5.4.4.2
face.
in
the
was probably
caused
high
and 103% of
of
bars
steel
towards
tually
cover
concrete
It
reducing
use
area
two layers
length
but
with
failure
beam,
All
with
layer
only
need
these
96% for
of
failure
used
layer
6 mm Plate
to
and evenbut
occurred
the
thickness
mm plate
its
along
the
206
beams
and 213 were
of
was to
full
the
and
the
across
ends.
Its
length
layers
of
CP110 ultimate
as given
the
by
loading
the
thickness
theoretical
however,
this
glued
at
this
accomplish
be prevented
between
had 3 mm plate
investigate
diagonally
root
could
being
halfway
was stopped
by shear/bond,
the
away.
first
103% of
in
to failure.
its
No debonding
94
was no sign
readings
prior
at
crack
The method
therefore
between
and propagated
plate
the
and shear/
There
The strain
to be done to
beams failed
the
type
the
and 1.5
which
achieve
had occurred
plate.
ends.
plate,
206,
was still
Beams with
5.4.4.3
second
the
unloading.
flexure
of
as they
or plate.
shear/bond
characteristics
moment-rotation
tests
at
after
deflections,
moment capacity.
was ripped
mm thick.
The mode of
this
moment region
compared
capacity
Further
the
was compared
1.5
bars
mm thick
This
bending
behaviour
plate
1.5
points.
constant
plate
that
of
of
as usual
support
internal
the
the
the
The debonding
zone.
was a combination
yielding
of
from
or
zone widening
separation
was thought
the
mm Plate
the end of
at
debonding
plates.
and concrete
compression
partial
to
the
between
apparent
post-failure
CP110 ultimate
that
plate
height
crack
a point
at
compression
initiated
concrete
the
of
large
of
crushed
the
of
a mode which
indicated
crack
causing
in
the glue
and plates
the
strains
theoretical
between
A shear
the
in
however,
their
debonding
due to
Two Layers
of 1.5
Plate
of 3 mm Thick
concrete
moment region
constant
very
the
failure
after
except
Beams with
One Layer
bond.
Finally
propagation
these
concrete,
have
would
was accompanied
width
compression
loads.
the
by a slow
in
Table
load-deflection
almost
5.4.
and
identical.
technique.
Thickness
by shearing
off
-94-
the
concrete
along
the
level
of
the
internal
sign
reinforcement,
debondirrg
of
there
any sign
5.5
Fig.
at
characteristics
5.6
Values
with
loads
service
from
the
load
plate
rotations
and glue
of
view.
and cracking
6.
Chapter
included
bars
steel
point
is
5.5
Fig.
failure
to experimental/theoretical
are
was
that
deflections,
(28)
the
the
with
ultimate
in
nor
was no
to failure.
apparent
discussed
are
Smith
and
load
is
in
readings
failure
There
cover.
to failure,
prior
prior
It
changed
Cusens
plate
occurred
the
of
when considering
ordinates
by
obtained
5.5
had not
satisfactory
were not
or
concrete
The strain
glue.
failure.
modes of
behaviour
their
Fig.
yielding
the
6 mm plates
However,
in
that
and their
thickness,
with
in
the
off
and concrete
cracking
indicated
and plate
the glue
of
of
ripping
effectively
for
comparison.
the
following
replotted
load.
CONCLUSIONS
in
presented
this
section
conclusions
can be made.
1.
visual
2.
failure,
No debonding
thus
3.
beam which
addition
5.
was observed
had a layer
of
of
6.
(a)
or
in
the
or
steel
glue
the
of
first
in
Further
the
glue
to
prior
including
to failure,
prior
conditions
occurred
loading.
throughout
was achieved
stress
in
flexural
could
This
concrete
a plate.
bonded
tests
layer
need
the
to be
when acting
the
ultimate
strength
steel
plates
was found
capacity
be satisfactorily
the
of
of
to be only
predicted
17%.
beams with
concrete
using
beam by
an unplated
all
three
external
methods
4.
More research
failures.
the
appearance
loads.
service
without
externally
Appendix
from
the
and concrete.
The ultimate
in
detailed
in
adhesive
the
steel
reinforcement
plate
action
4.
bond
composite
glue
No cracking
with
compositely
the
full
the
of
to determine
performed
increase
a resulting
with
cracks
delays
reinforcement
could
variation
is
needed
to
investigate
possibly
be achieved
of
end geometry,
plate
thickness
-95-
methods
of
preventing
shear/
by:
either
by reducing
the
width
290280-
MODE OF
FAILURE
270Z
G
X
260-
Q
250
x FLEXURE
FLEXURE/SHEAR
BOND
w
Q 240
NO PLATE
2307-220
W
210
SHEAR-BOND
w 200
190
2.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
ADHESIVE THICKNESSmm
VARIATIONOF ULTIMATELOAD
1.0
FIGURE5.5
3.0
1.25-1
x
1.00-I
0.750
0
0.50-
0.25-a,
1.0
FIGURE5.6
EFFECT
4.0
5.0
6'0
ADHESIVE THICKNESSmm
OF ADHESIVETHICKNESS
2.0
3.0
(b)
lower
should
modulus
elastic
therefore
(c)
of
variation
delay
near
the
the
plate
the onset
provision
glue's
of
of anchor
elastic
ends would
modulus
at
reduce
the
the propagation
bolts
or
straps
of
at
large
the plate
shear
stresses
shear
the plate
ends.
cracks
ends.
A
and
CHAPTER 6
" DEFORMATION PROPERTIES
6.1
INTRODUCTION
In
the
load
due to
high
their
this
increased
deformations.
of
that
this
will
is
reduced
be incapable
depends
distribution
limit
ledge
the moment-curvature
or
Baker
of
of
the
of
in
factor
local
means that
resisting
the
become plastic
total
of
which
are
relationship,
require
in members.
If
The
is
method
the
that
calculated
resistance
moment it
moment at
the
of
on a know-
either
by Sawyer
proposed
such
reSeveral
structure.
based
So at
can get.
The amount
such as that
relationship,
against
safety
some calculated
and yield.
capacity
of
damage due to
a design
the
has
there
structures.
a member.
this
design
strength
construction
means transferring
position
moment-rotation
the
regions
in
behaviour
and concrete,
as that
(87),
proposed
by
problems
and
(88).
is obvious
It
can also
is
under
resulted
However,
of
hinging
design
of
on a knowledge
moduli
of
This
then
steels
indeterminate
deformational
on the
theories
of
cracked
ultimate
possibility
inelastic
to another
strength
an adequate
capacity
position
low
were
and rotations
members.
elastic
statically
can be used.
a support
section
for
including
one position
moment at
the
maintaining
theories
moment redistribution
moment at
in
deformational
the
advantage
and concrete
severely
and sophisticated
to a greater
rise
gives
design
of
not
high
use of
to use slender
possible
correctly
collapse,
knowledge
the
increase
Although
Limit
steel
deflections
small
of more accurate
been no corresponding
major
towards
have made it
materials.
members were
Therefore,
trend
development
procedures
both
stiffness.
The present
and the
concrete
conditions.
for
stresses
allowable
reinforced
and as a result
service
the
past,
give
of great
rise
that
excessive
to public
importance
but it
concern.
deflection
The prediction
is complicated
and control
of deformation
which
influence
the behaviour
conditions,
Additional
of cracking.
of primary
The object
of
this
and degree
of precracking
term deflections
lapping
thickness,
are
which
was to assess
techniques,
the
multiple
load-strain,
load-deflection
was observed
for
on the
extent
and shrinkage.
investigation
the
of
creep
and the
effects
layers
plate
and moment-
characteristics.
rotation
behaviour
The load-strain
bars
reinforcing
and the
both
steel
internal
the
In
plates.
steel
the
addition
con-
was measured.
methods
accepted
for
deflections
the
predicting
beams were
concrete
reinforced
of normally
bonded
externally
distribution
strain
surface
The use of
for
assessed
the
and rotation
beams.
plated
/PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
6.2
in
described
measured
by electrical
concrete
strains
length
the
at
6.3
6.3.1
rotations
above being
at
part
are
and procedure
and plate
at various
deflection
were
locations,
extensometer
The load
this
of
and the
200 mm gauge
by dial
was measured
incrementally,
was applied
each stage.
Introduction
6.1
6.3
to
summarise
The deflections,
rotations
The neutral
depth
is
then
found
axis
The curvature
culated
taken
bars
in
'DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Tables
strain
The central
only.
were used
apparatus
steel
gauges
by inclinometer.
described
readings
strain
the
by a demountable
were measured
section
test
in
The strains
resistance
centre
5.3.
Section
5.2
Section
The instrumentation,
investigation.
the
in
beams described
four
The twenty
of
of
loading;
of
properties;
long
controlling
effects
part
and plate
glue
crete
the
are
of varying
and section
materials
variables
importance
and distribution
the magnitude
of
by the
is
neutral
by dividing
and strains
axis
the
the
obtained
from
by dividing
depth.
applied
main
are
the
results
taken
bending
directly
strain
from
distribution
the measured
The experimental
from
obtained
concrete
flexural
moment by the
curvature.
the
the
in
tests.
measurements.
the
concrete.
compressive
rigidity
was cal-
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Tables
6.1A
and 6.1B
crack
load
and at
visible
being
The latter
loads.
service
for
1.15
the
ultimate
by 1.6.
Design
as given
in Table
to
the
first
at
first
the
above
found
load
for
deformation
loads.
crack
load
safety
factors
design
by strain
A, which
design
at
was calculated
- 1.5
load
service
C was taken
characteristics
service
material
load
for
B, which
and
concrete
was calculated
compatibility
methods
as 130 KN for
comparative
and dividing
purposes,
6.2C.
deformation
shows the
rigidities
the
theoretical
with
design
is
The flexural
compared
just
show the
for
6.2B
service
6.3
Table
is
6.2A
Table
steel.
by taking
and 6.2C
including
by CP 110 methods
characteristics
comparisons.
6.2B
Table
is
60 kN, which
used for
6.2A,
Tables
deformation
show the
characteristics
found
values
from
the
both
before
near
load.
ultimate
experimental
readings
were
cracking
(Tables
and after
6.1
6.3).
60 kN load,
At
rigidity
to
mental
0.56
1.5
increased
the
At
behaviour
the
130 kN the
only
flexural
than
in
unplated
mean ratio
0.93.
At
the
the
plated
the
of
flexural
the
of
for
loads,
calculated
of
for
was 0.66,
can be seen at
the
extent
of
from
ranging
it
plates
just
load,
this
experi-
gave 0.54.
3 mm thick
between
was 0.76
above
the
and therefore
cracking
beams.
unplated
The ratio
the
with
rigidities
constant
beams were
plated
When compared
have reduced
plates
the
was 0.86;
it
Thus
service
unplated
of
rigidity
and rotations.
the
the
stiffness
higher
140%
and
the
precracked
0.77.
6 mm plates
load,
sections
while
the
of
beam.
plates
crack
the
rigidities
unplated
0.56
of
except
mm thick
for
and
first
uncracked
theoretical
to 0.86,
the
than
the
flexural
the
of
beam.
the
However,
moment region
beams as a whole
to
experimental
For
plates
-106-
figures
and a better
is
found
theoretical
3 mm plates
the
beams were
these
beams reinforced
beams with
therefore,
plated
with
it
are
between
represent
representation
through
1.5
was 1.0
effectively
the
of
deflections
the
flexural
40
rigidity
mm thick
and for
plates
for
the
6 mm plates
increasing
the
flexural
above
rigidity
190 kN load,
At
Since
the
tween
two cracks,
the
least
e,
load,
in
had a 1.5
spacers
out
squeezed
Fig.
almost
surface
the
are
strains
bar,
and
same level
are
reinforcing
the
at
it
200 mm so that
of
at
crossed
in
curves
given
almost
identical.
6.1
Fig.
shows that
with
glue
excess
beam.
Beam 204,
two layers
3 mm thick
with
of
strains
1.5
up to
mm plate
thereafter.
behaviour
for
beams with
itscbehaviour
glue
bar
the
of
increases.
show similar
mm thick
the
thickness
a glue
closely
fact
with
unplated
the
cracks,
The load-strain
surface
thickness
layer,
placed
identically
for
plate
in
6.4
in
strain
be-
bars
the
of
extension
across
length
was read.
respectively.
glue
loads,
the
on
strain
may be neglected.
that
amount
by the
tensile
Bar Strains
and 6.4
6.3
3
mm thick
and
service
it
identically
layers
glue
representa-
and deflection
the
that
small
given
that
concrete
and concrete
and very
Figs.
than
is
surface
the
shows that
behaved
service
the
bar
as the
decreased
which
in
the
6.2
Fig.
thick
a very
can be concluded
Reinforcing
6.3.2.2
plat
is
cracks
the
at
each time
one crack
confirmed
are
it
strain
that
rotation
(94,96,97)
identical.
from
the
a better
below.
between
width
crack
therefore
again
Review
surface
concrete
However,
obtained
It
the
beam.
plated
Characteristics
Literature
6.3.2.1
is
the
of
rigidities
unplated
beam behaviour
Load-Strain'
6.3.2
the
beam.
unplated
flexural
as reported
characteristic
the
of
the
than
total
the
of
that
was almost
layer.
line
It
to
is
identical
its
a glue
layer
had 6 mm thick
plates
more flexible
above
to
Beam 205
therefore,
thought,
control
3 mm and 6 mm
thickness
that
(Fig.
some of
have
must
6.9)
been
glue.
a beam with
which
only
was slightly
had lapped
had a continuous
layer
plates,
of
plate.
stiffer
behaved
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layers
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bonding
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behaviour
face
results
bending)
before
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showed lower
This
be explained
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of movement
four
These
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plate
mm plate.
failure
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above hypothesis
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The behaviour
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glue
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posite
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60 kN load
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It
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The shear
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The tests
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load
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and for
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strain
mean values
found
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limiting
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failure
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values
2407 microstrain;
unplated
beam was
as follows:
for
the
were
3 mm thick
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6 mm thick
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to
prior
-
concrete
410
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plates
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Values
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the
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2080
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concrete
strength
plates
strain
capacity
strains
involves
having
section
at which
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those
are
strains
normal
failure.
yield-
- 1230 microstrain.
Furthermore,
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point
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the
For
The determination
of
indicating
again
of
also
compressive
1.5 mm thick
microstrain;
6 mm plate
yield
stress
the
- 356 microstrain
At
their
plates,
such properties
study
60 kN load,
455 microstrain.
beams with
the
3 mm thick
Strains
Concrete
At
3.9,
stresses
beams with
the
stresses.
ultimate
6.3.2.4
to
for
plates
Fig.
are
stresses
interfacial
designed
not
were
bond
Local
strains.
bond
anchorage
deformed
plastically
2900 microstrain,
7 some assessments
In Appendix
and the
6 mm thick
approaching
are
plates
2300 to
strain,
the
stage
failure
to
prior
this
beam.
concrete
from
plates.
the
stress
stage
the
microstrain.
that
the
varied
strains
At
failure.
after
measured
for
plates
the
(98).
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prior
For
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as was exhibited
6 mm plate
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Typical
axis
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of
indicates
tension
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of
true
the
In
axis
Above
linear
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once
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but
3 mm and 6 mm plates.
beams with
well
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reinforced
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first
crack
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steel
to
tension
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half
depth.
the
of
strain
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non-linear
on the
positions
the
to
The rise
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beams were
balanced
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for
than
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This
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and
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moved closer
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Before
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load,
has cracked
6.25.
outer
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This
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from
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position
fact
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Fig
the
at
the
concrete
failure,
to
prior
from
above
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face
compression
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because
strain,
cracks.
neutral
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This
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approximately
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it.
of
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given
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the
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difference
the
faces
compression
distributions
strain
concrete
from
changing
(6 mm
section
plate).
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failure
to
prior
plate;
percentage
purpose
this
the
of
steel
added
that
experiment
fore
for
present
bond
is
fails
concrete
is
reinforced
tension
of
design
series
failure
Their
values
that
a limiting
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to
in
steel
in
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the
appears
to
of x/d
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value
ratio
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of
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0.4
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0.4
to 0.5.
the
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brittle
avoid
It
flexural
beams with
the
to
be better
As tension
found
It
by
0.6,
there-
beams in
a more brittle
1.5
for
plated
before
stress
failure.
respectively.
would
The
approximately
For
1.5 mm
on the
placed
yield
has been
is
stage
6 mm plates.
process.
its
reach
when x/d
purely
come between
will
increases.
x/d
limited
generally
transition
steel
and thus
does not
steel
is
the
that
ensure
is
design
the
load
beams with
beams with
the
at
for
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to
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depths,
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3 mm plates;
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In normally
to
axis
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0.31
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mm and 3 mm plates.
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This
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it
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thought
thicker
plates
loads.
By modifying
However,
beams with
the
under
ultimate
back
changed
and then
the
and 0.47
0.39
of x/d-being
between
occurred
to a flexural
limiting
that
the
to
3 mm and 5 mm plate,
type
of
the
plate
Further
x/d
bond
shear
be alleviated,
could
of
beams with
flexural
their
respectively.
mode.
value
from
showed a transition
is
testing
by the
found
in
as discussed
ends such
suggested
failure
failures
Chapter
present
be
could
to verify
needed
in
this,
may be
series
increased.
6.3.3
6.3.3.1
of Literature
Review
the
properties,
the
analysis
is
such deflections
the
of
to
concrete
Because
only
feasible
so that
of
but
engineers
the
the
that
order
material
not
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to a load,
15 to
other,
20%.
of
which
this
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only
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h
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and
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addition
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In
and
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reliance
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specified
relatively
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measured
deflection,
that
curvature
determined
of
essential
This
experimentally
the
also
on the
the most
structures,
is
nature
Even with
shown that
of
actual
designer
and tension
section.
have
in
probabilistic
analysis.
between
variability
When subjected
one side
using
(82)
Studies
in beams is
a rational
of variation
range
high.
surprisingly
is
of
methods
sophisticated
for
methods
statistical
requires
behaviour
deflection
The actual
for
Characteristics
Load Deflection
be used
results.
compression
curvature
on
at
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For
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E is
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of
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of
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the
where
and k is
the
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important
The most
(a)
deflections
instantaneous
value
tension
To account
B.
Method
the
to
cracks
length
the
throughout
rigidity
(76)
where
correction
0.1
fcu2/3
been
determined
that
method
h(h
followed
factor
empirically.
B gave
of
curvature
along
short
term
the
general
beam
the
are
for
the
of
at
somewhat
methods
for
the
midspan
simple
contribution
the
given
using
the
beam for
the
of
are
of
below:
calculation
load.
calculated
inertia
deflections
20. years
two simple
service
under
beam the
The
elastic
methods.
is
as a constant
used
spans.
of
the
concrete
deflections
from
between
method
A were
'Mj
-*.
F=1
Ml
In
last
the
over
presented
factor
by a correction
multiplied
by computing
respectively.
variation
predicting
proposed
moments of
transformed
cracked,
of
The deflections
A.
Method
k01t2
on the
methods
members,
concrete
reinforced
section.
beam.
the
span of
and
by
given
a constant
the
curvatures
a=
k is
beam material,
area
or deflection
The rotation
of
0 is
curvature
by
given
the
local
the
material,
an elastic
of
- x)
and M' =
an elastic
theory
Comparison
better
service
results.
-129-
with
moment.
approach
test
with
data
for
The derivation
the
factor
0.1
of
the
having
90 beams indicated
(b)
1961 - Comit6
determining
deflections
deflection
taneous
uncracked
deflection
less
cracked
culated
section
strength
the
is
produced.
of
the
produced,
to
in
instan-
of
the
of
and the
the working
latter
This
concrete
value
deflection
the
sum of
cracking
is
the
moment
moment being
bending.
for
method
cal-
can be
This
by:
expressed
Mcr
R2FEC
a=k
(M -
+4
Mcr
is
is
EctEs
are
Iu
is
the
uncracked
As
is
the
area
is
the
effective
the
of
(1-2g3)1
is
cracking
produced,
consideration,
moduli
of
and steel,
concrete
transformed
inertia,
moment of
reinforcement,
depth,
and
"A
elastic
Mcr)
(1-2q)
ESASd
I3
where
in which
a moment equal
under
cracking
tensile
the
to
equal
under
the
of
loads,
term
short
under
was considered
section
(78)
du Beton
European
(S)
(_
)
D
J.
cu
is
This
of
a load
lower
in
uncertainty
satisfies
tion
M=
in
of
the
Mcr the
relation
the
tensile
(77)
Branson
concrete
sion
load.
which
In practice,
strength
for
can allow
of
the
the
application
however,
there
is
concrete
as this
some
can be
by shrinkage.
inertia
properties,
method
working
assessing
1963 - D. E.
moment of
large
the
than
considerably
reduced
(c)
gave a form
a beam in which
strength
limiting
cracking
the
and extent
conditions
moment,
of
effect
of
Ieff
and Ieff
bending
of
is
cracking
I'
= approaches
I -
(Iu
- Icr)
Cl
Mcr
-
(M)
n1
J
the
effective
moment,
included.
a Vu when the
to Mcr
Ieff
for
expression
moment at
section
The expresthat
when M is
very
sec-
n is
where
(83).
an unknown power.
distribution
the
to
relative
Branson
used the
determine
vidual
that
mined
average
same type
for
Ieff
n.
was found
n=4
the
of
simply
is
a,
to
effective
but
where
with
beams with
relation
by Murashev
was established
T beams),
moment of
to
empirically
inertia
at
be used
uniform
loading.
iMMr) 3]
Icr
and
an indi-
was further
It
could
n=3
(simple
beams,
good agreement.
give
for
deteran
The equation
as:
im)3
then
Iu
kM L2
Ec Ieff
depends
which
a coefficient
Cl
by
given
a=
k is
effects
supported
equation
Ieff
The deflection,
the
supported
given
For
function
a power
some 58 laboratory
from
results
for
the value
section
cracking
of
for
A precedent
on the
type
of
loading
form
of
the
and support
conditions.
(d)
1968 - Beeby
where
relationship
(84)
0,
an idealised
proposed
the
curvature
was given
Mcr
E
it
Firstly,
values
for
was assumed
X were
given
the results
and
1970 - CEB (85)
to
+M-
I'
X
but
Ec I'
this,
overestimated
beams.
the
Alternative
values
as:
E (0.825
(0.57
X=
and subjected
by:
Mcr
X=
that
X=
(e)
cu
moment curvature
for
beams of
symmetrical
a.
=2 k
loading
Mcr
(E
I3
Ed
constant
the
Icr
Icr
section,
midspan
loaded
deflection
Mcr
+4M-
ES AS z (d - x)
in
simple
is
given
bending
by:
Mcr,
where
z=
lever
d=
effective
x=
neutral
is
This
the
the
depth,
their
in
concrete
In
beam.
the
with
give
better
integration
6.26
Figs.
6.26
reduced
the
of
the
cracks
was found
method
to
beam.
involves
which
the
calculating
finding
the
deflection
by
however,
suggest
Curves
to
6.35
mm plate
3 mm plate.
Figs.
6.28
a beam with
and a central
of
6.27
shows that
than
same behaviour
those
identical
results
and 6.30
thickness
mm glue
for
the
the
deflections
thickness.
plate
curves
to
behaviour
show similar
two layers
of
a single
layer
beams with
the
beams.
test
for
beams with
3 mm
respectively.
stiffer
slightly
1.5
a constant
increasing
with
load-deflection
show the
for
gave almost
Fig.
with
rigidity
between
tension
that
was assumed
the
The second
an approach
and then
the
along
shows that
and 6 mm plates
the
to
resists
strength.
suggests
Load-Deflection
6.3.3.2
of
flexural
it
method
in
strain
approach.
simplified
1.5
first
the
concrete
initially,
sections
of
numerical
are
In
deflections
results.
curvatures
Fig.,
the
relating
part
and compressive
its
(g)
determining
maximum tensile
respectively.
second method
as much as 75% of
for
two methods
the
using
tension
the
the
with
modified.
describes
determined
(1961)
recommendations
being
(80)
and concrete
steel
as before
same meaning
and
earlier
stiffness
cracking
curvatures
the
depth.
axis
1972 - Stevens
from
have
IU
arm,
to
similar
to post
(f)
Es,
M, Ec,
the
as for
beam with
an unlapped
lap
the
joint.
the
beam with
unplated
beam.
strains,
i. e.
a continuous
3 mm thick
Two other
plate
a glue
layer,
but
to another
beams are
lapped.
Fig.
6.29
beam having
shown which
is
showed
plates
deflections
reduced
layer.
no plate,
compared
also
compares
3 mm plate
dv
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of
1.5 mm plate,
fell
6.31
The deflections
thickness.
glue
but
not
thickness.
beams with
similar
produced
variable
glue
a 1.5
the
as the
reduced
is
for
lines
thickness.
Figs.
is
for
increases,
constant
follow
6.32
glue
very
and 6.33
closely
show
The stiffening
plates.
as the
reduced
beams
varying
thickness
increased
glue
four
all
plate.
glue
and notched
thickness
glue
of
thickness
mm plate
3 mm and 6 mm thick
beams with
by increasing
3 mm thick
thickness
plate
The behaviour
unlapped
are
constant
for
behaviour
similar
the
beams with
compares
lapped.
being
layer
outer
6% of
within
Fig.
to
the
thickness
plate
increases.
the
have deflections
plates
load,
but
less
70 to
beam.
beam's
deflection.
plate),
59 to
At
6.3.3.3
11
loads.
A measure
deflections
at
reduction
a small
was obtained
beams with
should
6.4
for
and their
values
examination.
of
the
100% (1.5
mm plate),
values
the
were
of
78 to
to
reduced
not
deflections,
the
67% (6 mm plate)
deflections
reduced
54% (6 mm plate).
unplated
96% (1.5
of
the
to
69 to
These
mm
unplated
837
(1.5
results
mm
are
6.36.
deflections
shows experimental
of
the
ductility
of
an unplated
that
were
in
ductility
1.5 mm thick
be noted
further
85 to
to
similarly
and 51 to
beams were
60 kN load
decreased
on
Predictions'of'Deflections
Theoretical
Table
190 kN the
The control
needs
at
and 61 to
in Fig.
this.
to bonding
prior
beams up to working
control
load-strains
were
69% (3 mm plate)
shown diagrammatically
their
94% (6 mm plate)
and 60 to
87% (3 mm plate),
plate),
than
were
deflections
130 RN the
the
be seen that
beams,
the precracked
68 to
as for
it-can
beams loaded
that
beams above
control
6.18
95% (3 mm plate)
At
greater
behaviour,
From Table
for
the
than
This
precracked.
except
indicate
and 6.35
6.34
Figs.
the
beam.
plates;
two beams,
the
at
for
plated
each of
beams,
The reductions
13% (3 mm plates)
210 and 218 failed
extrapolated.
-136-
220 kN,
the
130 kN and 60 kN
by comparing
test
however,
were
the
beams.
There
only
one value
as follows:
107 for
reaching
is
It
220 kN load
-137-
313
C
110
O
to
N
cn
10
11
r'1
mv
N
NN
;-
TO
`V
U
i--
fV
x
V
W
r^
JW
QJ
aa
$
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v,
..
Ln
to
w
00
00
N0
NN
N'l
ab01
0
N
mnddd
0
N
0
N
LO
NX
OVOI
C31lddV
0
lo
0
v
0
N
x
"
1.5mm plate.
3mm plate
6mm
plate.
16 -I
14-I
p
E
12
10-
19OkN
8..a
6-
130 kN
4
2
}-60kN
123456
GLUE THICKNESS mm
FIGURE6.36
DEFLECTION
TABLE 6.4
N
w
u
~
mz
U)
Wz
EXPERIMENTAL
ONS..., mm.,
DEFLECTI
FIRST
CL
CRACK
130
CHARACTERISTICS
THEORETICAL
DEFLECTIONS-(130kN)
CP110.
220 kN
mm
ACI.
mm
CE B.
mm
EXPERIMENTAL
THEORETICAL
CP110. ACI.
mm
mm
CEB.
mm
}o
=ry
C
=
1-00
7-30
20-40
6"12
6.10
710
119
1-20
1-03
2-79
1-20
6"90
17-70
6-12
6"10
7-10
1-13
113
0-97
2'56
1"70
6-60
16-20
5-00
5-00
5-81
1-32
1-33
1-14
2"45
201
202
203
1-5 1-5
204 1-5
1-65
6-00
13-80
4-20
4"30
4-99-
1-43
1-40
1-20
2,30
205
1-5
1-20
4-60
11,00
3-50
3'43
3"97
1-31
1'34
1-16
2-39
206
1-5 2x1"5
1-40
5-70
13-00
4-20
4-30
4"99
1"36
1-33
1-14
2-28
207
1-5
1-80
6-00
16-00
5-00
5-00
5-81
1-20
1-21
1-03
2-67
208
1.40
5"00
12"60
4-20
4-30
4-99
1-19
1-16
1"00
2-52
209
1-30
4-50
11-50
3-50
3"43
3-97
1-29
1-31
1-13
2-56
210
1"20
4-30
1100
3"50
3'43
3-97
1-23
1-25
1-08
2-56
211
L
1-5,
1,65
5-80
14-00
5-00
4"89
5-83
1-16
1"19
0-99
2-41
212
1"51 1-35
5-80
14-80
5-00
4-89
5-83
1-16
1-19
0-99
2"55
213
2x1"51 1-45
5-40
1300
4-20
4-30
4-99
1-29
1.20
1-08
2-41
214
15.L
1-35
4-80
12-00
4-20
4-30
4-99
1-14
1"12
0-96
2-50
215
3L
1-35
4-70
11-60
4"20
4-30
4-99
1-12
1-09
0"94
2-47
216
1-5
1-60
5-70
1400
5-00
4-89
5"83
1-14
1-17
0-98
2-46
217
1-00
4-80
11-60
4-20
4-22
4-99
1"14
1-12
0-96
2-42
218
0-90
4-20
1080
3"50
3-43
3-97
1-20
1-22
0-96
2-57
219
1-20
4-20
1040
3-50
3.43
3-97
1-20
1-22
1"06
2-48
220 28
1"5
1-70
540
13-80
5-00
4-89
5-83
1-08
1.10
0-93
2-56
221
1-5
1-70
6-60
16-00
5-00
4-89
5"83
1-32
1-39
113
2"42
222
1"5.P
2-00
6-40
13-50
5"00
5-00
5-81
1-28
1-29
1-10
2-11
223
1"5P 2-60
7.00
14-60
5-00
5-00
5"81
1-40
1-41
1-20
2-01
224
3.P
4-80
11-00
4-20
4-30
4"99
114
1.12
0.96
2-29
1.23
1.23
1.05
1-65
mean ratios
LP-
lapped
plates.
precracked.
The deflections
in Appendix
described
mental
values
tion
for
1.05
(CEB).
Within
best
the
of
were
1.15
(CP110),
of
as the most
6.3.4
local
6.37(a)
behaviour
into
be divided
The first
beam.
parts
OX, is
behave
slope
of
the
decreasing
In
curve.
cracks
and the
At
either
the
YZ,
part,
compression
at
starts
least
shown in Fig.
uncracked
state
region
steel
section
cracking
are
and the
studied
(CEB),
gives
three
to
of measured
theoretical
the
confirming
and the
the
the
area
the
of
stages
their
begins
changing
and the
tension
steel
beams.
The curvatures
-141-
ultimate
of
typical
the
capacity,
reaches
when the
beam along
is
The concrete
strain
range.
inelastically.
slope
its
and
compression
inelastic
to behave
the
by a changing
face.
compression
behaviour.
of
concrete
characterised
in
of
can
between
and both
concrete
the
a reflection
The curve
different
reaches
characteristics
is
section.
is
approaching
1 is
by integrating
relationship
XY,
by a rapidly
Distribution
a typical
of
curve
uncracked
part,
concrete
or
in under-reinforced
6.37(b).
to
is
towards
steel
cross
by a linear
section
characterised
Y and Z the
Between
stage,
is
the
the
of
up the
corresponding
spread
fibres
third
deflections
can be found
The shape
making
this
compression
Y,
beam.
The second
elastically.
as the
point
(A. C. I. );
1.23
diagram
rotation
characterised
since
deflec-
predicted
predicting
were
moment-curvature
The total
the
three
part,
for
mean ratios
give
to
method.
the materials
of
experi-
1.21
shows the
along
curvatures
with
Review
concrete
reinforced
comparison
(CP110) ;
1.23
to
methods
of measured
by Ang (72)
found
three
Characteristics
Literature
Figure
for
CEB method
results
appropriate
Moment-Rotation
6.3.4.1
the
The test
6.4
Table
as follows:
the
by the
as calculated
tests
present
calculation
deflections
latter
the
in
given
beams were
results.
methods
are
130 kN load.
at
the
all
5,
beams,
the
all
of
of
the
its
at
the
curve.
concrete
these
length
under
hardening
strain
beam is
its
The
stages
in
are
the
are
the
z
w
M:
0
::E
CURVATURE
(a)
MOMENT
CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP
LOAD
j,
BENDING
MOMENT
CURVATURE
(b)
MOMENT
FIGURE 6.37
AND
CURVATURE DISTRIBUTION
MOMENT
CURVATURE
-142-
RELATIONSHIP
'
same, thus
the
As a result
of
of
the
the
increases
The curvature
while
it
over
the
remains
very
length
the
of
the
measuring
the
6.3.4.2
Moment Rotation
four
beams.
test
the
beam.
reduced
the
plates
rotations
(3 mm plate)
69-73%
These
results
6.3.4.3
difference
between
under
strength
estimated
of
concrete
section,
The total
rotation
can be obtained
beam or by
the
of
them together.
discussed
experimental
first
their
curves
to between
are
load,
the
50 and 92% of
1.5
with
mm plate
beams value.
(6 mm plate).
69-75%
mm plate);
of
service
It
the
were
3 mm and 6 mm
At
130 kN load
nm plate);
rotations
and 51-70%
were
(6 mm plate).
6.48.
Rotations
between
rotations
(1.5
of
for
the
for
60 kN
rotations
value
81-947.
(3 mm plate)
Fig.
and
At
given.
the
190 kN the
At
in
comparison
6.
to
twenty
load-strain
total
Similarly
a similar
manner
the
curves.
rotations
crack
of
under
in
experiment
above
length
the
curve.
critical
loading
of
shows the
in Appendix
beam.
to
Prediction
calculated
the
moment-rotation
shown diagramatically
Theoretical
6.5
the
unplated
were
(1.5
are
Table
the
and 51-697
83-94%
to
reduced
the
reduced
were
near
stage
behaviour,
for
decreased
reductions
the
region
loading
the
near
moment curvature
moment-rotation
beams strengthened
For
80-92% of
to
shows the
above
slightly
beams were
plated
unplated
the
is
which
to Distribution
corresponds
of
characteristics
Curves
and 6.3
6.1
rest
and adding
was observed
In Tables
the
along
load-deflection,
load,
curvature
and 6.47
6.38
Figs.
the
the
side,
Z on the
over
moment distribution.
especially
any particular
rotations
support
This
to point
over
beam at
tension
non-linear,
rapidly
linear
nearly
by integrating
either
is
3 corresponds
Distribution
point.
beam.
the
along
vary
bending
the
the
along
cracks
The distribution
Y.
and point
of
spread
cross-section
follows
distribution
curvature
the
measured
as the
increases.
The calculated
slightly
better
load
increases,
The rotations
values
values
and those
rotations
are
greatly
the
assuming
than
the
for
tensile
3 N/mm2.
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3.0
1.0
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ROTATION
5,0
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CHARACTERISTICS
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To produce
allowance
in
strain
of
the
a more accurate
the
test
present
can be applied
crete
at
theoretical
is
where
k and c are
constants,
W=
load
ultimate
include
validity
a factor
in
strain
degree
the
upon
the
check
The compressive
as the
occurs
the
in
loading
of
con-
rela-
c
ultimate
consideration,
load.
ultimate
= log
(Ec - Ecorrected)
Then log
under
= theoretical
to
order
some
Then we have
Ec
_w,
-k`
-
stage
which
to Ec should
dependant
capacity.
Ecorrected
In
beams.
test
load
any particular
its
to
to other
behaviour,
rotational
Modulus
increases.
'correction'
the
results
in Young's
change
concrete
compressive
which
tion
the
of
prediction
k+c
(W
log
ultimate
The experimental
load
each
rotations
1 N/mm2 for
using
stage,
of EC - Ecorrected
value
W)
is
in Fig.
log
(W
the
ultimate
line
best fit
formula
used
the
found
then
6.49.
by linear
The resulting
are
find
to
tensile
strength
and the
log
The values
of
Ecorrected
the
of
values
required
The
concrete.
were
k and c were
plotted
found
at
against
by plotting
regression.
is:
Ecorrected
a EC - 1.37.10
1188
w)
(w
ultimate
6.5
Table
difference
values
plate
are
the
between
these
plotted
against
thicknesses
values
used,
from
results
all
formula
this
In Fig.
and experiment.
experimental
fell
points
the
and also
6.50
percentage
the
calculated
values
and for
the
range
within
12% of
the
experimental
of
glue
and
e
line.
theoretical
6.4
gives
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the
results
presented
in
this
Chapter
the
following
conclusions
can be drawn.
1.
As the
glue
bar
thickness
line
of
thickness,
and concrete
the
reinforcing
there
strains,
plate
was increased,
was a corresponding
central
-151-
deflection
reduction
and total
for
in:
rotation
a constant
plate,
x
X
X
X
X
-1.5
log w
FIGURE 6.49
vV lAir e
-1 u-
u"o
50
FIGURE 6.50
200
250
300
150
100
EXPERIMENTALROTATION 10-4 radians
350
400
450
2.
As the
thickness
lesser
3.
4.
was increased,
line
glue
in
was a reduction
these
for
a constant
plate
but
same properties
to a
degree.
Beams with
with
of
there
thickness,
the
layers
multiple
a single
lapped
Beams with
plates
increased
slightly
lever
This
same thickness.
the
than
stiffer
slightly
arm of
identically
almost
to beams
thickness.
same total
were
the
of
plates
continuous
of plate
the
of
plate
behaved
lapping
beams with
due to
was probably
the
at
plate
the
critical
section.
5.
6.
notched
identically
the
to
The preloaded
general,
than
bonding
on the
further
and variable
beam with
corresponding
testing
should
be performed
a constant
does not
in
and rotations,
prior
seem logical
investigate
to
almost
thickness.
glue
been cracked
had not
behaviour
This
behaved
thickness
deflections
strains,
beams which
corresponding
plates.
line
glue
and
findings
these
to
more
fully.
7.
The deflections
CP110 and A. C. I.
gave the
values
8.
The ductility
of
figure
The rotations
following
having
results
beam.
beam this
recommended
slightly
were
underestimated
The method
calculations.
a mean ratio
of
using
by CEB
given
to
experimental
theoretical
1.05.
of
unplated
9.
best
loads
service
at
the
However,
as there
can only
be approximate.
could
formula
Ecorrected
plated
be predicted
for
the Young's
= EC - 1937.10
was only
to within
Modulus
(W
ultimate
12% less
one result
12% of
of
the
,"
1"88
the
for
than
an unplated
experiment
concrete.
the
using
the
CHAPTER 7
CRACKING PROPERTIES
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The tensile
compressive
of
strength,
100 microstrain.
it
which
the
concrete
structures,
possible
for
main
In
the
large.
Recently
are
increased.
the
f actors
should
wide
cracks
are
corrosive
the
of
in
used
cause
design
of
little
the
that
in
are
to
steel
stress
to
know,
with
proportional
become necessary
and to be able
cracking
to predict
in
since
increase
widths
to
the
plated
bonding
adhesive
cracks
as
unpleasant,
addition,
concern
ensured
as small
can penetrate
In
one of
reinforced
aesthetically
structure.
degradation
cause
is
of
be kept
elements
steel
even in well
design
state
the
of
the
would
permissible
the
greater
and control
relatively
be
not
stresses
crack
widths
certainty
crack
and spacings.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
experimental
(89)
and Lutz
Gergely
factors
govern
which
cracks
cracks
has therefore
It
the
limit
order
cracking
crack
and since
steel,
7.2
there
that
could
stresses
steel
in
the
of
cracks,
Since
its
of
strain
of
unavoidable.
Secondly,
flexural
ultimate
formation
the
is
cracks
satisfy
to weakening
past,
the
one tenth
of
it
which
the
Firstly,
reasons.
order
of
is
necessary
can lead
permissible
widths
is
concern.
public
mechanism.
in
has to
such penetration
structures,
low
it
at
therefore,
structures,
a design
two main
which
steel
a fraction
concrete
which
is
Obviously,
reinforced
criteria
strain
only
the
of
surrounds.
designed
of
strength
is
concrete
investigations.
affecting
crack
The major
is
The steel
stress
2.
The cover
thickness
3.
The bar
4.
The size
the
5.
diameter
of
compression
The bottom
the
the
section
crack
in
conclusions
which
important
variable.
were
from
drawn,
six
regarding
were:
widths
1.
information
statistically,
analysed,
the
is
is
not
most
an important
a major
side
crack
zone
in
width
flexural
width
flexural
increases
members.
-155-
variable.
variable.
is
reduced
by the
proximity
of
members.
with
concrete
strain
gradient
across
reinforced
concrete
the
spacings
the
surface
of
beams through
flexural
crack
investigated
(90)
and Stevens
Illston
by Base et al
distribution
of
beams.
Their
in
cracks
1.
The magnitude
2.
The cover
3.
No evidence
4.
shall
service
the
exceed
was proposed
0.85
exceed
0.004
of
by Beeby (92).
em
el
determining
r.-cr
that
of
variation
concrete
crack
percentage
the
concrete
width
within
on the
to
that
aggressive
to
the
surface
the
environment,
or
reinforcement
A of
crack
3. acr"
Em
width,
acr'Cmin/
L_
h-x
earlier.
-156-
Wcr,
is
and
should
the
is
given
by:
then
given
by:
x). 10-3
(h - x)
design
crack
the
environments,
main
strain
surface
exposure
in Appendix
The formula
concrete
strength
on cracking.
recommends
nearest
cover.
'
as defined
(86)
As. fy.
the
effect
When exposed
1+
symbols
and the
at points
widths
nominal
times
on the
depending
a member.
7___
All
reinforced
and
were:
reinforcement,
CP110,
limits
certain
crack
there
had a significant
the
for
width
2.29%.
was produced
Em
The formula
to
of
Code of Practice
surface
the
stress.
that
type
conditions
requirements
assessed
not
not
steel
was found
No evidence
The British
width
the
widths
and
investigation
influenced
moment in
crack
affecting
cover
stresses.
an extensive
which
bending
concrete
loads,
thickness.
range
curing
factors
of uniform
factors
of
when varying
the
zones
conducted
gave
At working
of
and steel
spacing
of
in
cracking
technique.
be a function
to
Association
report
important
The most
found
was a function
width
injection
a resin
were
cracks
and internal
surface
code
crack
width
level
the
at
and that
1+
0.0913
width
R(fs
t.b
t=
s
tb
bottom
fs
tension
- 5).
10-3
distance
from
neutral
distance
from
neutral
depth
overall
the
that
stated
so that
be proportioned
widths
0.4
The Comite
characteristic
UNITS)
(inches)
bar,
reinforcing
(kips/in2)
section,
cracked
(inches)
bar,
axis
the
tension
steel
(inches)
axis
to
the
tension
face,
(inches)
the
maximum bending
for
exceed
1.7
does not
exterior
of
times
the
the
moment should
interior
for
These values
correspond
to
mm, respectively.
mean crack
recommend
the
that
reinforcement
the
level
Wm.
width,
Srm . csm
the final
e8m
mean crack
Srm
Wk, at
width,
crack
of
(85)
du Beton
Srm
contribution
170 kips/inch
exceed
exposure.
Euro-International
value
at
section
fs. 3IA
and 0.3
(inches)
(inches)
W
m
and:
by:
to
beam,
cross
of
depth,
effective
also
where:
UNITS)
(inches)
of beam,
width
v=
d=
not
maximum
2b (h - d)
bars
of
number
h=
crack
the
reinforcing
longitudinal
of
given
(IMPERIAL
on an elastic
hl
exposure
based
h2/hl
A=
It
centre
R=
h2
is
cover
is
face
longitudinal
of
centre
to
stress
steel
to
cover
side
(IMPERIAL
the
where:
that
by:
given
10-3
5).
at
recommends
is
reinforcement
(fs is/h1
the
of
W=0.0913
max
Code (89)
Institute
Concrete
The American
the
of
the
=
at the reinforcement
spacing
reinforcement
in
concrete
2c
-157-
kO
P
tension.
allowing
level
for
the
should
where,
to
c=
cover
0=
diameter
reinforcement
of
As
F+
is
As
nt h _a\
Z. L) V.ll-u/
bars.
largest
depends
which
a coefficient
bars.
steel
of
area
on the
type
of
and
steel
=
sm
where,
as
=
=
asr
steel
stress
based
steel
stress
calculated
in
is
tension
Previous
the
concrete
strength.
on bond characteristics;
for
and zero
The stress
2.
The cover
3.
The proximity
the
and also
of
the
bars.
smooth
cracking
constant
and the
At
level
224,
on crack
glue
and plate
the
internal
the
bar
described,
cover
the
at
should
effectively
shown in
are
strains
the
zone.
level
of
the
reduced
section
on
considerably,
reinforcement.
were used
to
investigate
the
to
the
reinforcement
were kept
level
of
reinforcement
would
then
parameters.
widths,
were
to
closer
already
width
plate
As has been
and bottom
effect
steel
internal
brought
The side
stage
being
these
of
have
variables
compression
concrete
bonded
beams the
moment region
of
the
requirements.
axis
each load
constant
the
the
important
certain
steel
of
is
that
reinforcement
beams 201 to
behaviour.
to
these
plated
neutral
The test
be related
to
the
of an externally
three
for
strains;
in
1.
all
has revealed
The most
on cracking.
The addition
satisfy
(89-93)
research
influence
strong
at
that
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
7.3
the
section.
assumption
maximum tensile
depends
which
bond bars
high
for
0.7
on the
its
cracked
on an elastic
reaches
a coefficient
Qsr
heights
noted.
reinforcement.
and spacings
The crack
widths
the
cracks
in
and spacings
were
read
of
all
7.4
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
7.4.1
General-statistical
analysis_
The assessment
widths
read
of
1% chance
manner
entire
and the
experimental
the
since
width,
cracks.
of
population
accepted
less
to
constant
values
of
Crack
former
are
Normal
distribution
width
measured
from
al
(91)
crack,
the
by Base et
have
in
values
in
this
on the
is
widths
of
measurements
crack
of
were
which
determined
widths
determined
The
moment region
crack
the
than
error
phenomenon,
the
within
appeared
were determined.
exceeded
subject
maximum crack
that
basis.
widths
reinforcement,
of
of being
are
crack
cracks
level
the
at
the
all
of
a generally
their
investi-
mean width
of
gations.
Instead
in
cracks
the
the
against
from
section.
As was stated
(i)
maximum crack
(ii)
mean crack
at
the
the
calculated
the
crack
by reading
and multiplying
linear
width
many other
range
of
in
the
local
in
height,
spacing
bar
6.1
strain
At
Tables
latter
the
at
reinforcing
strains.
given
was plotted
the
length
Figure
electrical
the
constant
being
centre
and the
this.
confirms
gauge readings,
load
each
7.1
as
the
stage
7.6.
-
steel
strain
is
elastic
the
not
modulus
of
(89-93).
-159-
the
in
directly
used
surface
steel.
concrete
strain
can be obtained.
relationship
concrete
stress
the
versus
the
behaviour,
to
width
linear
in
deviations
and standard
moment region.
of mean crack
reinforcement
by the
was proportional
authors.
the
equal.
A roughly
the
off
the
in
strain
and are
in
graphs
levels.
stress
same level,
the
all
width
cracks
of
at
of
level,
reinforcement
on a 200 mm gauge
than
width,
show the
reinforcement
Although
level
number
- 7.3
7.1
Figs.
concrete
instead
were measured
values
the
at
the
rather
strain
a single
approximately
are
were used,
gave average
(iii)
the
earlier,
strain
concrete
following
of
in
strain
average
width
moment region,
constant
determined
surface
the
of plotting
For
graphs
indicated
the
reinforcement,
it
at
may be
the
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slope 55
slope lB
slope 36
-163-
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12 -
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slope38
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slope 19
64-
slope 29
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Q
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218
217
216
12-i
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6
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slope 27
4.
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FIGURE 7.2
_6
1U
10 0 ZO 0 30504000
-164-
16-1
220
219
1L -
221
slope 37
slope 32
12 -1
108
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lope59
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6
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4
slope28
FIGURE 7.3
The method
graphs
of
surface
found
from
(See also
plotted
the
However,
it
is
The combined
the
values
glue
Fig.
7.6.
All
values
In Fig.
mean initial
precracked
then
were
thickness
from
7.7
crack
fell
is
cracking
For
width
S with
a random
each glue
expression
v.
concrete
strain,
7.4
shown on Fig.
equations
change
of
thickness,
glue
K4
and intercepts
of
The resulting
each
the
of
three
in Fig.
thickness
glue
against
1.55
tg) tP
this
for
relationship
7.5,
all
three
against
were
than
those
need to be added
for
the
the
over
'
1.10210
range
of
experimental
experimental
values
glue
as shown in
within
greater
34.3 tg
expression,
by Ang (72)
found
results
scattered.
is:
were plotted
values
relatively
an experimental
three
of
K3tg
drawn.
then
were
[(47.2
consistently
tp
plotted
thicknesses,
The results
are
were
form:
the
are
found
The slopes
in
then
7.4
on Fig.
the
variation
slopes
S=
and plate
is
are
in
To combine
the
thicknesses
and plate
cases
line
each glue
of
of K1 to K4,
lines
fit
best
and the
concrete
analysis.
be expected.
resulting
slope
(K1 + K2 tg)
given
relationships
all
7.3,
to
shown that
507 could
a linear
equation
S=
To find
is
there
results
has been
of
tp.
thickness,
plate
as it
the
the
that
was plotted
between
assumed that
tg.
line
relationship
S, and the
7.1
for
plate
in
the
of
average
regression
as shown on Figs.
7.4
Fig.
and a scatter
fit
a best
thickness
on a linear
of reinforcing
unexpected
not
(89,93),
phenomenon
the
against
slopes
7.4.
is
this
the
thickness
the
upon
The slopes
based
lines
The values,
It
deviation
of reinforcement.
fit"
9).
Appendix
as shown in Fig.
for
"best
computed
against
level
was based
results
and standard
width
the
at
strain,
of
analysis
of mean crack
the
all
with
found
in
comparison.
formula.
proposed
those
reinforcing
These
investigation.
present
Su, were
spacings,
6 mm thick
the
the
beams except
-166-
for
plotted
to refine
crack
the
also
plotted
which
against
the
had been
plates,
which
failed
fit lines
Best
S=
1.5
FIGURE 7.4
SLOPE
PLATE
from linear
(46.7tp+250)106
regression:
( tg =1.5mm
S= (39-8tP"330). 16
( t9=
3 mm )
S= (3mtp"410), 106
( 9=
6mm )
3-0
4.5
PLATE THICKNESS mm
-167-
6.0
V.
W
W
Y
Z
O
U
47
=cn
24 6
z
Uc45
UWG4
z
Q
Lu43
M:
Ll->
oz42
aw.
N41
--
40
LU 39
0
J
(I)
38
4.5
3'0
6.0
tg - GLUE THICKNESS mm
LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR COEFFICIENTS K1 AND K2
1.5
w
wy
U
Z
O
vi 420
>CD
_- 400-1
N3
Z
UY
36
U340
wQ
320
LLy
Y =( 34 "3t9 . 210 ). 10
300-
a-
u) 280X
200
.
15
FIGURE 7.5
GLUE THICKNESS mm
45"
5' 0
K3 AND K4
30
30
32 34 36 3B 40 42
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF
STRAIN
FIGURE 7.6
44 46
48
50 52
54 56
58 60
SLOPE OF MEAN CRACK WIDTH V. CONCRETE
EXPERIMENTAL V. THEORETICAL
MEAN
VALUES
OF THE
STRAIN
SLOPE OF
E
E
Cr)
CL
fj)
X
x 1.5mmplde thickness
3mmplate thickness
"
6mm plcte thickness
10
FIGURE7.7
20
ULTIMATE MEAN
30
Su = 0"32h " 38
tp=l. 5mm
j = 0"26h "37
t= 3mm
SU =0 "23h . 36
tP= 6mm
70
50
60
40
h- MEAN CRACK HEIGHT AT 60kN
CRACK
SPACING
V. MEAN
80
LOAD
CRACK HEIGHT
AT
mm
60 kN
before
their
spacings
60 KN, just
that
at
each
plate
the
ultimate
above
thickness
three
found
in Fig.
However,
cover,
which
neutral
in
that
is
extend
the
less
way.
In
ing
since
the
tensile
the
tension
7.4.2
face
would
in
the
dition.
For
crack
width
beams with
of
in
of
the
from
to
tests
would
Broms
concrete
to be done
need
which
could
almost
to
in
be
very
be a certain
certain
which
value,
cracks
the
of
in
zone near
in
while
to an infinite
spacing
nearly
be no crack-
would
In
out
this
explained
small.
the
pointed
secondary
there
axis
neutral
is
load
(91)
al
(93)
first
formed
cracks
increase
the
reach
level.
concrete
this
that
cracks
Base et
below
spacing
show the
and the
130 kN load,
mm at
1.5
beams with
mm lapped
beams with
of
1.5
3 mm thick
times
plate.
the
applied
load.
between
spacing.
or one layer
the
crack
width
The precracked
-171-
the
of
3 mm plate
of
similar
beams with
con-
width
was
was 58 to
reduction
plate.
beam
load
this
width,
The unplated
plates
plates
layer
maximum crack
the service
reinforcing
had between
a continuous
mm plate,
and 1.33
6 mm thick
plates
between
approximately
1.0
relationship
moment region,
0.12
two layers
layer
- theoretical
relating
spacings
experi-
Widths
similar
had between
continuous
zone just
beams with
63%.
joints
these.
by 33 to 50%.
reduced
from
results
Further
crack
reinforcement
between
crack
of
width
of
with
bending
constant
number
a further
7.18
to
for
axis;
strain
Maximum Crack
had a crack
for
when combining
experimental
a term
contain
concrete
the
the
7.9
the
formation.
crack
the
against
5% of
within
member primary
be a transition
Figs.
the
at
formed
are
different
there
drawn
were
+ 35.5
tp
plotted
a formula
show the
than
neutral
length
shorter
is
beam.
a reinforced
to
in
factor
to 5.8
5.2
axis
lines
was found
+ 0.43
does not
to produce
covers
Plates
formula
above
were
fell
Al values
to any plated
applied
fit
Best
relationship
tp + 0'2)h60
formula
this
a major
different
with
from
the
is
(0.02
7.8.
line.
load.
crack
following
and the
Su
ments
first
height
crack
thicknesses:
plate
The values
the
The initial
times
the
Similarly,
with
the
lapped
beams with
1.5
mm thick
40
50
60
70
FIGURE 7-8
C3
0
0
:i
a
CL.
a
-1
4
8
N
000
v,
NN
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00
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0
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a
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0
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0
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0
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$
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0
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to
00
NM adal
0
2
a311ddd
O
CKI
0
to
0
v
0
N
plates
the
The variation
in
for
a decrease
the
7.4.3
Crack
Width'
The crack
with
theoretical
evidence
that
the
at
plate
increase
of
the
the
which
In Fig.
each
test
being
similar
general,
is
thickness
in
crack
width
the
thickness,
glue
shown
in
the
crack
achieved
is
8,
Appendix
for
beams
all
The experimental
and
7.7.
for
surface
beams.
plated
This
considerably.
widths
and that
having
the
presence
a restraining
is
further
It
is
of
the
apparent
bonded
on the
effect
is
dependent
7.20,
in
plate
C1, by which
coefficient,
to
order
produce
the
thickness.
line
fit
The best
crack
produces
to
addition
acr. em must
experimental
in
equations
the
beams.
concrete
reinforced
to
equations
produces
in
thickness,
plate
the
This
results.
on the
to normally
the
by factoring
two methods
the
experimental
with
applicable
beam,
the
against
is
were made to
width
variables
other
for
than
been precracked.
Table
reduce
plates
agreement
crack
In
width.
crack
Modifications
produce
in
increase
an
had not
widths
tensile
concrete
best
beam.
an increase
as outlined
in
shown
crack
action
good composite
the
which
are
widths
the bonded
that
is
there
general,
calculated,
of plate
overestimated
greatly
precracked
Formulae
were
widths
crack
the
effect.
Prediction
layer
a single
unplated
and plate
glue
with
and for
thickness
lesser
having
the
of
width
In
7.19.
Fig.
plate
latter
beam while
unplated
width
crack
precracked
of mean crack
in
the
of
been precracked.
had not
diagrammatically
the
the
of
width
maximum crack
beams which
widths
had 58% of
3 mm plate
beam with
83-1007.
width,
the
for
be multiplied
was plotted
CP 110
modified
formula:
Wcr
As shown in
of
gave ratios
results,
0.90
Table
to
7.7
(2.0
this
theoretical
+ 0. l
tp)
formula,
to
acr. cm
is
which
derived
crack
experimental
from
widths
experimental
varying
from
1.09.
The ACI formula
required
to produce
the
was treated
experimental
in
a similar
crack
-178-
manner.
width
%
is
plotted
The coefficient
against
plate
C2,
thickness
1.5mm
10
plate thickness
3mm
plate
thickness
6 mm
plate
thickness
-190 0
7-1
F5
Z
w
'3
>- 60kN
2-i
1.5
GLUE
FIGURE 7.19
3.0
THICKNESS mm
45
s.o
TABLE
7.7
BEAM
A.C1.
EXPERIMENT
CP 110
CP 110
A.C.I.
NUMBER WIDTH
THEORY THEORY ORREC CO
2
2
2
2
2
mm 10
mm b
mm 10 mm. 10
mm 16
GLUE
PLATE
THICKNESSTHICIcN S'
'
mm
mm
201
12.0
10.0
10.5
203
6 -5
8.8
9.3
6-3
6.4
0.97
0-98
1-5
1.5
204
6.0
7.4
7-6
5-7
5.9
0.95
0.98
1.5
3.0
205
5-0
5.6
5.4
4.9
5.0
0.98
1.00
1.5
6.0
207
6-0
8.8
9-3
6.3
6.4
1-05
1.07
3.0
1.5
208
6.0
7.4
7.6
5-7
5.9
0.95
0-98
3.0
3-0
209
4'5
5-6
5.4
4.9
5-0
1.09
1.11
3-0
6.0
210
5-0
5-6
5-4
4.9
5.0
0.98
1.00
3-0
6.0
216
7.0.
8.8
9.3
6.3
6-4
0.90
0.91
6-0
1.5
217
6-0
7-4
7-6
5-7
5.9
0.95
0.98
6-0
3-0
218
5.0
5.6
5-4
4.9
5.0
0.98
1.00
6-0
6 -0
219
5.0
5.6
5.4
4.9
5-0
0.98
1.00
6-0
6-0
220
6-0
8.8
9.3
6-3
6.4
1.05
1.07
30-8.0
1.5
221
6.0
8.8
9-3
6.3
6-4
1.05
1.07
3-0
1.5
TABLE 7.8
Hognestad. Broms.
(94)
RATIO
1.50
(93)
(91)
2.00
1.66
Clark
piston.
Present investigations
(90)
(95)
(96)
772or
.1
2.00
1.64
1.78
2.25'4
or
1
1.50
1.18
1.50
2.20
-2.88
-2.77
-
PROBABILISTIC
VALUES
1.5
FIGURE7.20 MODIFICATION OF
4.5
3.0
tp= PLATE
THICKNESS mm
CP 110 CRACK WIDTH FORMULA
6.0
1.5
PLATE
tp
FIGURE 7.21
5mm
THICKNESS
6.0
as shown in Fig.
(0.056
WAX
As shown in Table
7.7
of
7.4.4
Relationship
the
of
values
mean crack
deviations
standard
forced
the
strain
is
the
a one percent
maximum crack
W
max
It
Wmean
to 7.6 (108 results)
of
effects
for
account
is
widths
(95)
as given
with
the
=W
(Figs.
7.1
crack
width
the
the
slopes
slopes
7.3).
to
have been
width
7.22
Fig.
against
plotted
level
in
being
the
of
their
of
fit
The best
is
exceeded
(Appendix
chosen,
at
than
that
of
load
stage
each
the
random
techniques
variation
from
the
from
by Base et
of
7.1
Tables
value
nature
crack
of
between
relationship
with
found
those
the
9)
coefficient
good agreement
thought
in
Tables
ratio
al
(91)
cracking
measurement
and
may
crack
found
to
from
7.6.
by others
(0.5. W
mean)
mean
of maximum crack
ranging
7.1
+ 2.5
mean
2'25
max
was 1.78,
values
crack
by:
The average
in
In
average
higher
is
It
The resulting
or
tests
the
is
a little
error
W
max
the
that
which
40%.
1'11.
to
Width
Deviation)
reinforcement
are
experimental
this.
given
a certain
here
was 0.46
These values
the
at
Crack
0.91
by:
given
be mentioned
from
varying
gives
should
7.22.
is
width
calculated
Fig.
of
chance
results,
by:
given
a=0.5
ee
If
10-3
experimental
7.8.
are
strain
concrete
origin
- 5).
widths
Table
ACI formula:
modified
of maximum. to average
ratio
concrete
against
through
crack
as shown in
against
width
from
by many authors,
suggested
line,
to experimental
between
Different
A (fs
derived
formula,
the
produces
tp) 3ts.
1 +tshl
+ 0.0046
this
theoretical
ratios
line
fit
The best
7.23.
1.5
Both
to
the
to
width
2.2.
These
range
as shown in
average
are
and the
Table
7.8.
crack
from
width
108 sets
mean are
in
found
of
in
readings
good agreement
40
X/X
X
35
J
W
F.
z
o
LtJ
U
cr
0
LL
/X
l1!
m
5
xx
ct
t. -N
Xxx
w
w20
xx
Z
0
v
Z
X
015
w
Q_450W
0
zi0
LLC)
w
a
0
5
-J
N
w
b
30
40
50
60
10
20
70
80
W/e SLOPEOF MEAN CRACK WIDTH V. CONCRETE STRAIN AT REINFORCEMENT
LEVEL
FIGURE 7.22
STRAIN
V.CONCRETE STRAIN
From Figs.
W
mean
Using
has
the
the
the
these
are
of
the
ity
7.4.5
be emphasised
test
other
plated
been
value
in
em
concrete
value
When calculating
must be used.
Table
7.9
the
beams,
(a)
the
concrete
strain
shows the
from
three
in
strength
to
for
in
for
the
In Fig.
In
7.23
did
no case
has only
theory
plated
the
a 17.
is
only
valid
be required
would
to
limitation,
the
within
check
its
valid-
1.2
is
the
the
less
for
than
tension
the
value
Various
the
to
member contributes
concrete.
account
bt h (al
As h-x
stiffening
the
of
effect
its
calculated
of
on
have
expressions
reduction
calculated
the
tensile
(92)
Beeby
As
strain
on basis
cm the
of
values
The values
average
- x) .
fy
CP 110 (86)
10-3
b (h - x) 10-6
calculated
of
strain,
of
area
steel
at
zero
tensile
combined
the
sources:
experimental
a flexural
below:
surface
these
plate
tests
zone of
el - 4.5.
em =
el
given
C1 -
this
tension
by allowing
Two are
em
formula
by many authors,
strain,
concrete.
that
the
tensile
zero
proposed,
of
value,
8)
formula.
widths.
which
predicted
Appendix
Strain
Therefore,
of
+ 210]. 161
above
maximum crack
which
from:
tg
the
width
beams.
Surface
Concrete
basis
from
calculated
and further
series
The concrete
the
+ 34.3
maximum crack
exceeded.
should
stiffness.
Wmean the
of
the
exceed
2'25
tg) tp
the measured
against
present
for
1.55
of Wmax were
being
It
[(47.2
tg
can be computed
exceeded
values
value
of
of being
values
plotted
34.3
tg)t p+
was found:
relationship.
of Wmax =
calculated
experimental
chance
- 1.55
2-25. c
following
the
value
a 1% chance
max
beams,
[(47.2
probabilistic
only
Using
and 7.5
7.4
values
-184-
are
level
strength
centroid
for
of
both
intonal
position
steel
in
concrete.
for
bars
and
and plate.
reinforcement
for
004
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.06
0,07
EXPERIMENTALMAXIMUMCRACKWIDTH mm.
THEORETICAL V. EXPERIMENTALMAXIMUM CRACK WIDTH
FIGURE 7.23
0.01
o.oa
TABLE 7.9
BEAM
NUMBERS
PLATE THICKNESS
MEASURED
6
STRAINS 10
MEAN
RANGE
204,206,213,214,
215,217.
205,20$
210,218,
219
1.5
3.0
6.0
1170
841
624
960 -
1260
670 -
1000
580
- 780
6
VALUES FROM CP1IOEOUATICN 10
1130
946
725
6
VALUES FROM BEEBY EQUATION 1
1130
960
751
1.04
1.04
0.89
0.87
0.86
0.83
EXPERIMENTAL
RATIO
THEORETICAL
TABLE 7.10
CP110
BEEBY
204,206,213,214,
215,217,
205,209,210,218,
219
1.5
3.0
6.0
96
134
148
85
120
140
bh (d-x ).103
110_1.2
AS fy (h-x)
86
80
69
b (h-x). 10'6
80
65
43
100
129
149
BEAM NUMBERS
PLATE THICKNESS
DIFFERENCE '10
MEAN MEASURED
MEANDIFFERENCEFROMFIGURES
Bl_4.5
PRESENT
(2 3.222 $) b (h-x)x) 10"6
INVESTIGATION
(b)
CP 110 equation
(c)
Beeby's
For
plate
the
mean experimental
to
thicknesses
for
range
theory
7.25
thickness
and 7.26
concrete
strain
stress
load,
have
the
at
level
of
were also
the
of
points
the
fit
fell
within
for
-30%
for
both
the
These
The ratio
prediction
calculated
steel
of
experimental
experiment
Figs.
equations
measured
were
value
of
level.
load
service
beams with
105 mm plate
of
have
3 mm and 6 mm plates,
beams with
value
at
Calculations
These values
for
strain,
concrete
by linear
plotted
beams strengthened
3 mm thick
a
service
for
are
each beam,
then
at
the
l'5
with
mm thick
plate
the
and all
regression
experimental
+28 and
plate,
beams with
6 mm thick
plates.
Since
same stress,
the
from
differences
and the
7.24
the
to
to
steel's
that
7.26
two theoretical
(a)
1.2
(b)
4"5'b
strain
measured
similar
Figs.
checked
usually
actual
from
calculated
A comparison
found.
are
widths
between
difference
readings
crack
in
are
methods
at working
and the
elastic
Table
given
10-6
-187-
load
7.9
is
with
below.
shown in
the
the
conditions
in
strain
stress/strain
compared
7.2'
basis
on the
stress,
the
against
plotted
and the
values
between
agreement
the
find
to
made at
15% for
beams with
beams used
reinforcement.
lines
Best
of
experimental
internal
7.9.
show the
concrete,
at
Table
improve
to
Similarly,
of
stresses
steel
in
thicknesses
reinforcement
8,
number
and 5 respectively.
mm plate)
order
the
230 N/mm2.
against
plotted
given
These
in
strength
stresses
steel
are
In
so good.
As shown in Appendix
steel
7,6
(1.5
was 1.04
were plotted.
zero
were
3 mm and 6 mm plate
was not
tensile
of
readings
values
For
equation.
of
each plate
theoretical
and
equation.
the
steel
at
the
relationship
was
Table
The
values
7.10.
from
measured
a)
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The
measured
6.2
Table
Tables
(c)
7.1
are
values
to 7.6.
6 mm plates
give
formula:
as
depth
the
the
was found
b(h
expression
7.4.6
Stresses
is
first
to
for
the
the
In
subjected
to pure
at
constant
bars
were
1.0
about
of
by Stevens
deflection
for
the
average
(80),
with
Cr 110 recommends
that
the
stress
the
However,
the
of
that
loading
derivation
of
to multiply
plate
taken
of
Beeby's
against
plate
regression.
or
contribution
did
they
in
flexural
member adds
(76)
Yu and Winter
zone.
deformed
for
h is
method
was plotted
the
of
not
give
to be used
concrete
with
both
of
of
a tension
stresses
the
He found
that
the
in
concrete
for
this
for
remain
con-
members
approximately
reinforced
specimens
were
any numerical
concrete,
bars,
the
distribution
in
fret
curvature
in
factors
there
with
plain
the
the
affecting
and that
in
strength
of
any section
-191-
is
development
difference
varying
after
concrete
the
the
An expression
either.
concrete
concrete
was no consistent
bars;
difference
T,
frm
on reinforced
major
or deformed
force,
h.
tests
in which
round
tensile
b.
that
account
found
centroid
Zone
tension
The results
sustained
3/16
T=
in
concrete
stress
the
value
Tension
the
into
50 mm gave no consistent
25 mm to
was found
lower.
were varied.
beams reinforced
in
and reinforced
N/mm2.
considerably
A series
scribed
tension
b(h's
x). 10-6
As
The value
by linear
plotted
the
(97)
1972 Beeby
tribution.
3 mm and
C3, required
through
tensile
effective
7.27
In Fig.
a member.
of
but
Em, the
position.
the measured
that
who took
stiffness
for
axis
was then
stiffness
researchers
tension
value
its
to
considerably
from
7.10.
neutral
accepted
generally
level
good agreement
+ 2.30)
tp
calculations
by Concrete
Carried
from
strain,
reinforcement
gave
(2.22
Table
255 mm.
line
mean steel
agreement.
Cl -
to produce
fit
The best
It
the
x). 10-6
the
at
The coefficient,
shown.
As
thickness.
the
and then
is
formula
above
in
that
the beam i. e.
of
as shown in
be noted
should
bars
and
em
the
1.5 mm plate
worse
gave progressively
good agreement
It
strain
for
The values
The modified
to
between
difference
the
of
between
cover
from
was proposed
cracking.
bending.
may be calculated
triangular,
having
by assuming
a value
of
1.5
FIGURE
7.27
PLATE
MODIFICATION
3.0
THICKNESS mm
TO
QEEBY'S
-192-
4.5
FORMULA
6.0
zero
the
at
neutral
Fig.
load.
axis
7.28
shows the
is
The concrete
the
in
distribution
stress
assumed to be elastic
level.
reinforcement
the
up to
beams at
plated
a compression
service
1000 micro-
of
strain.
Taking
block:
MTS
combined
fs.
of bars
posed
the
moments of
(d 3),
As.
tribution
MTS
the
of
But
where
(fb"
of
7.28,
the
Fig.
from
distance
the
the
the
compression
is
steel
face
compression
comto
their
in
concrete
of.
of
3Mc
b. h. (h - x)
incrementally,
three
values
and the
load
strains
given
neutral
axis
Tables
stress
for
stress
in
average
(b)
concrete
for
allowing
equation,
was given
of
The values
7.12.
from
concrete
at
7.11.
Since
the
the
found
for
are
(c)
against
fit
the
In
Figs.
lines
were
tensile
6.2
the
7.12.
thickness
plotted
concrete
both
Table
values
Table
plate
of
con-
steel
change
The average
shown in
plotted
in
loaded
at
are
change
beams were
range
from
obtained
(130 &N).
Best
face.
each beam.
thickness
7.29.
elastic
tension
the
demec readings
was then
a linear
the
not
and plates
and plate
as shown in Fig.
thickness,
did
each glue
the
are
in
Table
were
the
h.
each beam in
for
values
the bars
positions
6.1
in
given
thefefore
Mc.
zone,
stress
These values
given.
for
tensile
are
ing
b.
Qf
values
are
tension
x).
(h
The calculated
concrete
the
applied
the
the
(d - x)
3
Ab +fpAp
between
Mc
or
Table
as shown in
centroid
centroid.
The difference
ness
the
about
steel
but,
and d is
and plates
Hence
in
tension
values
of
and the
given
tensile
and the
stress
the
6.21
to
increas-
with
7.11,
and
each
glue
combined
glue
thick-
comparison
with
with
by:
found
from
this
tp + 0.59 tg + 0.36.
expression
are
given
in
Table
7.13
for
.C
.
x
t_
N'c+7
I
.c
of
FORCES
tx_
compressive
2
tensile
Tc= 9. b(h)
2
c=h
Ts= ( fW
fr A.)
force in the
concrete
neutral
axis.
below
=_=
tensile
above the
steel
plate
and bars.
SYMBOLS
d
combined centroid
subscript
p denotes
r=
overall
FIGURE 7.28
of steel
bars
and plate.
plate
bars
found
from the
measured
strain
distribution
beam depth.
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
SERVICE LOAD.
IN
PLATED
BEAMS
AT
TABLE 7.11
60kN
m
Z
Z
Z
w
a6
10-
&N
130kN
100IN
Z
w
6
10-
u'
10
60 100 130 w
N
0r)
cn
_
I_
= cn
u
o
1- -:z
1:
`n
w
w
W W
w
'O
Uzi z
z
mm
mm mm mm
201 550
1030
0 1350 0
220 100 96
88
943
0.9
0.8
550
960
220
96
85
943
10
943
202
1320
108
108 102
95
118 114
123 119
115
205 180
500
1"7
0"6
110 943
45"7 4"4
4"4
2"3
943
206 260 185 400 450 740 700 231 123 119 115 943
207 440
500 800 900 100 1280 226 112 106 100 943
5"6 71
209 180 220 330 480 500 700 238 118 114 110 943 750 13"3 26-9 401 6"1
3"7
6"1
5'2
210 180 200 370 480 490 680 238 123 119 115 943
61
2"5
212 430 600 750 1050 1020 1550 226 114 108 102 943
2.1 1.0
213 280 300 520 600 750 930 231 130 120 115 943
6"6 5"0
214 280 250 520 530 760 800 231 118 114 110 943
215 230 250 460 550 700 900 231 123 121 120 943
719 6"7
216 350 350 600 700 950 1100 226 123 119 115 943
6'9 4-7
217 280 350 470 650 670 1000 231 114 110 106 943
61
218 150 230 330 460 500 660 238 123 121 120 943
7.0 6'6
219 150 265 300 520 460 750 238 128 124 120 943
6"8 6"0
95
3-4 2"3
221
3"7 2"2
222
943
6 '0
7"4
223
350 270 650 560 950 750 226 100 100 100 943
5"2
49
8'5 8.0
660 830
950 226
97
5.4
TABLE 7.12
la e
'
glue
1-5
3.0
6-0
1"5
1"4
3.7
5.1
3"0
2"4
5.7
5.9
6 -0
4"2
5-5
6"4
TABLE 7.13
THE CONCRETE
idcress
glue
hicness
15
3-0
6-0
1-5
2"3
3"4
5"6
3"0
3"1
4.4
6"0
6"0
4"6
5.3
6"7
0.36
+
tg = glue thickness
x 1.5 mm
03
mm
mm
xaf=
"
X
of = 0"68
P
= 0-77 tP
2'30
.
" 0"70
1.5
PLATE
FIGURE 7.29
3.0
THICKNESS
F4.5
6.0
mm
V.
PLATE
THICKNESS
v-
1234
567
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF THE TENSILE STRESS IN THE
CONCRETE
N/ mm'
FIGURE 7.30
OF THE
In Fig.
against
the
7.30
the
values
calculated
determined
experimentally
from
of
of
All
values.
this
formula
points,
except
one,
the
following
were plotted
lie
within
25%.
7.5
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the
conclusions
1.
those
widths
which
would
internal
increasing
in ordinary
bar
crack
for
stress
state
of
[(47.2
just
from
steel
crack
were
plates
beams.
concrete
bar,
a reinforcing
This
less
allows
to be developed,
width
than
therefore
cracking.
plate
to be proportional
between
the
slope
tp + 34.3 tg + 210].
were
the
of
steel
stress
and
width
to
related
10-6
the
plate
crack.
to
thicknesses.
and glue
spacings
first
after
bonded
reinforced
was derived
crack
distance
externally
a particular
- 1.55 tg)
The ultimate
height
investigation
this
a certain
was found
width
and the
strain
S-
and at
result
relationship
concrete
3.
stress
beams with
the-limit
following
the
in
out
concrete
2.
v.
steel
in
higher
carried
drawn:
are
At a given
crack
tests
thickness
and the
spacing
was given
crack
by:
Su
4.
(0.02
The application
for
Practice,
widths
plates
effectively
the plated
reinforced
beams.
reduces
in crack width
increase
load,
particular
relative
to satisfactorily
modified
equations
h+0.43
tp + 35.5
of crack width
normally
for
and
tp + 0.2).
beams, highly
concrete
This
formulae
prediction
shows that
and by reducing
agree with
overestimated
the presence
beam.
restraining
in the internal
results.
The resulting
were:
(0.1
WX
3
056
0"
0046
tp)
t
= -(0 "
"+
tp
+ 2"0).
acr.
1+
(CP 110)
em
5)
10-3
s
-(f
"- " .
ts/hl
the
bars at any
the experimental
Wcr
the crack
both by physically
the strain
to an unplated
recommended by Codes of
(ACI)
were
5.
The relationship
statistically
for
This
compared
1178'
Wmax m
Both
for
the range
6.
of
the
el
the
concrete
plated
that
found
8.
The number of
and three
quarters
crack
average
cracks
plated
beam.
9.
It
spacing
only
such as concrete
refine
those
at
at
fully
service
was generally
the
cover
thicknesses
the
the
within
proposed
should
formulae.
X).
in
in
the
surface
strain
3 mm and 6 mm
with
experimental
results:
10-6
the
the
tension
case
tensile
'service
the
of
zone to
normally
in
stress
load'
developed
load
is
more in
at
the
the
stiffness
reinforced
of
concrete
concrete:
of
case
strength,
be investigated
the
of
at
present
order
between
in this
and a wider
prove
the
The number
beams than
tests.
to
two thirds
means that
failure.
plated
derived
beam size
in
This
than
greater
the
130 kN is
of
failure.
the formulae
limitations
and cube
authors
tp + 0.59 tg + 0.36
applicable
and glue
cracks
of
failure
at
for
by other
concrete
predicting
from
A
As
of
cf
found
beams strengthened
b(h
tp + 2.3).
was derived
those
with
for
was derived
The contribution
A formula
2.2)
to
agreement
for
strains
7.
beams.
1.5
formulae
formula
(2.22
of:
beams.
accepted
A modified
in
were
concrete
to overestimate
Em -
(range
plates.
was derived
widths
as follows:
mean value
W
mean
The application
was found
thick
experimental
reinforced
normally
crack
mean
the
with
beams,
the plated
2-25
max
between
for
section
Other
the
are
variables
range
the
of
of
validity
plate
and
tin-
'CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Concrete
to creep
deformations
may be critical
If
the
of
the
resin
bond
there
for
lives
bridges
designed
are
the
of
materials
because
has indicated
that
under
unfavourable
may be reduced
In
some loss
reports
between
this
due
these
materials
load.
These
to
safety
the
cohesive
of
to
results
externally
conditions
are
the
plated
long
this
over
and/
the
periods
as short
the
of
is
necessary
The
period.
in
the
conditions
over
and it
experience
the
aerospace
bonded
strength
of
as six
years.
bonding
surface
over
bonds.
metal/concrete
chapter
unloaded
drastically
120 years,
of
construction
checking
(62)
by a loss
be serious
could
needs
joints
sustained
and sometimes
accompanied
were
deformations
composed of
under
serviceability,
resins
two years
term performance
reinforced
and durability
beams,
concrete
under
loaded
of
external
and
weathering
reported.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
8.2
testing
reported
Prisms,
All
deformations
of epoxy
performance
Calder
elements
term
to
the
of
behaviour
to have stable
metal
concrete
dependent
structure.
Highway
industry
to time
such deformations
strength
or adhesive
subject
are
long
to
subject
a structure.
safety
resins
Reinforced
and shrinkage.
therefore,
are,
of
and epoxy
in Chapter
term test
uncontrolled
their
test
8.3
SHRINKAGETESTS
until
for
The'material
series.
24 hours
properties
in
plated,
specimens.
the laboratory
tested
under
or transported
sites.
Three prisms
demec points,
specimens,
on opposite
faces.
were
in Chapter 5.
and durability
and kept
term
Strains
with
were read
to
24 hours
within
18 months
8.4
the
demoulding
after
increasing
at
intervals
At
time.
with
shrinkage
8.4.1
Introduction
The details
8.1.
Table
in
Fig.
as shown
two beams.
the
the
bars
tie
base.
All
were
taken
before
steel
plate
graph
of
the
also
After
the
that
works
to
(Plates
exposure
three
eight
of
18 months
beams for
for
of
faces
increasing
in
the
exposed
to
the
shows a typical
tensile
and steel
across
beam depth
the
the
beams it
It
period
beams were
unloaded
loading
rig,
exposure.
a longer
the
short
is
elements
at
term
tests
internal
was found
that
was decided,
before
-202-
testing.
brought
in
Chapter
reinforcement.
there
was no loss
to
etc.
5, with
bar
therefore,
for
back
instrumentation
procedure,
on the
gauges
no strain
the eight
8.2
Fig.
the
of
and 8.2).
The test
were
left
that
300 mm
of
The strains
compressive
beams were
to
extensions
at
length.
distribution
same
and compression
side
section.
concrete
strain
8.1
described
that
there
in
and unloaded
laboratory.
centre
The change
18 months
testing
the
at
time.
identical
remaining
measured
the
and thereafter
200 mm gauge
of maximum observed
After
exception
a demec of
change
sewage treatment
in
after
the
gauge attached
extensometer
mechanical
the
twenty
to ensure
on a pressure
and by checking
loading
in
was designed
carefully
strain
using
The loaded
shown.
testing
of
jack,
a demountable
and immediately
were
with
strains
by means of
time,
with
loading
rigs,
the
of
under
frame
was performed
both
in
placed
one third
Each loading
was checked
two unloaded
were kept
and prisms
testing.
and
equal
5.2
with
beams were
cubes
This
loading,
The loaded
and loading
the
operated
measurements
intervals
were
in
The control
was applied.
pump which
Macalloy
also
8.1,
in Fig.
given
sustained
was approximately
The assembly
load
correct
beams are
beam.
conditions
take
to
load
eight
subjected
and Plate
sustained
under
test
loaded
to each
8.1,
four
twenty
beams were
Eight
concrete
the
of
beams corresponding
to
and then
leave
the
of
the
rnp
CC)
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I.t.
-204-
1200 -i
11001000--l
900-
soot
BEAM No. 120
700 -4,
1234567S9
AGE
OF BEAM
concrete in compression
13
12
11
10
MONTHS
14
15
1,6
28
3,40
520
EI
E
in
`
i
E
1500
1000
500
0
500
,=
Tensile
Compressive
Strain IT 6
CONCRETESTRAIN DISTRIBUTION
FIGURE
8.2
VARIATION
OF STRAIN
WITH TIME
-205-
1000
1500
17
18
PLATE
Si
PLATE 82
LONG
TERM
TESTS
LOADED
LONG
TERM
TESTS
UNLOADED BEAMS
BEAMS
8.4.2
Discussion
8.4.2.1
Strength
Characteristics
loads
The ultimate
in Appendix
as detailed
For
after
by strain
compatibility
testing
three
plating,
it
was thought
the
due to
the
failure
ageing
bond between
beams after
glue
failure
small
amount
areas
of
of
was no sign
of
corrosion
paint
through
(Plate
with
Plate
8.3.
the
(less
hardener
steel
chipped
during
this
at
stage,
resisting
be expected
5% of
than
5% of
from
its
area)
and
there
area),
edges where
some of
The concrete
transportation.
element
a small
the
of
the
the
the
of
was evidence
along
saw to produce
a circular
18 months
stripped
were
than
except
plate,
off
for
as would
there
(less
line
glue
cracked.
not
was no degradation
there
the
assuming
is
glue
28 days
Although
for
The plates
concrete.
theoretical
the
of
beam
8.3).
The amount
depends
on the
cement
and their
so that
the
steel
concrete
of
of
of
there
must
must be acidic.
the
free
lime
to
the
In
concrete
time
of
carbonate
react
dioxide
acidic
thus
gain
11,
in
vapours
reducing
in
the
the
the
with
access
other
into
pH,
the
acidic
dioxide,
Corrosion
reduced.
than
paste
and sulphur
and oxygen
pH less
of
phases
alkalies
progressively
when moisture
The diffusion
calcium
the
cement
silicate
carbon
is
be a value
a hardened
calcium
particularly
occurs
reinforcement
and also
environment
the
in
available
of
hydratipn.
atmosphere,
alkalinity
bar
and composition
degree
the
hydroxide
calcium
amount
in
constituents
converts
or
28 days.
to
to be gained,
at
that
assuming
the
beams.
eight
at
28 days)
at
beams tested
the
the
of
of
experi-
(1.01
was nothing
calculated
the
experimental
assuming
which
set
resin
had been
protective
the
within
mixed
1.03
there
and plate
insufficiently
were
at
concrete,
pockets
28 days.
that
as shown in
air
at
28 days)
with
beams tested
similar
1.05
beams,
of
together
of
to
were
months
the
than
the
of
the
of
five
remaining
moments at
greater
the
(1.00
After
by testing
the
calculation,
and 1.02
for
at'18
8.2
Table
loads
as compared
to be cracked,
in
given
calculations
glue
4 and are
of
beams tested
three
the
of
corresponding
CP110 method
the
ultimate
the
and the
values
mental
Results
of
of
into
words
the
the
concrete
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It
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deflection
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increase
thickness
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8.3,8.4
28 days
in
on both
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face
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clearly
at
top
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had the
which
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the
of
was measured
in
surface
epoxy
of
the
of
the beam.
surface
in
glue
the
with
comparison
of
by the
affected
The presence
short
strength
ultimate
adversely
and plate
design
plated
glue
also
the
reduces
corrosion
of
technique
plating
crack
and
widths
interval
the
of
not
Characteristics
show the
or plate
than
that
and,
of
of
glue
the
respectively,
was an increase
There
thickness
curves
between
comparison
characteristics,
and 18 months.
The load-strain
but
the
be reduced.
therefore
and 8.5
was greater
that
nevertheless,
The possibility
been
term behaviour
beam soffit.
the
Deformation
Figs.
very
should
reinforcement
original
periods.
strengthens
carbonation
long
and the
the
to be 2 mm at
the bottom
at
is
period
than
indicator
increase
the
months.
proceeding
test
a structure
much longer
eighteen
will
corrosion
whatever.
has not
plate
of
carbonation
However,
of
steel
then
carbonation
concrete
that
results
assists
indicated
was estimated
On the bottom
these
further
(colourless
of
was no carbonation
from
clear
over
weathering
for
there
by the bonded
provided
life
faces.
side
depth
average
which
volume
and 9.8
8.2
The depth
carbonation.
complete
cracks.
phenolphthalein
colour
between
the pH range
of
in
off.
with
in
the
This
bars
steel
a greater
and spalls
The change
carbonation.
points
resin
cracks
the
occupy
products
development
and chemicals
reaches
phenolphthalein
several
carbonation
to increase
tends
also
the
promotes
the penetration
concrete
for
Carbonation
concrete.
and thus
concrete
The piece
to test
of
value
the
the
in
28 days,
as at
the
load-
load-strain,
of
the beams
for
stiffness
effect
of
both
plate
thickness.
-210-
"
at
18 months
generally
indicated
(290 KN) 12
1
86K'
207 216
101
214
11
f/
rTJ'
/ //%/
`i
AGE OF BEAM
18 months.
28 days.
1
1000
FIGURE
8.3
Ti
3-000
5000
4000
2000
STRAIN " ff t>
LOAD STRAINCURVES
-EXTERNALSTEEL PLATE-CENTRESECTION
(290 FN)
102
(286KN)108
101
207 216
J;
1'Ir
%%'
5
FRGLPE8.4
10,1'5
CENTRAL DEFLECTIONmm
20
LOAD-DEFLECTION CHARACTERISTICS
250
102
108
110
FAILURE
MOMENTS
l4]
100-1
207,216
214
90-1
80-i
70-I
E
z
z
60-I
O
W_
50-I
J
0-
CL
a
a 101 (207)
40-'
102(216)
6mmglue,
108 (214)
28 days.
20-.
10-1
200
100
TOTAL ROTATION radians
FIGURE 8.5
1-
10
300
400
an increase
of
strains
its
throughout
of
rigidity
loading.
slipping
up 'to
strains
This
its
between
plate
but
beam tested
corresponding
of
the
8.3
together
beams tested
three
28 days,
beams at
the Youngs
with
at
Modulus
18 months).
were
1.23
(ACI)
of
1.12
and 1.05
38.9
between
theory
formula
derived
in
values,
and the
percentage
are
also
in
given
18 months
formula
Table
measured
The moment-rotation
behaviour,
difference
between
For
all
the
the
the
closely
stiffer
than
the
series
The empirical
rotations.
predictions
with
the
28 days.
of
three
of
was
difference
the
tests,
as
and
reflect
at
concrete
experimental
predict
curves
the
values
increases.
load
limited
the
between
values
beams being
to
of
28 day
as the
used
8.3.
theoretical
with
the
6 was also
and the
case of
increases
and experiment
Chapter
the
(CP110),
28 days.
at
shows both
5,
deflections
1.23
with
compared
compared
8.3
with
tests
experimental
theoretical
to
Youngs Modulus
the
Table
As in
rotations.
(CEB),
were
Again
18 months.
KN/mm2, at
theoretical
rotations
6.
I<N/mm2 (from
beams tested
the
all
corresponding
in Appendix
as described
experimental
and 0.95
the
than
given
ductility
were
= 38.9
of
The
lower
was slightly
indicated
all
130 kN are
at
deflections.
predictions
concrete
(CEB) for
in Appendix
calculated
the
28 days.
at
deflections
deflections
of
(ACI)
The experimental
plate
than
18 months
at
the behaviour
with
theoretical
(CP110),
1.12
of
experimental
The calculation
experiment.
amount
higher
lower
were
18 months
at
and the
strains
and theoretical
the
with
the
this
when compared
of ductility
The values
in Table
curves
stiffness
that
above
28 days,
at
28 days.
at
The load-deflection
an increased
could
The plate
28 days.
at
beam (214)
comparable
indicate
layers.
load,
service
the
than
behaviour
the
with
when compared
the
127 at
These
rotations
beams tested
empirical
28 days.
load-deflection
at
TABLE 8.3
18MONTHS
AGE AT TESTING
28 DAYS
BEAM NUMBER
101
102
108
207
216
214
GLUE THICKNESSmm
3.0
6.0
3.0
3.0
6.0
3.0
PLATE THICKNESSmm
1.5
1.5
2x1.5
1.5
1.5
2x1"5
1.60
1.40
1.80
1.60
1.35
FIRSTCRW-ALOAD 1.80
ZZ
W0
E H- E
130,kN LOAD
5"50
5.40
4.70
6"00
5.70
4-60
220kN LOAD
14"00
12.50
11.00
16"00
14.00
12"00
CP 110
4"90
4.90
4.10
5.00
5.00
4"20
w,, E
C110
WW
?o
ACI
4-90
4.76
4.20
5.00
4.89
4-30
CEB
5"70
5.70
4.88
5.81
5.83
5.00
Z
T
CP110
1-12
1.10
1.14
1"20
1.14
1"14
ACI
1-12
1.13
1.12
1.21
1.17
1"12
CEB
0"96
0.94
0.96
1"03
0.9B
0"96
2.34
2"67
2.46
2"50
ly
wE
a. LU
wo
J tJ)
w
_
aw
DUCTILJTYDEFLN.220 k
2"54
2.31
DEFLN.130 kIv^
60 KNLOAD
55
52
EXPERIMENTAL130
145
125
ROTATIONS
245
210
l9n
radians 10_,. 250
380
380
60
56 (50) 52 (46)
THEORETICAL130
125 (118 121 (113)
ROTATIONS 190
181 (175) 183 (175)
_4
radians -10 250
235 (220) 242 (236)
60
56
52
FROM
ROTATIONS
130
130
125
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
190
217
215
_4
radians 10
355
250
383
60 kNLG D
"2
DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
THE 130 KNLOAD -3
MEASURED
VAWES AND 190 k NLQAD -11
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
220 k'NLOAD
-9
52
55
46
145
133
110
250
180
235
430
300
430
46 (50) 61 (53) 56
(50)
116 (102) 135 (126) 131 (124)
155 (152) 195 (186) 199 (190)
194 (192) 247 (237) 263 (257)
46
61
56
109
150
146
180
255
253
308
413
418
-1
,2
+1
"3
46
111
193
360
50
(44)
115 (110)
169 (165)
212 (209)
50
123
220
350
+11
+6
,g
.3
.g
"11
+2.
.a
+11
-4
-3
-3
Figures in brackets
in
tensile
concrete =3 N/mm?
assuming
stress
Otherwise
1 N/mrrF
8.4.2.3
Cracking
The crack
Characteristics
analysis
Table
8.4
shows the
test
Plate
8.6
shows the
beams after
from
derived
against
deviation
is
are very
as shown in
used
to
to
close
for
crack
37
was then
from
used
to
compute
108
between
The agreement
8.7
fit
the
lines
The limited
agreement
the
for
the
with
tests
three
to
at
the
for
18 month
old
55
52
50
beams tested
only
against
width
deviation
at
both
at
concrete
gives
is
strain.
and 18 months
18 months
good.
strain
concrete
against
28 days
3 tests
is
and experiment
prediction
mean crack
beams.
Specing
Crack
55
standard
from
the
61
at
used
18 months,
experimental
28 days
the
finding
are
given.
close
28 day tests.
28 days,
beams tested
theory
0.91
at
of
the
formula
(mm)
formula's
the
of
obtained
The modified
the
slope
slope
accuracy
the
for
values
53
experimental
spacing
(mm)
for
28 day tests,
the
strain
37
formula
value
44
derived
test
old
concrete
44
102
The best
v.
width
108
formula
width
values.
47
against
18 month
the
of mean crack
Ultimate
plotted
empirical
52
spacing
In Fig.
the
102
The empirical
ultimate
The slopes
for
experimental
experimental
value
If
of
slope
values
compute
the
8.6.
the
against
reinforcement.
Fig.
the
Slope
Beam No. 101
28 day tests.
the
were plotted
internal
the
of
28 day tests,
strain,
concrete
level
the
regression
the
28 days.
at
failure.
and standard
at
by linear
computed
formula
width
beams tested
the
them with
and compared
results
strain
concrete
as for
was performed
values
the
three
to
width
calculate
in
Table
as shown
was 0.85
comparable
(ACI)
formulae,
prediction
8.5.
or 0.84
beams.
derived
widths
The average
(CP110),
for
ratio
as compared
from
the
of
with
CRACKING CHARACTERISTICS
TABLE 8-4
U- "
2:
60
&
w .
0L'
467
405
MEAN
STANDARDCOEFF OF
MEAN
STANDARD
'
MEAN
2
DEVIATION
VARIATION
CRL K 10
CRACK
DEVIATIONCRACK
WIDTH
2
SPACING
10
HEGHT
E
10
pE
x
mm
mm
cs
mm
mm
mm
2.42
0.93
38
92
62
4.0
54
STANDARD
DEVIATION
mm
18
2.28
0.76
33
3.0
94
21
80
21
8 820
9 840
11 1200
10 1190
2.72
3.00
3.95
4.30
" 0.87
1.40
0.83
2.16
32
47
28
50
5.0
5.0
6.0
.
7.0
79
90
68
80
32
22
25
27
82
105
92
112
24
24
33
26
160
14
12
1565
1590
4.39
5.20
2.33
3.46
53
66
10.0
10.0
54
66
25
32
94
118
40
44
210
15 2800
13 2655
7.53
7.46
3.22
4.92
43
66
12.0
16.0
53
60
25
27
97
123
48
40
3700
14.18
8.17
58
30.0
48
21
54
2-10
66
32-0
53
25
108
1'
100
130
250
16
15
3750 1 15-20
60
5
7
390
375
9
100
B
10
130
8
700
790
980
1080
160
12
220
130
160
220
250
3"75
4-30
Wmax/ Wei
2"07
35
.21
4"0
1.80
3"0
109
116
72
33
48
83
21
24
45
31
48
26
5.0
6.0
7"0
8.0
88
100
71
100
24
13
29
13
87
107
97
110
26
24
28
27
1.55
1280
6"58
46
11.0
60
22
105
37
1400
37
32
116
37
2120
4"07
41
53
21
105
44
5.87
9"07
53
61
12"0
16-0
18.0
30"0
88
14
7"67
9"93
3"04
2"87
64
53
31
21
41
50
9.10
126
112
55
30-0
61
31
130
44,
13
100
2"57
3"00
Wmax/ Wmean1.98
101
0.90
0"53
1-35
1-16
41
5"87
12
14
250
60
2",58
6
6
10
10
12
10
12
11
14
13
1
14
2220
3310
3125
350
250
660
500
1000
770
1240
1030
1850
1730
2500
2400
11-16
1486
16"46
2"20
2"81
310
3-00
4-50
4"10
6"00
4"90
7"85
8"46
1410
t10-55
0"82
0"50
1-30
1-15
2-30
1-37
2-50
2"20
4"80
3"60
7"80
S-11;
37
28
42
38
50
34
41
44
61
/ %mn =1.70
rxix
102
VJmean=1-52
3-0
3"0
6-0
5.0
8.0
129
124
79
76
68
7"0
76
10.0
63
9.0
68
17"0
58
L2
15"0
56
55
28.0
55
24-0
49
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48
38
24
25
18
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13
24
10
22
12
.
406
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max
108 %=/W
-217-
71
51
83
77
101
98.
108
101
111
105
121
= 1-82
n-
1.81
12
22
29
25
30
27
32
27
39
34
41
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/_
1000
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2000
STRAIN 10'
5000
54
/slope
4000
12
.
"10-1
-i
08
.
"06
"04 -a
BEAMS
02.
1000
STRAIN 1U-1-2000
FIGURE 8-6
3000
4000
108 (214)
5000
Fo(D
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Ii
LO
FJ
J
W
>
W
J
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W
H
LO
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a:
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Z
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3:
- LO
tab
w
cr_
l1.
p0p
NIda1S
31380N00
IV
A NOUVIA30 0HVONylOSN13a
A0 3dOlS
3/n
The formulae
and the
tensile
in
stress
beams as there
difference
derived
28 days
at
the
the
could
concrete
were no strain
between
to predict
internal
bar
test
programme
surface
in
concrete
strain
long
the
bars.
reinforcing
and the
strain
concrete
be checked
not
on the
gauges
the
term
Therefore
surface
the
was.
strain
not measured.
8.5
DURABILITY TESTS
8.5.1
Introduction
This
part
the
of
of various
sealing
Obviously,
to be effective,
moist
in
conditions
The following
and steel.
8.5.2
the
long
the
durability
on the
agents
was designed
sealing
agent
and have
term
products
the
of
must
investigate
to
the
effects
joints.
concrete/epoxy/steel
behaviour
show stable
good bonding
to
concrete,
under
resin
epoxy
were used:
Details
Coating
The coatings
used were
easily
applied
using
a spatula
shear
resistance
or paintbrush,
as indicated.
8.5.2.1
Polyurethane
This
temperatures
8.5.2.2
of
70C.
are
SILITE
100 manufactured
8.5.2.3
Acrylonitrile
heat
dry
these
in
air
at
is
good up to
by DEVCON Ltd.
(Spatula)
the
same type
which
heat
resistance
as the
of resistance
in
cure
air
at
room temperature
260C.
up to
polyurethanes,
The product
to produce
used was
by DEVCON Ltd.
(Brush)
Phenolic
show the
same sort
to temperatures
resistance
whose
systems,
with
rubber
Again
have
these
one component
a resilient
liquid
The product
Rubber
Silicone
Generally
but
(Brush)
Rubber
room temperature.
of
of
as the
resistance
150C.
They
The product
used
are
polyurethanes
one component
and have
which
systems
by
SWIFT Ltd.
8.5.2.4
Paint
Two coats
(Brush)
of
primer
of
finish
by MANDERS Ltd.
coat
were
applied.
The paint
Four
Two were
were
Specimens
Control
8.5.2.5
stored
the
with
a controlled
prisms
were also
steel
test
other
in
stored
unplated
prisms
17C,
at
no protective
described
specimens
atmosphere
cast
having
plates
and kept
in
concrete
prisms
the mist
and the
above
56% relative
coating.
humidity.
20C,
room at
two
other
Four
100% relative
humidity.
8.5.3
Experimental
The test
8.8.
Fig.
control
three
in
plates,
in
After
the
for
22C,
days before
seven
The loading
central
the
arrangement
is
left
loading
point
The first
the
plates
8.5.4
Discussion
The average
of
are
failure
kN (FLEXANE);
beam which
Therefore
was kept
after
prisms
7 days before
for
plus
24 hours
after
and
removal
to bond on the
Giegy
to
which
of
the
replaced
were
kept
8.8.
or
the
and the
ultimate
beams to
humidity.
56% relative
17C,
before
20 months
The loading
a further
room except
mist
450 mm.
the
in
at
10 months
and for
coatings
then
room for
laboratory
in uncontrolled
cure
application
off
twentyfour
stripped
and the
coating
of
series.
left
concrete,
types
rate
load
tested
under
was 4 kN/minute.
were
investigate
testing.
After
noted.
corrosion
of
the
interface.
result
given
beam, with
control
plated
test
a span of
stripped
were
humidity
Ciba
shown in Fig.
the
were
The results
34'3
in
and plate/glue
plate,
mist
over
load
crack
failure
no coating
in
therefore,
all,
beams with
two control
In
specimens
beams were
four
the
100% relative
preliminary
the
plating,
conditions
All
each of
and plating.
preparation
as used
above.
were cast.
room at
a mist
for
cast
as detailed
cubes
surface
were
were
prisms
specimens
placed
for
specimens
Four
control
procedure
loads
3215
at
8.6.
Table
no protective
(SILITE);
in
each)
35.3
56% relative
the
mist
After
coating,
(2 specimens
17C,
10 months
in
for
(SWIFT)
humidity
room there
10 months
in
had a failure
the
coated
and 34.1
room the
the mist
load
prisms
(PAINT).
had a failure
was no significant
3106 )N.
of
were
The uncoated
load
of
34 kN.
difference
500
lo
I.
:. _
C
0
r-
r
I
333
i'
glue thickness 3 mm
plate thickness 1.5 mm
bars
6 mm dia.
reinforcement
DETAILS OF DURABILITY SPECIMENS
All
dimensions
in
mm.
250
25
450
_I
LOADING ARRANGEMENT
FIGURE
8.8
DURABILITY
TEST
SPECIMENS
-223-,
80
50 mm c1c
DURABILITY
B"6
TABLE
BEAM
NUMBER
AGE AT
TESTING
MONTHS
TEST RESULTS.
TYPE OF CP 110
COATING THEORY
FIRST
CRACK
LOAD
N
CP 110
EXPERINEN1FERMEN
THEORY FIRST
FAILURE w
FAILURE CRACK
LOAD
LOAD
V
LOAD
U
RI
kN
k^1
301
10
NONE
12.6
32-8
18.0
31.6
1.50 0.96
302(1)
10
NONE
12.6
32.8
16.0
34.0
1.27 1.04
303
20
NONE
13-0
34-0
20.0
32.7
1.54 0.96
304(1)
20
NONE
13.0
34-0
18.0
361
138 1.06
305
10
FLEXANE
12.6
32-8
16-0
32-3
1.27 0-98
306
10
FLEXANE
12-6
32-8
17-0
36-2
1-35 1.10
307
20
FLEXANE
13-0
34-0
16.0
37.2
1-23 1.09
308
20
FLEXANE
13-0
34-0
16-0
38.7
1-23 1.14
309
10
SIUTE
12-6
32-8
18.0
31.4
1.43 0-96
310
10
SILITE.
12-6
32-8
20-0
33.6
1.59 1-02
311
20
SILITE
13-0
34-0
18.0
36.8
1-38 1.08
312
20
SILITE
13.0
34-0
20-0
38-3
1.54 1.13
313
10
SWIFT
12-6
32.8
18.0
36-2
1.35 1.10
314
10
SWIFT
12-6
32.8
17.0
34.4
1.46 1.05
315
20
SWIFT
13-0
34-0
19.0
35-4
1.46 1.04
316'
20
SWIFT
13-0
34-0
16-0
37.6
1.23 1-11
317
to
PAINT
12-6
32.8
18.0
34.4
1.43 1-05
318
10
PAINT
12.6
32.8
17-0
33.8
1.35 1.03
319
20
PAINT
13-0
34.0
21.0
38.2
1-61 1.12
320
20
PAINT
13.0
34-0
17-0
36-0
1.31 1.06
10
NONE
9.2
9-2
9.5
9.5
1-03
322(2)
10
NONE
9-2
9-2
9-2
9-2
1.00
323(2)
20
NONE
9-5
9.5
9.7
9-7
1.02
20
NONE
9.5
9.5
10.0
1.05
321
324
(2)
(2)
10.0
-224-
control
specimen kept at 16C , 56! Rela'ive
a- no coatinghumidity
b-- no coating - kept at 22C 100/ Relative
,
phenolic
c- SWIFT K 7066 Acrylonitrile
Polyurethane.
d- FLEXANE 30
Paint
e- P/lANJERLAC
Silicone
f -- SLITE
100
PLATE
B4
DURABILITY
SPECIMENS
AFTER
TE`, TItH(')
humidity
DURABILITY
a-f
BEFORE TESTING
SPECIMENS
see
Plate
84
P!. TF B5
D'JRl, 9! '..!TY
TESTING
I'PEC! AE'i
I-
..... 1..
HE;M
iP t
...
1.....
86
r.....
3 mm glue
6mm
(, h
glue
r.
1i
_A
n.
thickness,
_.
,
1
thickness,
15 mm
plate
1 5 mm plate
PATTERNS-
'Iii
+f,,, ,
of 1
point,.
""
between
the
protection
beam, without
lower
slightly
kept
a coating,
load
failure
different
by the
given
the
with
the
than
types
beams in
coated
room had a
the mist
beam which
uncoated
The control
coating.
of
was kept
dry
under
conditions.
20 months
After
had a failure
humidity
failure
(FLEXANE):
37.6
the
exceed
effectiveness
in
36.1
control
(2 specimens
36.5
glue
were
is
(PAINT).
applied.
38.0
were
prisms
coated
56% relative
at
These values
humidity
of
by CP110 methods
calculated
and steel
in
the
the
showing
ratio
of
safety
material
The tensile
10 months
at
with
Chapters.
previous
taken
were
concrete
The average
respectively.
kept
to be some
appear
when no coating
the
and 37.1
56% relative
therefore
would
for
each)
17C,
at
to moisture
(SWIFT);
as described
to unity
There
no coating
coatings.
loads
the
beam kept
exposure
specimen
the
M.
beam with
control
The similar
of
(SILITE);
of
equal
stresses
load
loads
The failure
factors
U.
the
room,
due to prolonged
strength
The average
all
the mist
32'7
of
had a failure
in
loss
load
in
and 20 months
75 and 90 N/mm2
were
to theoretical
experimental
values
was
crack
As explained
loads.
behaviour
of
the
was there
Plates
specimens,
slightly
lower
rather
steel
because
plate.
of approximately
loads
of bond
the
of
This
of
except
failure
any loss
8.4
course
was
0.2 mm.
found
the
ingress
than
be expected.
epoxy
or
steel
no case
of moisture
and resulting
mm in
of
loss
places,
the
in
in
latter.
could
the
The
be explained,
adhesive,
thickness
with
failure
In no case
even
the
prisms
to
did
failure.
plate,
face
exposed
predicted
The composite
beams after
exposed
to be up to 0.3
the
and in
was good,
show the
on the
rusting
higher
all
the uncoated,
through
excessive
would
and 8.5
of
of
were
system
deterioration
any visual
due to
this
steel/epoxy/concrete
uncoated
not
visually
previously,
by debonding.
occur
obtained
but
of
the
a mean value
8.6
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the
results
in
presented
Chapter
this
following
the
conclusions
can be made.
1.
were
of
loads
The ultimate
compatible
the
be predicted
could
be expected
what would
with
the
accurately
beams tested
by the
sustained
that
assuming
concrete
was ageing
by strain
compatibility
18 months
after
exposure
was no degradation
there
loads
The ultimate
normally.
the
assuming
was not
glue
cracked.
2.
Virtually
18 months
plate
the
the
tension
face
4.
of
5.
for
those
6.
as those
7.
For
the
were
8.
the
prisms
of
the
visual
which
best
found
(up to
28 days.
10% of
In
at
the
the
plate.
and hardener,
the
area),
beams
affected.
closely
properties
general
of
on the
all
resin
adversely
the
beams
older
in Appendix
outlined
methods
from
interface
whatever.
for
tests
at
close
showed the
the
the
with
5 were
experimental
coating
28 days
at
as
values.
(3 beams only)
agreement
with
effectiveness
there
20 months.
predicted
11%.
within
18 months
penetration
after
beams tested
18 months
at
to be in
had no protective
deterioration
edge of
Carbonation
of
derived
tests
system
epoxy/steel
the
beams
results.
number of
The durability
epoxy/steel
at
bonded
mixing
were not
at
test
occurred
epoxy
beams tested
limited
characteristics
glue
by the
at
formula
the
of
by the
line
beams tested
calculated
The empirical
properties
calculated
gave the
rotations
the
the
behaviour.
stiffer
in
of
occurred
in
transportation.
inadequate
load-deflection
similar
rusting
was protected
and deformation
strength
off
was evidence
had occurred
during
2-3 mm depth
to
pockets
The deflections
accurate
of
concrete
there
air
showed slightly
the
the
The load-strain,
followed
signs
was limited
where
inclusion
and
ultimate
The only
paint
Even though
3.
plates
of
exposure.
paste
cement
steel
no corrosion
after
where
the
of
the
the
the
cracking
28 day test
coatings
results.
in
protecting
moisture.
However,
even
was no visual
evidence
of
of
The coatings
themselves
in
the
corrosion
showed no
CHAPTER 9
OF PRESENT WORK, OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND
LIMITATIONS
OF PRESENT WORK
LIMITATIONS
data
The test
systematically
a range
covering
Nevertheless,
ural
behaviour
steel
plates.
were
conducted
is
of
hoped
are
considered
to be the
glue
and plate
thicknesses.
here
presented
of
duration
that
this
reinforced
our
beams strengthened
concrete
The limitations
add to
work will
within
the main
which
set
this
on
range.
knowledge
flex-
the
of
bonded
externally
with
flexural
of
series
results
of
Limitations
has restricted
testing
of
first
testing
are:
1.
The concrete
2.
Only
one type
of
3.
Only
flexural
tests
4.
The amount
strength
epoxy
internal
reinforced
prior
CXL 194,
adhesive,
were
of
of
bar
All
in
the
bridge
actual
of
behave
beams often
constant.
constant.
The behaviour
to plating.
as prestressed
was kept
reinforcement
N/mm2.
was used.
The shear
performed.
60-80
between
beams varied
the
all
an over
reinforced
manner.
5.
of
of
Due to
testing
only
testing
only
a limited
amount
of
replication
6.
The range
7.
All
8.
The long
of
adhesive
and plate
was 1.5
thickness
to
6 mm.
same dimensions.
tests
were
performed
after
internal
bars
a relatively
short
period
18 months.
The concrete
to
cover
the
was not
varied.
OVERALL CONCLUSIONS
9.2
Although
end of
that
data
clusions
1.
of
was performed.
9.
test
duration
the
the
chapter,
presented
are
limited
derived
conclusions
the
in
general
by the
conclusions
in
test
each
chapter
which
conditions
ultimate
flexural
-230-
are
summarised
can be extracted
be
summarised
may
thesis
this
from
as follows,
and procedures
capacity
from
(these
as outlined
on addition
at
the
the
con-
above):
of
bonded
plate
was only
reinforcement
dicted
by CP 110 or
flexural.
plate,
to a shear/bond
2.
The service
loads
were up to
90% higher
rotations,
steel
the
unplated
best
The rotations
plated
beam at
the
The measured
methods.
1.5 mm
beams with
thickness.
loads
as the
load
service
at which
attained,
were
from:
was chosen
deflections,
widths.
up to 407. less
beams were
plated
deflections
be predicted
could
ing.
were up to 48"
Using
this,
The crack
5.
maximum crack
the Young's
the
rotations
widths
to natural
exposure
the
found
were
than
satis-
to
give
the
the
tin-
plate
Inspection
of
of
inadequate
showed no loss
8.
available
ingress
behaviour
of
be predicted
within
the
a period
of
interface
pre-
were
values.
been adversely
by
affected
No deterioration
this
over
by the
The
width
crack
measured
was found
63%.
formulae
These
18 months.
beam soffit
on the
by the
overestimated
the
load-
12%.
beams by up to
satisfying
of
any stage
at
an
period.
presence
of
the
bonded
reinforcement.
7.
signs
formulae
over
concrete
to produce
used
were
empirical
weathering
plated
the-plated
in
beams than
rotations
of
were
by both
the
the
in
loads
or adhesive/adhered
adhesive
Carbonation
could
reduced
recommended
The flexural
6.
were
Modulus.
at working
to produce
modified
in
% less
The measured
for
widths
formulae
diction
loads.
service
formula
empirical
In
in
was
correlation.
4.
of
its
criterion
on which
deflections
specimen.
by accepted
factorily
an unplated
failure
for
assessed
beam at
or maximum crack
strains
load
beams,
pre-
6 mm plate
beams with
plated
depending
bar
The service
the
in
deformations
corresponding
in
for
be accurately
mode of
flexural,
purely
for
failure,
could
when the
methods
from
mode changed
type
loads
The ultimate
compatibility
strain
The failure
3.
177.
of
plates
mixing
strength
coating
of
removed
the
covered
areas
The durability
for
the
the
the
up to
10% of
long
term
specimens
system
and inclusions
the
bonded
surface.
there
are
resin/hardener
during
specimens
from
This
showed
of
air.
beam
testing.
showed that
epoxy/plat
e element,
of moisture.
-231-
which
various
effectively
sealing
agents
prevent
the
9.
The preliminary
bonded
plates
in
than
9.3
the
prisms
strength
composite
the
of
strength
the
of
resin
epoxy
is
system
externally
with
considerably
epoxy.
SUGGESTIONSFOR FUTURE'WORK
endeavoured,
(a)
glue
(b)
degree
(c)
long
thinner
layers
of view
although
of
of
glue
the
glue
a durable
acceptable
thickness
of pouring
wet
on the
deformations
of
beams which
further
the
some of
precracked
cracked
were not
layer
thought
which
the
to
plated
minimum
a different
applied
point
technique
the
reinforcing
plates
onto
hardened
195 mm.
up to
to
a very
90% of
limited
failure
their
was achieved
found
This
load
than
behaviour
of
the
as the
to be less
aspect
extent.
with
seemed anomalous,
generally
to plating.
prior
using
were
results
beams were
layer
thinnest
mm and found
performance
the
is
It
was investigated
satisfactory
The
a bonding
from
when bonding
below
beams loaded
plate,
However,
added reinforcement.
they
employed
precracking
even with.
the
1.5
to
epoxy
be extended
of
0.25
an uncured
therefore,
in
Cusens
However,
thicknesses
glue
showed that
from
ranging
onto
The degree
bond.
strength
layers
6 mm.
more stiffness.
slightly
be applied
would
to be 1 mm.
of
to bonding
jointing
plate
plate,
1.5 mm to
thicker
as the
provide
layer
high
concrete
should,
of
was from
thickness
as well
did
thicknesses
The range
prior
the
beams
the
of
behaved
latter
glue
The tests
to assess
available
layers
multiple
and plate
the
beams with
concrete
time
exposure.
glue
in practice
plate;
precracking
term
of
produce
thickness,
and plate
The range
would
limited
the
within
following:
the
of
effects
in
the
needs
examination.
The mode of
increased,
avoided
this
tensile
concrete
tensile
the
that
steel/epoxy/concrete
unrestrained
The author
that
the
unreinforced
of
series
indicate
seemed to
when incorporated
higher
test
from
as there
type
of
failure
flexural
purely
is
failure
of
the
less
could
warning
beams changed,
plated
to a shear/bond
and it
be avoided
is
more brittle.
by modifying
-232-
type.
the
as the
plate
The latter
It
is
ends of
thickness
should
thought
the
plate.
be
that
The
thickness
plate
means of
or width
the
anchoring
investigation,
the
a slightly
produced
the
near
beams could
the
ends of
plate
thickness
of
the
higher
failure
load.
This
or
In one beam of
the
at
plate
be reduced,
an area
which
present
and, this
is
the
some
further
requires
study.
The beams in
The effect
span.
the present
the
The behaviour
the
is
as it
siderably
must
epoxy
ultimate
tensile
higher
than
the
unrestrained
test
of
a very
be carried
and bond
shear
the
should
composite
be
in
contribution
be studied
should
of
beams.
plated
tensile
data
test
system
further
could
be con-
after
18 months
value.
set
deterioration
period
in
comparison
on beams after
in
strength
or
out
its
the
Tests
in
stresses
a beam,
of
performance
short
an identical
values.
especially
strength
its
with
limiting
not
resin,
that
loss
no
showed
months
the
shear
thought
Long term
is
the
of
of
calculation
limiting
tested
be investigated.
stresses
These were
the
to assess
all
were
should
interfacial
of
investigation.
present
designed
this
of varying
Some assessments
series
up.
increasing
The tests
of
to
the
the
epoxy
life
lengths
performed
of
of
However,
resin.
Tests
a structure.
exposure
to
18
the
elements.
APPENDIX
(74)
(12)
The rapid
vocabulary.
growth
in
the
The following
fasten
ADHEREND
a body which
is
ADHESION
the
being
together
of
two
adhesives
of
two surfaces
action,
held
that
a material
binds
by means of
interfaces;
by interfacial
forces
sources.
an interlayer
the
attachment
of
consisting
forces,
bonding
of
various
body by an adhesive.
another
adherend
combinations
or
from
together
chemical
technical
an extensive
by adhesion.
to
attached
forces,
molecular
to
surfaces
between
of
led
a selection
present
pages
state
has
adhesives
use of
ADHERE
ADHESIVE
TECHNOLOGY
TO ADHESIVES
interlocking
these.
together
materials
other
by surface
attachment.
BATCH
a production
quantity
or
of
a mixture
from
derived
these
resulting
a manufacturing
from
the
process
same process
conditions.
BOND
the
CATALYST
a chemical
union
added in
substance
small
reactants:
or
COHESION
internal
bulk
to
which
adhesive
adhesion;
material.
which
amounts
material
accelerates
by adhesives.
two materials
of
the
accelerates
the
larger
promotes
adhesive
quantities
cross
when
curing
of
the
linking
in
rupture
within
a polymer
drying.
ability
to resist
the
CORROSION
CREEP
CROSS LINKING
the
chemical
and the
adherend
adhesive
leading
load.
the
of
union
adjacent
as long
existing
deterioration
to
or
reactive
components
of
of
molecules
chains)
polymer
adhesive
contamination
in
the
bond strength.
the
of
time
change with
sustained
the
due to
surfaces,
dimensional
the
between
reaction
a material
under
uncured
adhesives
by catalytic
or
(often
curing
agents.
CURE
to
the
alter
change,
heat,
DEGREASE
to
DELAMINATION
DURABILITY
physical
or
by the
about
agency
of
catalysts.
from
remove oil
and
the
separation
of
layers
the
resistance
to
reduction
grease
adherend
surfaces.
failure.
due to adhesive
in
heat,
to moisture,
adhesives
by chemical
an adhesive
brought
e. g. polymerisation,
pressure,
of
properties
joint
strength
chemicals
shown by
and biodeterioration
etc.
EXTENDER
extend
FAILURE,
ADHESIVE
joint
of
failure
the
joint
such
adherend,
tape
failure
substance
increase
life,
pot
sensitive
FAILURE,
COHESIVE
liquid
a non reactive
that
flexibility
the
compounds
and lower
the
to
cost.
at
the
in
adhesion
of
a pressure
when peeled
from
the
epoxy
occurs
failure
within
to
separation
the
e. g.
added
adhesive.
an adherend.
surface
FATIGUE
upon the
FILLER
of
a condition
from
stress
interface.
adhesive-adherend
an adhesive
intended
additive
flexing
repeated
impact
or
force
to
improve
with
epoxy
their
strength
and performance.
FLEXIBILISER
a substance
react
will
which
compounds
to
impart
flexibility.
GEL
a semi-solid
in which
aggregates
HARDENER
a catalytic
or
of
setting
cross
the
contact
area
JOINT
the
junction
of
PASTE
a high
PENETRATION
the passage
PH
a measure
PHASE
a homogenous
held.
linking
between
to promote
used
material
and adhesive
adherend
two adherends
viscosity
adhesive
of
are
which
held
surfaces.
together
by
of
acidity
into
or
other
a material
POLYMER
a compound formed
added
distinct
to an adhesive
containing
weight
part
by definite
parts
by the
an adherend.
alkalinity.
and physically
from
molecular
composition.
an adhesive
PLASTICISER
high
solid
layer.
an adhesive
molecules
of
adhesives.
INTERFACE
separated
is
liquid
a network
of
consisting
system
reaction
active
material.
of 'a system
bounding
increase
to
of
functional
identical
groups
its
surfaces.
flexibility.
simple
to produce
POROSITY
the
POT-LIFE
the
PRETREATMENT
those
treatments,
to
an adherend
improve
REACTIVE DILUTENT
the
the
an adhesive
chemical
or
adhesive
promote
an adhesive.
after
preparation.
physical
which
are
properties.
before
applied
coating
the
to
adhesive
the
ratio
the
of
RHEOLOGY
the
for
term
of
which
a given
the
at
and flow
of
volume
to
air
same temperature.
polymers
are
which
point.
melting
rate
chemical
proceeds.
and synthetic
the
deformation
of
study
it
saturate
natural
slows
in
water
amorphous
an additive
to
required
general
RETARDER
weight
thermosetting
undergoes
curing
whilst
adhesive
free
solvent
The dilutent
viscosity.
with
for
dilutent
liquid
high
of
the weight
RESIN
absorb
bond performance.
reaction
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
to
surface
a low viscosity
resins
for
mechanical,
adherends
to
surface
time
working
effective
applied
PRIMER
an adherend
of
ability
a chemical
of
behaviour
of
reaction.
materials
under
stress.
SET
the
conversion
by chemical
of
or
an adhesive
physical
SHRINKAGE
SLIPPAGE
the
movements
of
into
a permanently
cured
state
means.
occurring
adherends
during
adhesive
to
relative
curing.
each other
during
bonding.
STORAGE LIFE
the
time
stored
period
under
for
specified
which
an adhesive
temperature
remains
conditions.
usable
when
STRENGTH,
CLEAVAGE
the
load
tensile
to
required
cause
of
STRENGTH, IMPACT
ability
STRENGTH, PEEL
the
resistance
per
unit
the
resistance
the
SUBSTRATE
width
per
width
a test
bond
of
of
specimen
physical
adherend
an adhesive
of
bond at
of
an adhesive
of
the material
bonding
of
or
for
to
application.
force
the
stress,
joint
to
at
tensile
the
stress;
failure.
an adhesive
other
stress.
shearing
failure.
at
tension
or
material
is
applied
purposes.
employed
methods
to prepare
an
bonding.
to repeated
susceptible
of
to peel
joint
sheared
and chemical
surface
joint
to which
coating
conditions,
failure.
under
surface
specified
shock.
an adhesive
area
when subjected
frequency
mean value,
area
sustain
under
to resist
unit
unit
per
for
THERMO PLASTIC
unit
of
will
application
stress,
resistance
force
a joint
that
of material
The force
STRENGTH, TENSILE
per
separation
cleavage
stress
i. e. range
STRENGTH, SHEAR
force
length.
unit
STRENGTH, FATIGUE
as
expressed
by heating
softening
and hardening
by cooling.
THERMO SET
a material
being
VISCOSITY
which
formed
from
does not
soften
on heating,
an irreversible
initiated
by a catalyst.
a measure
of
resistance
to
flow
chemical
of
a liquid.
as a result
reaction
of
APPENDIX
THEORETICAL
(54)
IN
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
UNDER COMPRESSION
Notation
deformation
axial
angular
of
adherends
deformation
shear
stress
in
the
adhesive
modulus
of
elasticity
modulus
of
rigidity
tl
semi-thickness
t2
thickness
of
steel
d'
thickness
of
adhesive
c=
G/d'
P=
applied
of
of
adherends
Eg
[1(2+)]
adhesive
of
concrete
plate
load
tT
t2
jP
concrete
cube. -
+dP
L I'"
arlD
2V 2
glue
steel
J
fP
qd - 2
'a
fiP
od=U
plate
P1
P2
=P
u2ul
,Y-
or
=T
d'
T=c
(u2
dT
dx
(dug
- dull
\dx
dx %
ul)
du2 = P2
E2t2
dx
dul = Pl
--x
Eltl
dT
dx
dT
dx
P2
1_
+ P2
Eit1
w2
putting
2t2
d2T
dx2
of
Binh wx
dT
dx
+B
Aw
P2
cP
(Elti
B=
is:
equation
-c
A=
p
Eltl
=P
1-1=
dx2
cosh wx
-cP
Eltl
x=1
when
differential
this
=0
_x,
dT
dx
and
=0
solution
=A
(P -P2)
dP2
dx
E2t2)
-w2T
The general
P1
cP
Elti
E2t2
(Elti
=c
but
(1+1
E,1t1
t1
=c
X2
when
_c
d2T
P1
Eltl)
P2
(E2t2
cP
Eiti
)
E2t2
cp1+
w sinh
(
wl
E2t2
-240-
c
w
Pw
Eiti
cosh wl )
Eltl
cosh wl
+ Bw sinh
wl
(x)
d P2
dx
But
dP2
dx2
d
P2
so
then
ws inh
=c
P2
E2t2)
differential
cosh wx +B
=A
Pc
Eltl
Pc
E 1t 1
this
of
w2(A cosh wx +B
sinh
+C
wx
sinh
-B
wx)
is:
equation
sinh
w2 (A cosh wx
.d_
dx2
Then
("E-1
w2P 2
solution
2t 2)
d)
dx
d2P2
.
(1)
l)
2-u
cP 2
dx2
The general
(u
cosh wx
E lt lE
wl
c( dx
d2
cosh w(1-x)
cP
=.
wx)
w2-(A
cosh wx +B
Binh
wx)
w2C-Pc
Eltl
Pc
w2E, it 1
when
P2
x=0
=0
Pc
0=A+
Pc
AQ-
..
w2E lt 1
when
w2E1t1
x=1P2=P
P=
-Pc
w2Elt
B=
cosh wl
sinh
w2E lt 1
cosh wl
w2E1t1
Pc
i-
)1+p
Pc
Binh
w2E1t1
theoretical
wl
sinh
wl
1+P
(cosh
1)
wl cosh wx +
sinh wx
sinh
w2E1t1
These
wl
(Pc
P2
+B
Pc
distributions
are
plotted
wl
in
Fig.
3.7.
sinhwl
sinh wx
(2)
"APPENDIX
A,
Odd numbered
beams.
X
E
E
0
F=EW/2
tW/2
w2
610mm
Bending
moment at
u=0.5
support.
X:
W. 0.15.
W. 0.61
4-2
Assuming
No roller
F= W/2
for
u=
coeff.
of
friction.
on steel:
concrete
MX = 0.152
u.
W-0.0375
A, Even numbered
W=0.1145
W.
beams.
1
Roller
oocrjp
M=W.
0.61
4
= 0.152
support.
mm.
E
E
r-
Neutral
Axis
0"16.400
-N,
I
Modulus
of
of
Transformed
100
steel
of
elasticity
if
= 200
plate
"
of
as
v 5.56
0%
6 IIN/mm2
glue
age
0.167
Axis:
Neutral
x(152.152
kN/mm2
Section
36 kN/mm2
concrete
of
Location
56.100
-5
+ 16.4
+ 556.1)
_ (152.1522
2
+ 16.4.154
+ 1.556.156-5)
x=7809mm
O)
O
cb
ni
rn
Lf)
rTaking
moments about
152.78.093+
I=
v
cb
r-
the Neutral
152.78-09(78-09
Axis:
2+ 152.73.913+
2)
12
+ 16.4.75.912
+ 555.78.412
(Glue,
(Steel,
15223091)2.73'91
C2
12
its
neglecting
11
inertia
11
(Concrete)
about
11
its
11
own axis)
11
11
11
I=4"84.107mm4.
Modulus
M=I
of
rupture
First
aa4.37
y
Crack
Moment = 4.84.107.4.37
73.91
m 3.06
kNm.
N/nn2
73-91 mm
Neutral
Axis
G16.400
I
1 5-56.100
L100
Transformed
Section
as before.
Moduli
of Netral
Location
x(152x
Axis:
+ 16.4
_ (152x2
2
+ 556.1)
152x2 + 619x
+ 556.1.156.5)
+ 16.4.154
= 76x2 + 96714
x2
+ 8.14x - 1273 m 0.
Hence
x=
31.8
mm.
Inertia,
Moment of
taking
moments about
Axis:
the Neutral
2
(Concrete)
152.3198
31.8
152.31083 +
Im
12
C-.
(Glue,
+ 16.4.122.22
N
"--
about
+ 555.1.124072
neglecting
its
(Steel,
sertia
ICR
Tensile
QI
Y
strength
of
1"12.107
60
N/mm2
-
glue
y-
First
Crack
Moment
5'59
kNm.
mm4.
120'2 mm
insertia
own axis)
neglecting
in-
Based on yield
TABLES 4.3
of plate,
stress
plus
F.
C
LO
FG
(glue
in
= 64"6
fcu.
fg
= 60 N/mm2
fy
= 125 N/mm2.
x=6.20
Hence
Then taking
24000
M=
(d)
(c)
the
moments about
(154 - 3.1)
in
compression
0.6.64.6.152
N.
- 24000 N.
- 12500 N.
+ 12500
stress
the
centroidof
of
(156.5
311)
-
plus
tensile
plate,
5.539
force:
I<Nm.
strength
of
glue.
mm.
stress
of plate,
X=2'24mm.
13! 2 (156"5
compressive
FS = 13200 N.
except
Hence x=6.31
M=
4 mm).
mm.
Based on ultimate
As for
glue.
thickness
b.
FS m 125.1.100
N/mm2
of
concrete
FG 60.4.100
FS
fcu
M=
Beam Al
FC-5891x.
-4 ----1
(e)
strength
0.6.
-T
Lr)
r
tensile
Force
LO
CD
4.6.
-
1112)
2"051 'kNm.
plus
no tensile
51644 VNm.
strength
in
glue.
(CP110)
" APPENDIX
CALCULATION
OF ' ULTIMATE'LOADS.
Three
of
the
(a)
are
methods
Limit'State
The following
1.
the
used for
-224
the
calculating
theoretical
ultimate
capacities
beams.
test
Ultimate
from
BEAMS 201
'
assumptions
are
that
made:
in
distribution
The strain
assumption
to'CP110
plane
the
is
compression
loading
before
sections
in
concrete
remain
derived
up to
plane
failure.
plate
2.
The resistance
3.
The relationships
are
and glue
assumed to be equal
as shown in
of
centroid
5.
the
stress
For
the
are
their
Figs.
of
at
block
half
factors
are
equal
0.2% proof
fcu
over
taken
depth
of
the
1.0
stresses,
steel in tension
Ast"fP
compression
as taken
concrete in
compression
compression
and the
0"6 fcu
may be
entire
capacity
ultimate
and 3.9.
z= d-x/2
the
is
to
failure
at
face
the
bar,
the, reinforcing
respectively.
concrete
0.6
the
calculating
respective
the
compression
at
in
and 3.4
of
of
purpose
safety
the
is
in
ignored.
and strain
3.8,3.9
stress
is
tension
stress
stress
to a uniform
in
concrete
between
The distribution
4.
zone.
of
of
stresses
from
zone.
the
in
Figs.
test
the
3.8
bar
force
Tensile
Compressive
Hence
z=d-
Therefore
But
Ast.
'Ast.
bd
also
Mu
d(1
x/2
the ultimate
Mu
0.6
fp
fcu. x. b
where
fp,
0'29.
proof
where
width
of
stress
beam
fp
Ast.
0.6. b. fcu
x=
Also
force
Ast.
fp)
Ast.
b. d. fcu
- 0.83
moment capacity
Mu is
equal
to:
fp)
- 0.83 Ast.
b. d. fcu
fp d(1
P.
fp.
EXAMPLE
(1
bd2
p.
- 0"83 p.
fcu
fp)
BEAM 207
155 mm
,
a
Plate
0
N
CV
U')
LO
04
Glue
thickness
thickness
1'5
mm
mm
U")
(V
000
A,
Bar
Plate
fp
275 N/mm2
470 N/mm2
0.0277
p=0.0047
d=
fcu
258.75
mm
220 mm
70'2
N/mm2
Then the
Mu
is
moment
ultimate
by
given
275.0.0047.155.258.752
(1 - 0'83(0"0047.275
70"2
+ '0277.470)
470.0.0277.155.2202
(1 - 0.83(0.0047.275
+ 0.0277.470)
70.2
Plate
Bars
(11.14
106 Nnma
81.10).
92.24 kNm
(b)
Strain
Compatibility
The basic
including
the
compression
principle
force
from
the
the
equals
strain
total
that
assumption
are
a given
can be found
force;
the
and hence
in
concrete
before
sections
plane
depth
for
section,
so that
the
the
ultimate
total
moment.
made:
in
distribution
The strain
axis
tension
assumptions
is that
compatibility
a neutral
reinforcement,
The following
1.
of
loading
is
compression
remain
plane
derived
up to
failure.
are
2.
The resistance
3.
The relationship
in
Figs.
as shown
4.
the
3.8
stress
5.
3.4
All
found
material
the
found
between
with
stress
The relationship
shown in Fig.
6.
and 3.9,
block
and a compressive
in
concrete
between
The relationship
rectangular
0.0035,
of
the
stress
is
of
by experimental
stress
0.60.
fcu.
the
stress
by experimental
factors,
ignored.
and strain
in
in
and strain
equal
reinforcements
the
concrete
compression
in
tests.
Y m, are
the
tests.
and strain
a maximum concrete
between
safety
tension
to unity.
strain
the
glue
is
of
is
as
tcu
e. g.
Beam
207
plate
thickness
glue
thickness
fcu
105 mm
3 mm
70 .2 N/mm2
Co
Ln N'I
N
(1)
First
Abars
= 943 mm2
Aplate
is
it
assumed that
Guess (plate
glue
425 N/mm2
force
fcu. 155 x
0.6
By strain
compatibility:
=
220 - 75'74.
75.74
Eplate
258"75 - 75'74.00035
75-74
the
guess,
Try
fplate
Then
300.187.5
300
and
+ 490.943
79"39
experimental
bar
steel
and plate,
stresses
fbars
0.6 fcu.
'0035
stress
strain
to
490 N/mm2
fplate
325 N/mm2
155 x.
"0085
curves
rigs.
these
fbars'
490
"0067
as shown in
corresponding
was incorrect.
therefore,
Ebars
From the
x=
made by the
75"74 mm
0"0035
The initial
is
contribution
(bars
Compressive
+ 425.943
250.187.5
x=
250 N/mm2
force
Tensile
no tensile'
3.8
strains
for
the
and 3.9,
are
Hence
220-'79.39.
79.39
Ebars
Eplate
From the
stress
experimental
fbars
- 79.39.
258.75
"0035
00062
"0035
"0079
graphs:
strain
490 N/mm2 c
O. K.
fplate
moment is
The resistance
concrete
297 N/mm2
(z
block.
stress
then
found
by taking
=d-x.
moments
the
about
centroid
of
the
79.39)
=d22
Mu
(ii)
Assume
95.5
Assuming*the
is
(258.75
187.5.300.
Mu
fglue
300.187"5
in
remains
+ 943.490(220
fplate
+ 490.943
+ 15.375
LO
(V
300 N/mm2
187.5.300
fcu.
220 - 80"25.60035
80.25
Eglue
256'S - 80"25.
80"25
The calculated
mental
failure
imparts
490 N/mm2
"0061
"0035
"0077
"0078
CD
V)
N
258"5 - 80"25.00035
80"25
Eplate
(258.75 - 80.25)
stress/strain
graphs: -
f,
490 N/mm2
fglue
N/mm2
fplate
+ 943.490
22
96.6
it
force
155 x.
Ebars
the
frebar
0"6
rebar
Mu =
failure
from experimental
Then
- 79039)
component
15 N/mm2
up to
uncracked
tensile
the
8025 mm
0.0035
x=
79.39)
22
kNm
glue
included
15.375
"14
297 N/mm2
(220 - 80.25)
(256.5
- 80025)
2
KNm
ultimate
loads
are
shown in
loads.
-250-
Table
5.4
together
with
the
experi-
(c)
Compatibility
Strain
An alternative,
use the
stress
below.
(k1,
in
distribution
the
of
(b)
by iiognestad,
and Prestressed
Reinforced
in
than
calculation
as suggested
concrete
4.4-1,
cc from Fig.
k2,
method
is
to
as shown
Concrete
155
,,
*---l
0
N
cb
Ln
N
Beam 207
eb
ki.
fcu.
Assume
Then
.
'0
With
f=
295 N/mm2
fb
=
=
cc
- x
fb
have:
295.187"5
258*75
cc
sp
fcu
70"2
kl
0"48
k2
0"41
N/mm2
+ 943. fb
462 N/mm2
0.0028,
to
3.9,295
eb
0.0028
this
strain
N/mm2.
is
220 (
94
94
curve,
stress/strain
experimental
Fig.
+ Ab*
we also
155.94
0"48.70"2.,
fp
Ap.
x=
x=
corresponding
given
b.
and
94 mm
From the
from
ec (
220X
)-
Fig.
'00375.,
3.8,
were
the
the
OK.
ep
steel
plate
stress
the
stress
The ultimate
by:
464.943
M=
u
=
91.6KNM
(220 - 0.41.94)
+ 295.187.5
(258.75
"00491
- 0.41.94)
in
the
is
moment is
bars
found
then
Similar
calculations
values
100.6
of
2 to 4% only.
for
N/mm2.
These
and 209
differ
from
(6 mm plate)
method
(b)
give
(i)
by
APPENDIX
CP 110 Recommendations
is
This
in
dealt
it
general
of
limit
reinforced
which
are
difficult
members are
the
of
support
conditions
(b)
precise
loading
(c)
extent
used
cracking.
is
to assess
the
clause
test
forward
straight
(1)
loading
remain
is
(iii)
(iv)
taken
Stresses
axis
and a value
stress
To obtain
diagram
of
is
in
on the
The recommended
deflection.
For
or
that
assumption
calculating
set
The
uneracked.
The assumptions
in
the
along
an appropriate
cracked
diagrammatically
appropriate
sections
employs
is
the
under
successive
the
section
to be elastic
assumed
in
of
the
for
Fig.
this
are
A. 5.1.
plane
before
sections
and its
modulus
of
in
concrete
is
and the
the
bending
may be calculated
on the
having
centroid
between
Under
of
-253-
the
bending
moments
short
used.
tension
triangular
the
to be elastic.
assumed
Ec is
elasticity
1 N/mm2 at
drawn
is
compression
a relationship
is
on the
effect
as 200 kN/mm2.
distribution
the
factors
loading.
the modulus
that
deflections
of
curvatures.
which
load.
service
the
compute
the
illustrated
after
The concrete
loading,
at
term
sections
at
a procedure
calculated
are
plane
at
of
curvatures
on whether
cracked
long
from
to
gives
The reinforcement
elasticity
force
the
A. 2.2
and are
Strains
(ii)
term
all
curvatures
integration
depending
beams were
a number
a considerable
especially
deflections
calculating
numerical
assumptions
the
the
calculate
of
have
which
When the
are
that
states
analysis.
there
A. 1 it
clause
the
assess
calculated
conditions,
of
involves
curvatures
to
an elastic
but
In
code.
result:
(a)
The approach
for
to allow
the
accurate
by using
states
concrete
reliability
A of
be sufficiently
will
serviceability
in Appendix
with
a value
tension
of
zero
the
neutral
steel.
taken.
at
assumption
curvature
The equation
for
a
the
fc = Ec'
ec
1/r =/x
s
I
73
fs
0-
00
11,
STRAIN
SECTION
force
Compressive
bxEc
2
but
STRESS
Te n sil e
Es es As
E5 / E = ae
_ cc(d-x)
x
cnd
force
As/ bd= 9
bx Eoc= ES c()
AS
2
2aepd(d-x)
or x2 =
z+
2aep dx - 2ae 9 d2
then
therefore
also
le =
and
or b;
FIGURE A5.1
-x.
3
2x
b.
=3
ELASTIC
X=-%9d'-dae9ae9'
= d(1-x
3d
bx(2Z
+
d)3+91
(d-x)2
",
-d):.
CURVATURES
Ec
to
of
the
when calculating
resistance
In
area
the
the
neutral
the
in
concrete
depth.
axis
and a further
complicated
assumed that
the neutral
underestimate
the
in
stress
zero
is
It
this.
simplify
basis
becomes rather
depth
axis
neutral
tension
Thus,
the
but
depth
axis
the
depth,
axis
neutral
is
concrete
in
into
account
made
on the
calculated
This
zone.
taken
is
assumption
will
slightly
is
tension
ignored
when calculating
moment.
the
case of
and the
plated
plate
area
to
their
combined
is
depth
effective
beams the
taken
to
bar
the
centroid.
mm
E,
36 kN/mm2
1.5
mm
ES
200 kN/mtn2
ae
200 -5.56
36
thickness
Plate
thickness
Ln
LO
LO
(V
(V
N
Co
LD
N
187
943
155.226
p-
Ab 943mrr?
000
12 5I
155
1
From Fig.
--
x=
d
Next
the
is
the
resistance
given
by
moment is
experimental
Fig.
0.179(2.179)
+ 0.179
(1 - 0.445)2
allowing
calculated
A. 5.2
Hence x"
the
for
Hence
the
moment due to
mm
I-1.51.108
tension
the
100.6
mm4
stiffening
in
concrete
of
tension
b(h - x) 3
(d - x)
fct.
3
The deflections
with
(0.445)3
3
As shown in
concrete.
-0.179
1=
bd3
0.179
187rrrr2
A. 5.1
and
000
ae. p
3.23.102
of
the
values.
test
beams were
The applied
calculated
moment
is 49"8 KNm.
-255-
at
(W. L)
6
130 KN load
corresponding
for
to
comparison
130 KN load
W/2
L/3
L/31
L/3
LOADING
TYPICAL MODE OF
L/6
L/3
wi2
I.
lB
wl
6
WL Met
6
-)4
-x
Fully
Partially
cracked
BENDING MOMENT
cracked
DIAGRAM
TENSILE CONCRETE
Neutral -t
Axis
.Z
ict
stress at reinforcement level
(h-x
stressof extreme fibre =f
ct (d-x)
force in tensile concrete = Fct
. .
X
i
.D
lhg)
iC
'
.bh -x
ct
moment of tensile concrete about
neutratcxis= Ft, 2/3 (h- x)
=X
. dilb
ct
= f., b.(h-x)
3(d-x)
Ct
FIGUREA5.2
The resistance
moment.
is
The curvature
from
the
Where K is
for
the
KNm
from
be found
given
by the
radians.
simplified
depends
which
approach
by the
formula
in
test
beams the
In
conditions.
Kl
a=
loading
on the
and support
M"E
It
theory.
in
recommended
1.
R
k12
a=
span.
effective
8.9.10-6
equation
bending
simple
KNm
W13, but
EI
and support
Table
A3 gives
the
general
the
also
conditions,
values
deflection
bending
of
of
moment,
K2. W. 1.
M=
For
of
48"3
a constant
loadings
various
beam is
can then
A. 2.3
and 1 is
- 1.155'(255'_'100.7)3.10-6
3
(226 - 10017)
48.3.106
36.10 . 1.51.10
The deflection
clause
49.8
found
then
1=
R
Therefore
the
the
Fig.
the
Combining
symmetrically
1 or 0.167.
6
(81) method
of K1 Macaulay's
value
and is
A. 5.3
are
the
23
1296
to
equal
placed
equations
can be used
the
1 points
3
K1 and K2:
containing
as shown in
= 0.1065
as shown in
0001775.
K1.12.
a-
K2
or K=0.01775
at
is
K2
of
loadings
Table
A3 of
the
Pi
EI
code.
0.1666
Then
the
beam 207 is
for
deflection
given
by:
5.0
a=0.1065.23002.0189.10-5
(b)
ACI Recommendations
From the work
given
mm.
by Ie
(Mcrl
3 Il
.M/LM
The deflection
is
(i)
plane
(ii)
reinforcement
sections
(IMcrr l3
C1
-
then
(77)
by Branson
performed
as for
apply
remain
plane
elastic
-257-
effective
er
11
J"
by
given
is
//
the
23
W13
. EI
1296
ce
CP 110,
i. e.:
moment of
inertia
is
W/2
.
L/3
W/2
L/3
L/3
tw
fW/2
/2
Convention
d
dXz
JM= EI da
dx
! JM = E'_a
-Wx
2
. W/x-i1
2l
3
4X
-
`4 {x-1`s
3 '
"V1IJx-L
12 l3
_ -W)
12
(x
.2W
-T
i
"2CJx-3)
4"
'x-2'3
"A
Ax
.g
Boundcry
conditions
&L
a=0
x=O,
when
Therefore
B=0
and
l_'
-AL= -W +2(.
or
A=
2J-)
3
iZ
2WL1
36
Then:
Ela = -Wz
12
The
deflection
central
when
(x-1.
+W{
+W
-l-2
12
31
x-2L}
3
2W Lx
36
x_L
2
EI
or
FIGURE A5.3
a=
96
12216
324
23 W
1296 EI
METHOD
(iii)
in
concrete
compression
the
theoretical
uncracked
section
by experiment
- 5.56
N/mm2.
Thus
Mcr
A. 5.4)
the
Hence the
(49"8
13.2
Ie
5'0
rupture
of
which
was determined
load).
The value
I(Nm.
49.8
inertia
kNm (130 IN
1.54.108
mm4 (Fig.
A. 5.5).
+1-[
3 1'S4.108
(49"8)
13"2
mm4
mm4
mm
CEB Recommendations
The deflections
is
of
inertia
moment of
130.103.23003
23
.
1296 36.103.1.561.108
Then a=
(c)
on the
inertia
32"694.108
1"561.108
13.2
moment of
moment of
effective
modulus
consideration,
transformed
cracked,
and the
2.694.108.5.56
113.83
depends
moment,
cracking
(Fig.
the
elastic.
Beam 207
EXAMPLE
Mcr,
is
short
parts,
Es. A. z(d
state
cracking
on the
the
and the
cracking
the
considerations
supported
Thus
- x).
before
one applying
Before
simply
may be calculated
loading
term
cracked
In
or uncracked.
cracked
from
calculated
are
curvature,
the
assumption
cracking
The deflection,
is
a,
curvature,
then
given
by
a-
other
K
X
the
is
Mcr
u
EcI
if
in
as
it
11
1+1
r2
11
It
11
tt
of
11
13"2 kNm
2.694.108
0"1065
CP 110 method
section
under
the
stiffness'in
split
into
, notation
(M-Mcr )
e4
3'EsABZ d-x)
k12
the
deflections
Beam 207
whether
two
after.
ri
EXAMPLE
that
deflection
total
1
r2
the
structures
rl
After
of
100"6 mm
192"5 mm
mm4
as before
155
TRANSFORMED SECTION
0
CV
Ul)
LO
Lf)
130
CO
LO
N
130
0
LP
00
1
H-7
125
61"
KN/mm`" '
Econcrete 36 KN/m mt
Esteel
200 KN/. mm=
Eglue 2'0
BEAM 207
crew of bcrs' 943mm2
area of plate 187 mmt
d155.255i"260,20.220
2
7=
"7.3.256'5
"695.15.258.75
141.17mm.
s
- ---"jo--2r-
90
.
CO
(943 x 5.56)
i
i
j
!:
-
(1 87 x 5.56 )
Moment of Inertia
I
L4117
12
3.155
3
83.155
113
"
12
taking
moments about
155.141-17. (141-12)2
the
1.46.1dmm`
"943.5.56.78.83
= 0.33.10
Neutrcd Axis
(concrete
above
(concrete
below RA. )
N. A, )
(steel
0.14.106
187.556.117.56=
plate,
=
+
=i
FIGUREA5.4
Iu
= 2.69.10s mm
155
I U)
0
N
l Ln
N
NI
fIf
000-
260
tli
tt)
r-*--
____
125
BEAM207
area of bars 943 mm'
area of plate 187 mm
I.
62 5
glue 2"0 KN/rr. m'
Econcrete 6 KN / mms"
Esteel 200 KN/ mm`
155
1'
i--
Co
101. 15 mm
taking
N
Go
(187x5.56)
Moment of inertia:
i
Lo
(943x5"56)
O
"695.1-5.258.75
(D
-7`'
moments
I=155101.15'.155.101.15(1.
QiJ. )2.0.54.10nmm'`
(concrete)
2
12
0.74.10(steel
bcrs,
neglecting Inertic about
=
"943.5.56.11885
their own axis. )
0.26J0(steel
plate
+187.5-56.157-601=
. glue negligible
TOTAL 1c = 1.54.10 mm
FIGUREA5.5
As
Hence
943 (bars)
0"1065.2300
a=
5'81
mm
+ 187 (plate)
r
'13.2.106
L 36.103.2.694.108
1130 mm2
.a
+4
(4918 - 1302).
106
3 2.105.1130.1925.125i4
APPENDIX 6
OF ROTATIONS
CALCULATION
bending
From basic
where
I=
moment of
E=
Young's
is
EI,
Area
the
and
section
section
under
at
section
of
bending
the
cases
Before
a beam produces
along
beam also
considered,
the
occurs
cracking
As
before
one
rotation.
divided
beam.
the
of
the
gives
moment diagram
length
be
must
consideration
the
along
the
along
'
each
EI
under
two
by
in
the
cracking
rotation
"
Diagram
Moment
Bending
under
area
after.
other
the
curvatures
deflections
of
calculation
at
stiffness
a constant
the
of
Modulus
integral
the
to
equivalent
assuming
occurs
the
of
moment
inertia
curvature
Hence the
rotation.
This
bending
applied
The integral
the
theory
M=
1=
m=R
Eu
where
Ec
and
Vu
In
the
compression
concrete
in
=
=
second
the
bending
and the
tension
steel,
tension
between
the
Met
concrete,
is
term
inertia.
moment,
resisted
by the
reduced
by the
cracks.
6 (h-x)3
3 (d-x)
ct
short
moment of
transformed
uncracked,
case
of
This
is
Fig.
A5.2
by the
moment resisted
taken
in
concrete
Met,
as,
. W.
The bending
failure,
axis
moments were
allowing
positions
The second
moment of
section.
fcr
the
from
was taken
positions.
cracked
Firstly,
found
depth
effective
axis
for
=1
area
at
calculated
tensile
the
stages
of
at
was calculated
then
The rotations
were
Two values
of tensile
N/mm2 as recommended
the
cracking,
were
the
steel
bar
each
stage
using
calculated
stress
in
used
and plate
the
as described
the
up to
The neutral
concrete.
distributions
strain
centroid
after
of
contribution
the measured
to
four
concrete
and the
areas,
snore neutral
above
were
for
assumed,
3 N/mm2.
The
latter
average
value
value
was not
thought
5.6
N/mm2.
of
to be unreasonable
A value
as the
modulus
half
approximately
of
of
this
had an
rupture
did
not
seem too
high.
EXAMPLE Beam 207
(i)
Load
section
fct=1
Mct
(Nmm)
60.2300.1000
6
60
_f
-f
63\
Moment of
is
The section
ct
to the
60
N.A.
C14
CV
axis
below
Ln
r7
N
130
190
(943x5.56
I
I
I
250
(187x556)
neglecting
13
J
neutral
inertia,
and
Moment
II=
the
inertia
I=
I=
of
to
N/mm2
(10. x)
(106)
21.7
19.0
48.3
4" 3
71"1
67 "7
93"9
9001
some degree
positions
the
00
U')
assumed to be cracked
Load
(cN)
9;
226-80
moment of
Section
fct-3
Inertia
and concrete
contribution
(255-901
155
3 \226-90
The neutral
shown above.
calculations,
155(255-80
250.2300.1000
(ii)
ct
N/mm2
13
155(255-100
3
26-100
ct'
-f
190.2300.1000
6
190
L55_(255-11213
V2-26-112)
3
ct'
-f
130.2300.1000
6
130
stages
6>
Moment
(kN)
250
by the
Moments to be resisted
are
axis
is
at
all
as shown in
assumed
load
the
the
to have
moment
no
(ae a 5.56).
of Inertia
(mm4)
155.1123
21.52
12+155.112\122)+5243.1082+1040.146.75
155.3
+155.100
1100
1512903
1512803
the
steel
108)
120+5243.1202+1040.158.75
21.53
(92 )2+5243.1302+1040.168.75
21.56
+155.90
()22
+155.80
bar
and plates
+1040.17"752-1"62
about
their
own axes.
(iii)
Rotations
Load
Rotation
(1 N)
(radians
60
as
the
EI.
-21fct=1
N/mn2
fct"3
N/mm2
104)
2300.2. M : 36000.1.52.108
3
61
53
130
2300.2. M
3
36000.1.53.108
135
126
190
2300.2. M : 36000.1.56.108
3
195
186
250
2300.2. M = 36000.1.62.108
3
247
237
These rotations
the
B. M. diagram
- Area under
predicted
cracking
value
rotations
are
are
in
given
greatly
Ec is
not
Table
6.5.
exceeded.
and the
realistic.
It
is
clear
The main
concrete
that
reason
compressive
higher
at
for
this
strain
is
loads
that
increases
APPENDIX
STRESSES
INTERFACIAL
In
this
adhesive
and
appendix
plate
that
emphasised
investigate
to
such
For
ultimate
be
of
within
stresses
treated
the
bond
the
adhesive.
but
to
rather
It
tests
in
they
were
no
designed
not
flexural
the
study
the
be
must
that
and
beam
The
between
stresses
qualitatively
stresses.
conditions
between
least
at
behaviour.
Wherever
element
reinforcing
the
bond
change,
the
steel
tensile
or
stresses
can be used
is
and concrete,
compressive
act
must
stresses
that
necessary
'bond'
The term
between
slip,
is
a beam it
two materials.
the
minimised.
in
to work
and steel
describe
prevented
in
stresses
their
along
to
the
to
surface
produce
change.
this
Research
is
beam
found
exist
stresses
how to
of
in
changes
force
moment
is
is
in members at
point.
to
adjacent
loads.
Thus there
such
to
Very
is
Rather,
it
cracks,
bond
much smaller
problem
stress
low loads
methods
in
a practical
a fluctuating
relatively
stresses
condition,
without
to measure
as
and"
.
signs
bond
of
stress,
Bond Stress
These
movement
low
bond
the
point
exist
even- at
evaluate
or
can exist
stresses
same bar.
by on the
Codes of Practice
Local
bond
large
measure
stresses_
distress.
(a)
close
describe,
bond
very
bond stresses,
ultimate
essentially
large
that
from
varying
gradually
nor
uniform
reinforced
on normal
neither
been
has
to
or
stress
concrete
transferred
or
should
made
Stresses
Bond
be
shear
values
limiting
represent
way
the
and
the
is
an assessment
are
bar
the
the
tensile
produced
the
the
shear
in
the
stresses
force
force.
over
in
bar
the
Local
concrete.
by a change
shear
at
a short
bending
surface
bond
length
which
failures
of
bar.
rate
prevent
longitudinal
by
are
produced
large
This
change
in
tensile
of
change
of
bending
is
interface
a horizontal
bond
local
beams the
For plated
shear
at
stress
plate/glue
or concrete/glue
by
given
stress
the
V. A. y.
1. bp
where
A=
area
by =
width
of plate,
V=
shear
force,
y=
distance
I=
second moment of
was 1.46
N/mm2.
N/mm2 (grade
2.7
from
are
failure
or area
of plate
The results
(plate
the
the
of
in Table
given
the
the
and above).
section
under
consideration,
transformed
section.
bond
cracked
A. 7.1.
CP110 limits
40 concrete
to
axis
neutral
area
+ glue),
local
bond
These
stresses
in
stress
are
stress
bars
plain
for
near
the
to
glue/plate
interface.
Bond Stresses
Anchorage
(b)
This
is
of
a bar
removal
the
from
the
are
values
by shearing
resisted
to be uniform
Tensile,
Force
in
bar
The
between
stresses,
the
along
bar..
of
length
of
the
bar.
the
diameter
CP110 fu
of the forces
02. fu
for
the
steel
=
is
bond stresses.
anchorage
are
length
a particular
ultimate
assumed
over
__
In
is
the equilibrium
Considering
stress
concrete
which
and steel,
concrete
bond
average
tabulated
for
different
limit
at the ultimate
state:
0.
7r. fbs. R,
f
limited
to
Certain
m
experimentally
to
and concrete
steel
produce
the
allowable
determined
properties
limiting
in'Table
22
(CP110).
For
and
glue,
evaluating
in
the
test
the
actual
beams,
average:
a similar
anchorage
expression
bond
is
stress
used:
between
the
plate
PLATED BEAMS
TABLE A 7.1
E
Ew
w
co
SHEAR
EN
Ew FORCEAT
w ji SERVICE
L' LOAD
kN
COMBINEDLOCAL
CENTROIDBOND
STRESS
AT
SERVICE
N/mm-2
LOAD mm
SHEAR COMBINEDLOCAL.
FORCEAT CENTROIDBOND
ULTIMATE
AT
STRESS
LOAD
ULTIMATE
kN
LOADmm N/mm=
203
1.5 1.5
65
226-1, '
0`"55r .
125
226
1.05
204
1.5 3.0
65
231-
0 "89
125 -"
231
1.70
y
'1.23
95
238
1.80
0.55
125
226
1.05
205
1.5 6.0
65
238
207
3.0
1.5
65
226.
208
3.0
3.0
65
231
0.90
125
231
1.72
209
3.0
6.0
65
238
1.24
95
238
1.81
210 3.0
6.0
65
238
1.24
95
238
1.61
216 6.0
1.5
65
226
0.57
125
226
1 "09
217
60
3.0
65
231
0190
125
231
1.74
216
6.0
6.0
65
238
1.24
-V
.;:
.
95
238
1" Bl
219
6.0
6.0
65
238
1-24
95
238
1 "61
220 3 -8
1.5
65
226
0.55
125
226
1.05
221
1.5
3.61)
65
226
0.55
125
226
1.05
65
226
V 0; 55
125
226
1.05
1.5
65
226-"
",
0.55
;- 125
," 226
1.05
65
231 V
231
1.74
223
224
3.9
3.0
3.91
_...
0*'90 =
'" 125"
PLATE'MEANSERVICE
AN ULTIMATE
THICKNESS
mm STRESS N/mn STRESS N/mrrr
0.55
1-05
3.0
(0.55)
0.90
(0.90)
`'
-
6 .0.
Figures in brackets
-268-
1.24
-
(1 "05)
1.72
,, (1.74)
1" i
precracked beams.
fbs
is
the
stress
Ap is
the
cross
is
the
fp
where
Ac
eP, EP,
the
between
area
the
steel
the, plate
of
area
tp and by are
the
(= c-. E
p)
plate
section
contact
of
respectively,
in
P
Ac
Young's
strain,
is
k
and
plate,
the
tp
thickness
bp
width
R=
in
the
to the
the
load
the
N/mm2,
and at
stages,
(for
Shear
the
N/IIan2
taken
loading
point
fbs
269 eP tp
distance
as the
from, the
= 742 nmi.
in
load
by experiment
bond stresses
The results
plate.
bond stress
load
service
given
in
concrete
Stresses
Considering
change
;r
125 mm
is
anchorage
continuous
respectively,
(c)
6 mm
varies
plate
obtained
strains
these
end of the
we have:
Using
load
and width,
length.
anchorage
- 1.5 mm to
-
200,000
length
anchorage
Substituting
2,12
varies
constant
Modulus
plate
1 ayers
bs
of plate
strain
.=
of
eP EP
of plate
Young's
ultimate
the
thickness
beams:
test
EP
Modulus;
t_p bp
Then,
For
(= by R)
and plate
glue
in
the
it
at
f.
were
both4working
given
in
the
load
stage
plain
for
calculated
are
was 0.81
CP110 for
at
Table
and near
beams with
single
A7.2.
prior
N/mm2.
The limiting
bars
1.9
are
load
to
failure
was
values,
and 1.0
at
N/mm2
Glue
longitudinal
corresponding
dcp. Ep. bp. tp
forces
to
length
on a short
a change
(Symbols
in
strain
as before)
of'steel
of
6e
plate
is
given
6R,
by:
TABLE A 7.2
E
Ez
co ?R
CHCP.
Xl ULTIMATE PLATE
A' CHOFVCE
DESIGN PLATE
E
Ez SERVICE STRAIN
BOND
LQAD
STRAIN BOND
ATCENTRESTRESS
c R- LOAD
ATCENTRESTRESS
kN
kN
n?
micrestrain N/mmz
microstrar N/mm=
203 1.5
1.5
130
1300
0.5
250
4900
2.0
204 1.5
3.0
130
1200
1.0
250
3700
2.9
205 1.5
6.0
130
650
1'0
190
1200
1.9
207 3.0
1.5
130
1300
0.5
250
4900
2-0
208 3.0
3.0
130
1100
0.8
250
3200
2.6
209 3.0
6.0
130
700
1.1
190
1350
2.2
210 3.0
6.0
130
650
1.0
190
1250
2.0
130
1100
0.4
250
4200
1.6
217 6.0
3.0
130
1000
0.8
250
2900
2'3
218' 6.0
6.0.
130
660
1'0
190
1200
1.9
219 6.0
6.0
130
750
1.2
190
1350
2.2
220 3-8
1'S
130
1200
0-5
250
4200
1'7
221
1.5
3.61)
130
1300
0.5
250
4500
1.8
222
1.5
130
950
0.4
250
2900
1-2
223
2
3"D 1.5
130
700
0.3
250
2300
0.9
224
b
3
130
750
0.6
250
2400
1'9
3.62)
3.0
PLATE
MEANSERVICEMEANWIMATE
THICKNESS
mm STRESSN/=m STRESSN/ mm`
0.49
1.19
1.5
(0.35)
(1.02)
0.87
2.59
3.0
(0.59)
(190)
6.0
1.07
2 00
Figures in brackets
beams.
precrncked
-270-
t. R . bp
where
t=
in
force
by a shear
must be balanced
This
resin
the
at
stress
shear
the
is
which
given
by:
interface.
plate/glue
Se
Hence T=E.
In
the
This
limit
the
strain
in
in
the
It
is
strain
the
strain
section,
in
the
to
the
Gauges
of
not
the
tests
layers
face
of
the
glue
that
evident
is
of
the
the
steel
is
gradient.
and therefore
glue
the
same as the
at
the
6 mm length
enough
gradients
are
were used
to determine
do give
some indication
stresses
in
plate.
are
given
the
end of
the measured
as they
strains
be subjected
will
Such gradients
The strain
However,
small
shear
strain
of
thickness
high.
example
concrete.
are
The
the
contact
the
di
the
for
local
aK
is
that
assumes
contact
surface
concrete.
beams.
test
where
has ignored.
gradient
in
deP
EP. tP.
T=
analysis
tp . Q
P,
occur
and in
Table
the
strain
order
A7.3,
for
at
values
such a region
an accurate
is
of
where
a sudden
change
a plate
or at
a crack
the
plate
ends for
the
be an approximation
over
a finite
rapidly
changing
of magnitude
length.
strain
Nevertheless,
gradient.
beams with
forces
in
can only
ofstrain
on average
shear
there
where
were measured
based
high
a joint
plate,
values
of
to
of
the
single
shear
stresses.
continuous
TABLE A"7.3
EN Eu)
Ez Ew
w
Co
w Ua
5z
m`
THE END OF
130
2.4
0.7
250
5.4
1.6
130
1.8
1.1
2 50
4.4
2.6
130
1.4
1-7'
190
3.0
4.1
207 3.0
1.5
130
2.6
0.8
250
6.6
2,0
208 3.0
3.0
130
2.0
1.2
250
5.5
3.3
209 3.0
6.0
130
1.3
1.6
190
3.8
4.6
210 3.0
6.0
130
1.8
2.2
190
3.6
4.3
216 6.0
1.5
130
2.7
0.8
250
8.5
2-6,
217 6.0
3.0
130
2.2
1.3
250
6.0
3.6
130
1 "5
1.8
190
4.0
4.8
130
2-0
2.4
190
4.2
5.0
220 3-8
1-5
130
3.7
1.1
250
8.2
2.5
221
1.5
130
2.7
0.8
250
7.7
2.3
1.5
130
2.0
0.6
250
6.5
2.0
130
2.0
-. 0.6
250
6'7
2.0
130
1.2
250
4.4
2.6
3.8
222 30
2)
(1)
(2)
0.7
notched beam.
precracked beams.
PLATE
MEAN SERVICE MttN
THICKNESSmm SHEAR TRE1SSSH
3.0
0.85
(0.60)
1.43
(0.70)
6.0
1.72
1.5
Figures in brcckets
-272-
MAT
TRES
2'18
(2.00)
3.18
(2.60)
4.56
precr cked beams.
APPENDIX
OF CRACK WIDTHS
CALCULATION
The crack
a.
for
widths
Standard
As with
deflections
the
for
forces
the
of
of
the
for
be used
section
was used
the moments
and
cracking.
61 is'given
Equation
code,
concrete
to determine
Any calculations
can also
A. 3.2
Clause
analysis
an elastic
stiffness.
deflections
In
CP110.
Code of Practice
British
calculating
by two methods:
calculated
were
for
determining
the
width
crack
Wcr
3. acr.
Cin
acr-Cmin
1+2
h
At
level
the
of
Wcr
The
average
the
tension
zone,
code
states
is
reinforcement
crack
tested
it
is
of
formula
width
during
widths
in
the
the
in
brackets
formula
only
to 0.8
fy/Es,
the
a value
of
of
from
calculated
the
in
concrete
s1,
the
as shown by:
stiffening
and that
which
an age of
end of
the
in
strain
With
full
both
the
of
and sustained
values
28 days
and loaded
for
only
elastic
modulus
the
concrete.
values,
calculations
-273-
However,
To compute
time.
i. e.
are
of
Ec and 0.5
for
0.5
the
instantaneous
the
probability
repeated
tension
strains
as half
has a certain
of
the
when calculating
be taken
should
a period
using
if
applies
code or by experiment.
the
to use the
the
becomes:
fy
a structure.
over
at
concrete
gives
performed
at
effect
tensile
the
(h-x)
1 in
life
stiffening
for
Table
laboratory
were
the
is
em,
reinforcement,
A.
increase
can
more reasonable
Calculations
given
limited
from
obtained
exceeded
crack
the
formula
the
1.2. bt. h.
of elasticity
modulus
value
that
of
allowing
E1
level
ignoring
and then
Cmin hence
" Em %
the
at
calculated
The
3. acr
strain
strain
acr
reinforcement
E.
Ec for
the
proposed
being
loadings,
for
beams
a few hours
The values
comparison.
Beam 207
Glue
Plate
200,000
36,00
ae
d,
the
3 mm
thickness
1.5
thickness
mm
5.56
As
ET
is
depth,
effective
taken
to
the
combined
centroid
the
of
plate
and bars.
-K m
d-
a
N
cl-
Co
LC)
N
000
--rc---
of
The
d-
Z=
49.8
ae. p
2i
192.5
are
mm
mm
calculated
all
100.5
x=
130 KN load
at
which
in
the
(at
reinforcement
the *combined
49.8.106
fs
=M
the
e1,
strain,
for
the
= 200230
000
tension
0.00115
em =
230 N/mm
00115.
=0
stiffening
of
the
concrete:
(226-100.5).
1.2.155.255.
187.250+943.410)(255-100.5
centroid)
192.5.1130
Z. As
Correcting
10-3
= 0"00107
The
crack
width
Wcr
For
all
corresponds
to
KNm.
stress
Hence
0.032
Hence
widths
crack
187 mm2
Aplate
0.44
The
943 mm`
Abars-
ae"P(2+aeP
and
(187 + 943)
155.226
Ths p=
226 mm
the
is
then
3. acr.
beams the
by:
given
e.m
cover
to
the
bars;
acr,
is
27.5
mm.
is
given
by:
a moment
Hence Wcr.
3.27.5
0.088 'mm
for
The formula
The depth
steel
hl,
distance
For
normally
For
the
plate
width
as the
as recommended
UNITS)
the
to
axis
the
centroid
of
the
tension
mm.
beams
concrete
beams it
that
mm
neutral
125.5
226 mm
is
assumed
that
each bar,
surrounding
2b(h-d)
number of bars
the
concrete
and that
the
surrounding
the
is
same
plate
the
beam.
000
f
Thus for
affect
A, but
hence
x and d,
As for
level,
(IMPERIAL
steel
100.5
reinforced
plated
to
of
centroid
In
0 LC)
CV
N
N
Ii
J,
mm (0.061).
reinforcement
10-3
b. c
0.056
by:
(fs-5)
from
226 - 100.5
equal
mm (0.079)
tS
'ff-i
depth
axis
is
the
at
given
ts. A
to the
Neutral
are
0.074
Ec assumed.
Value
the
are
7.7.
Table
width
is
1+
Beam 207
the values
crack
0"0913
Wmax =
values
Institute.
(89)
and Lutz
by Gergely
the
shown in
are
Concrete
American
(0! 093)
6 mm plate
beams with
The values
b.
3 mm plate
0.00107
[2(h-220)
-c].
(h-220)
2
h-220
C=
and A=b.
",
2712 mm2
b- 155
the
beams,
plated
does affect
which
in
CP110
fs
the
turn
the
positions
affect
zA s
hl
thickness
of
the
and the
230 N/mm2
of
plate
combined
steelstress,
is
assumed
centroid
fs.
of
not
steel
to
and
Converting
to
is
Imperial
Units
37'5
mm (to
A=
Then
2712 mm =
fs
230 N/mm
hi
125.5
max
4.2
33.3
Kips/in
mm =
4.94
in
0.091
The results
are
(33.3
1.4
1.48
-f-
W=0,093
max
given
4.94
mm
in Table
1.48
in
j
_
Hence
of bar)
centre
7.7.
- 5). 10-3
inches
APPENDIX 9
STATISTICS
STANDARDDEVIATION.
a.
When calculating
the
standard
N is
the number of
elements
R is
the mean
(xl
deviation
of
a set
of
numbers
_ X2
Q=
N
where
b.
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
is
This
taken
as
even though
each
other.
which
is
An accepted
designed
data
is
desirable
the variables
from
points
constructing
and drawing
the
the
is
a linear
It
of
line
in
equation
the
to
express
the
line
of
the
squares
best
variables,
which
uniformly
form
y=
the slope
of
the
deviation
In
of
called
a scatter
the
of
practice
the
we are
diagram,
The
points.
mx + b.
and y intercept
are
determined
as follows:
EXiEy1
-
in
=N
Exiyi
(Exi)2-
2
Ex.
N
and
b=y-
mR
EX1
I:yi
N
The degree
the
correlation,
of
r.
association
between
the
of
regression
fit.
divides
terms
functions
analytical
a least-squares
to perform
in
one variable
necessarily
sum of
straight
straight
not
is
the
a plot
best
are
practice
to minimise
essentially
result
mean
it
In many disciplines
actual
a
i
LINEAR REGRESSION
c.
another
deviation
standard
two variables
x and y is
called
CFX
r=m.
where
In most
is
that
of
when analysing
the
the
present
of
The experimental
this
gives
This
gives:
W=W+2.5.
max
mean
results
select
a population
of
numbers.
a factor
mean
based
are
width
standard
of
in
cracking
on the
called
'Z'
areas
values
to a specific
from
a degree
to
tables
case of
deviation)
advisable
tables
range
is
tables
These
curve.
for
prediction
between
it
have constructed
normal
In
Q
Y
applications
desired
statisticians
the
(a = standard
the
is
test
beams,
of
certainty
To facilitate
under
this
different
and enable
degree
the
of
a
certainty.
relationship
required.
deviation.
24 test
2.5.
a.
-278-
and from
portions
statistical
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