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INVESTIGATION

OF THE FLEXURAL PROPERTIES

REINFORCED

CONCRETE BEAMS STRENGTHENED BY

EXTERNALLY

OF

BONDED STEEL PLATES

by

John W. Bloxham.

Thesis
for

A. C. G. I.,

submitted
the

Degree

B. Sc. Eng.,

to the
of

the Faculty

University

Doctor

of

C. Eng.,

of

M. I. C. E.

Sheffield

Philosophy

in

of Engineering

September

1980

Dedicated

to my parents.

'SUMMARY
is

It

bonded

Externally
with

sometimes

reported,

in

especially
The present

reinforced

long

Furthermore,
for

testing

term

after

in

cracking

were adhesive

the. beam prior

jointing
Test

plates

The deformations
deformations

the

at

larger

to 63% lower

of

than

crack

tests

be reported.

consequently
for

up-rating

normal

their

underface.

tensile

initiated

beams were

plated

The parameters
degree

the

multiple

of

layers

plate

of

the

reinforcement

up to

65%.

the measured
formulae

and

can only

in

carrying

service

were

capacity

(i)

of

up to

thickness,

Within
derived
surface
of

the

the

decrease

thus

making

existing

in
it

Tests

performance

strength

a viable

on
nor

Further

deformations

structures.

width

calculating

interface.

ultimate

up

limitations

strains.

flexural

latter

the

beams-were

the

for

90%.

the

general,

plated

adhesive/steel

enhance

loads,

the

values.

showed no loss
or

in

produced

The ACI and CP 110 crack

and concrete

adhesive

In

or plate

widths

beam.

More important'are

increase
load

reduced

spacings

the

increased

were

adhesive

load

ultimate

loads

unplated

weathering

in

increase

service

in

empirical
crack

extent.
the

the

series,

deterioration

limited

an increase

in

widths,

Bonded plate

were

overestimated

any visual

beam to

to

thickness,

plates,

The maximum crack

18 months

after

will

for

those

test

present

specimens

of

conditions.

plate

the

although

loads

service

effect.

formulae

rotations,

bonded

and unloaded

on the

17%, the

was only

decreased

prediction

structures

has been

research

behaviour

weathering

to bonding

showed that

results

the

flexural

and steel

to

techniques.

by the bonded

having

to natural

structures.

applied

little

reinforcement

loaded

of

concrete

behaviour.

term
the

plate

studies

exposure

investigation

under

plate

beams with

concrete

However,

to long

investigated

study

situ

has been successfully

performance.

respect

in

strengthen

reinforcement

plate

satisfactory

subsequent

to

necessary

of
and

technique

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author
Mr.

for

R. Jones,

and for

research

their
their

Engineering

Thanks

during

are

also

due to McCall

are

Cement Manufacturers

Portand

the

Dr.

R. N. Swamy and

and helpful

assistance

guidance,
help

Supervisors,

to be thanked

for

their

and Colebrand

throughout

the

thesis.

the Department

of

Civil

and

assistance.

and Company (Sheffield)

Ltd.,

advice
this

of

presentation

D. Bond and T. H. Hanna of

Professors
Structural

his

thank

to

wishes

Ltd.,

Ltd.

the

for

their

the

Technical

Associated

generous

supply

of materials.
The author
Secretarial

of

staff

Finally
patiently

also

typing

the

acknowledges
the

author

the

text

the

Department,
wishes
of

this

in

to

assistance

of

particular

Mr.

thank

Linda

thesis.

(ii)

Bell

and

R. Newman.

and Chris

Harrison

for

so

CONTENTS
No.

Page
(i)

Summary

(ii)

Acknowledgements

(iii)

Contents
List
List
List

of

Figures

(vii)

of

Tables

(ix)

of

Plates

(x)
(xi)

Notation

CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION' AND OUTLINE'OF THESIS'


1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

OUTLINE OF THESIS
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1

EPOXY RESINS

2.1.1

General

2.1.2

Materials

2.1.3

Mixing

2.1.4

Temperature

2.1.5

Surface

2.1.6

Bonding

10

2.1.7

Curing

10

2.1.8

Safety

2.2

GLUED JOINTS IN CONCRETE

2.2.1

General

Uses

12

2.2.2

Surface

Preparation

13

2.2.3

Moisture

2.2.4

Miscellaneous

15

2.2.5

Summary

15

2.3-

STRESS DISTRIBUTION

2.4

GLUED JOINTS IN METALS

2.4.1

General

17

2.4.2

Surface'Preparation

17

2.4.3

Moisture

Effects

18

2.4.4

Miscellaneous

19

2.4.5

Summary

20

2.5

GLUED JOINTS BETWEEN STEEL AND CONCRETE

2.5.1

General.

2.5.2

L'Hermite

Introduction

and Mixes

Preparation

and Health

Provisions

11

13

Effects

IN LAP JOINTS

16

21
and Bresson

21

(iii)

'Page No.
2.5.3

Transport

2.5.4

Dundee

2.5.5

Warwick

2.5.6

Miscellaneous

2.5.7

Swiss Federal
and Research

2.5.8

Sheffield

2.6
CHAPTER 3

Road

and

Research

22

Laboratories

24

University

25

University

25
for

Laboratories

Testing

Materials

26
.
27

University

28

CONCLUSIONS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES

3.1

CONCRETE

3.1.1

Experimental

3.1.2

Results

30

3.1.3

Conclusions

30

3.2

EPOXY RESINS

3.2.1

Lap Shear

3.2.2

Tension

3.2.3

Compression

3.2.4

Lap Shear

3.3

REINFORCEMENT

3.3.1

Bars

43

3.3.2

Plates

46

29

Procedure

Tests

- Steel/Steel

33
36

Tests

39

Tests
Tests

Steel/Concrete

41

CHAPTER 4

PRELIMINARY TEST SERIES

4.1

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

4.1.1

Beam Details

48

4.1.2

Material

50

4.1.3

Preparation

4.1.4

Testing

4.2

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.2.1

Deflections

4.2.2

Modes of

4.2.3

First

4.3

CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 5

5.1

Properties
of

Test

Specimens

Procedure

54

55

and Strains

59

Failure

Crack

54

and Ultimate

Loads

62
68

'STRENGTH PROPERTIES

71

INTRODUCTION

5.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

5.3

TEST PROCEDURE

72
73

(iv)

Page No.
5.4

5.4.1

OF TEST RESULTS

DISCUSSION

First

86

Loads

Crack

Service

86

Loads

5.4.2

Increase

of

5.4.3

Ultimate

Loads

5.4.4

Modes of Failure

93

5.5

CONCLUSIONS

95

CHAPTER 6

91

DEFORMATION PROPERTIES

6.1

INTRODUCTION

98

6.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME/PROCEDURE

99

6.3

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

6.3.1

Introduction

6.3.2

Load-Strain

6.3.3

Load-Deflection

Characteristics

128

6.3.4

Moment-Rotation,

Characteristics

141

6.4

CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 7

99
107

Characteristics

151

CRACKING PROPERTIES

7.1

INTRODUCTION

155

7.2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

155

7.3

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

158

7.4

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

7.4.1

General

7.4.2

Maximum Crack

7.4.3

Crack

7.4.4

Relation

Between

Maximum and Average

7.4.5

Concrete

Surface

Strain

7.4.6

Stresses

Carried

by Concrete

7.5.

CONCLUSIONS

CHAPTER 8

- Statistical

Width

159

Analysis

171

Widths

Prediction

178

Formulae
Crack

Widths

182
184

in

the

Tension

Zone

191
199

LONG TERM TEST SERIES

8.1

INTRODUCTION

201

8.2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

201

8.3.

SHRINKAGE TESTS

201

8.4

SUSTAINED LOADING/LONG TERM TESTS

8.4.1

Introduction

8.4.2

Discussion

202
of

207

Results

(v)

Page No.
8.5

DURABILITY

8.5.1

Introduction

8.5.2

Coating

TESTS

221
221

Details

8.5.3

Experimental

8.5.4

Discussion

222

Procedure

222

of Results

229
8.6
CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSIONS
LIMITATIONS

OF PRESENT WORK, OVERALL CONCLUSIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONSFOR FUTURE WORK

230

OF PRESENT WORK

9.1

LIMITATIONS

9.2

OVERALL CONCLUSIONS

230

9.3

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

232

APPENDIX 1

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN ADHESIVES TECHNOLOGY

234

APPENDIX 2

THEORETICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION


LAP JOINT

239

APPENDIX 3

FIRST CRACK AND ULTIMATE LOADS - PRELIMINARY


SERIES OF TESTS

242

APPENDIX 4

ULTIMATE LOAD CALCULATIONS - MAIN TEST SERIES

246

APPENDIX 5

DEFLECTION CALCULATIONS - MAIN TEST SERIES

253

APPENDIX 6

ROTATION CALCULATIONS - MAIN TEST SERIES

263

APPENDIX 7

INTERFACIAL STRESSES BETWEEN GLUE AND STEEL/OR


CONCRETE

266

APPENDIX 8

CRACK WIDTH CALCULATIONS - MAIN TEST SERIES

273

APPENDIX 9

STATISTICAL

277

IN A COMPRESSIVE

METHODSEMPLOYED IN ANALYSES

279

REFERENCES

(vi)

OF FIGURES

LIST

Fig.

Page

Title

No.

3.1

Grading

of Aggregates

3.2

Details

of Adhesive

3.3

Mean Shear

3.4

Tensile

Stress

No.

31
Test

Adhesive

v.

35

Thickness
for

Curve

Stress-Strain

34

Specimens

Epoxy Adhesive

37

for

40

CXL 194

Curve

Epoxy

3.5

Stress-Strain
Compressive
Adhesive
CXL 194

3.6

Details

3.7

Experimental
and Theoretical
in a Bonded Steel/Concrete
Compression

3.8

Tensile
Stress-Strain
Diameter Bars

Curves

for

6 mm and 20 mm

3.9

Tensile

Stress-Strain

Curves

for

Steel

4.1

Details

of

Test

Beams : Series

51

4.2

Details

of

Test

Beams : Series

52

4.3

Load-Deflection

4.4

Load-Deflection

4.5

Load-Deflection

4.6

Load-Deflection

4.7

Typical

4.8

Load-Strain

4.9

Load-Strain

Curves

4.10

Load-Strain

Curves

4.11

Load-Strain

Curves

5.1

Loading

Rig

5.2

Details

of Reinforcement

5.3

Variation

of First

5.4

Variation

of Experimental

5.5

Variation

Ultimate

5.6

Effect

6.1

Typical

6.2-6.11
6.12-6.21
6.22

of

Shear

47

Plates

: Series

56

Curves

: Series

57

Curves

: Series

57
'58

Distributions

Curves

: Series
: Series
: Series
: Series

and Mechanical

60

60

61

61

Crack

Gauge Locations

Service

96

Thickness

Load-Strain

Curves

96
108

Load-Strain

Curves

- Internal

Bars,

Load-Strain

Curves

- External

Plates,

Internal

Bar Strain

6.24

External
Thickness

Steel

Plate

6.25

Typical

Strain

88

Load

Load

Plate

Strain

Distributions

76
88

Load

of Adhesive

Longitudinal

75

Instrumentation
and Strain

Steel

6.23

45

56

: Series

Curves

of

Typical

44

Stress Distribution
Lap Joint
under

Curves

Strain

42

Specimen

Strain
v.

Centre

Plate
in

Centre

Section

Distributions

Plate
v.

Section

the

and Glue Thickness


and Glue
Concrete

109
116
122
123
124
127

Fig.

Page

Title

*No.

133

Characteristics

6.26-6.35

Load-Deflection

6.36

Central

6.37

Moment-Curvature

6.38-6.47

Moment-Rotation

6.48

Rotation

6.49

Empirical

6.50

Experimental

7.1-7.3

Mean Crack Width and Standard Deviation


v. Concrete
Strain
Reinforcement
at the Level of the Internal

7.4

Slope of Mean Crack


and Glue Thickness

7.5

Linear

7.6

Experimental
Mean Crack

7.7

Ultimate

7.8

Theoretical

7.9-7.18

Maximum Crack

7.19

Mean Crack

7.20

Modification

of

7.21

Modification

of ACI Crack

7.22

Slope
Slope

Deflection

v.

Plate

v.

and Glue

142

Characteristics

144

and Glue
for

Formula

149

Thickness

152

Rotations

Theoretical

153

Rotations

Theoretical

Regression

Width

Strain

Concrete

v.

163

v. "Plate

Analysis

Mean Crack

Spacing

Width

Plate

v.

Crack

Height

170

Spacings

172
173

Load

and Glue

CP110 Crack

of

169

Slope

Crack

Ultimate

Applied

v.

the

of

Initial

v.

Experimental
Width

167
168

Values
v. Theoretical
Width v. Concrete
Strain

v.

139

Thickness

Relationship

Plate

v.

No.

Thickness

181

Formula

Width

Width

179

181

Formula

183

7.23

Strain
Deviation
of Standard
v.
v. Concrete
Strain
of Mean Crack Width v. Concrete
Theoretical
Maximum Crack Width
v. Experimental

7.24-7.26

Calculated

188

7.27

Modification

7.28

Stress

7.29

Tensile

7.30

Experimental
V. Theoretical
in Concrete
Stress

8.1

Long Term Loading

8.2

Variation

8.3

Load-Strain

8.4

Load-Deflection

Characteristics

212

8.5

Moment-Rotation

Characteristics

213

8.6

Mean Crack Width


Strain-at
Concrete

8.7

Slope of
v. Slope

8.8

Durability

Steel

Stress

to Beeby's

Distribution
Stress

Measured

in

Concrete

192
Beams at
Plate

v.

Values

Service

Load

and Glue Thickness


of

194
197
198

the Tensile

204

Rig

Curves,

with

205

Time

External

Steel

Plate,

Centre

and Standard Deviation


v. the
the Level of Reinforcement

Deviation
the Standard
of Mean Crack Width v.
Test

Strain

Formula

in Plated

Strains

of

v.

Concrete

185

Specimens

(viii)

Strain
v. Concrete
Concrete
Strain

Section

211

219
220
223

'LIST ' OF ' TABLES


No.

Table

3.2
3.3

Modulus

of Elasticity

32

Modulus

of Rupture

32

Details

4.1

Test

4.3

Test

4.4

Test

4.5

Test

4.6

Plain

of

of Plain

Details

4.2

for

Results

for

Results

for

Results
Results

5.1

Details

5.2

Strength

for
Test

of

Increase

of

5.4

Ultimate

Loads

Test

Beams : Series

49

Concrete

Test

Beams : Series

49

Plain
Plain
Plain

Concrete

Beams : Series

65

Concrete

Beams : Series

66

Concrete

Beams : Series

67

Concrete

Beams : Series

67

Plain

74

Beams

87

Service

Deformation
Crack Load

6.1. B

'Deformation

6.2. A

Deformation

6.2. B

Deformation

6.2. C

Deformation

6.3

Deformation

6.4

Concrete

Characteristics

5.3

6.1

89

Loads

92

Characteristics

at

Characteristics

Characteristics

60 kN Load
Design

Load A

102

at

Design

Service

Load B

103

at

130 kN Load

Near Failure

Characteristics

101

Service

at

Characteristics

Deflection

Visible

at First

Characteristics

100

104

Load

Characteristics
Rotations

Comparison

7.1-7.6

Cracking

7.7

Crack Widths

7.8

Ratio

7.9

Comparison of Measured
Concrete
Surface
Strain
Reinforcement

7.10

Values of the Difference


Measured and Calculated
Bar Strain
Between the Internal
and the Concrete
Strain
Surface
at the Same Level

7.12
7.13

8.1
8.2
8.3

and Theoretical

of Experimental

180

130 kN Load

of Maximum to Mean Crack

Tensile

Stress

Mean Values
Tensile-Stress
Equation
Details
Ultimate

of

in

the

Tensile
in

the

180

Width

and Calculated
at the Level

Values of
of the Internal

Stress
Concrete

186

186

195

Concrete

of Long Term Test

in

the

from

Concrete

196
196

Empirical

203

Beams

208

Moments

Comparison
and Rotations

150

160

Characteristics
at

105
140

6.5

7.11

No.

32

Strength

Compressive

Concrete

3.1

Page

Title

of Experimental

(ix)

and Theoretical

Deflections

215

Table.

Crack Widths

8.5

at
Test

Durability

8.6

LIST
Plate

217

Characteristics

Cracking

8.4

No.

130 RN

218

Results

224

OF PLATES
Page

Title
Test

No.

Page

'Tittle

No.

No.

38

3.1

Glue

4.1

Typical

Beams After

Failure

Series

63

4.2

Typical

Beams After

Failure

Series

64

5.1

Loading

Arrangement

5.2

Crack

Patterns

- PLated

5.3

Crack

Patterns

- Beams with

1.5

5.4

Crack Patterns

- Beams with

3 mm Glue

Thickness

81

5.5

Crack

Patterns

Beams
with
-

3 mm Glue

Thickness

82

5.6

Crack

Patterns

- Beams with

6 mm Glue

Thickness

83

5.7

Crack

Patterns

- Beams with

1.5 mm Plate

5.8

Crack

Patterns

- Preloaded

8.1

Long Term Tests

- Loaded

8.2

Long Term Tests

- Unloaded

8.3

Long Term Test

8.4

Durability

8.5

Durability

8.6

Crack

Specimens

78
and Unplated

Beams

mm Glue

Beams
Beams

Thickness

Thickness

79
80

84
85
206

Beams

206

Beams After

Failure

209

Specimens

After

Testing

225

Specimen

Details

Patterns

- Age of

Beams 18 Months

(x)

226
227

. 'NOTATIONS

Deflection

acr

from point
Distance
bar
reinforcing

Area,

as defined

Width

of

section

bp

Width

of

plate

cmin

Minimum cover

Coefficient

Effective

depth

dl

Thickness

of

Youngs Modulus,

fbs

Local

fbsa

Anchorage

fbsd

Local

fbsda

Anchorage

fcu

Concrete

fcg

Compressive

fp

Stress

in

plate

fr

Stress

in

reinforcing

f tg

Tensile

fyp

Yield

stress

of

plate

fyr

Yield

stress

of

reinforcing

Modulus

of

Overall

depth

hl

Distance

from

neutral

axis

to

tension

steel

h2

Distance

from

neutral

axis

to tension

face

Moment of

inertia,

Coefficient

or

from

Distance

k,

to the

considered

to

of measurement
surface

of

the nearest

bars

as defined

constant,
centroid

reinforcement

of

adhesive
as defined

bond stress

load

due to ultimate

bond stress

bond stress

due to ultimate

due to service

bond stress

load

load

due to service

load

cube strength
strength

strength

Span

Bending

Mcr

Cracking

Axial

Correlation

Slope,
Srm

to point

to the main reinforcing


or

1, L

Su,

face

compression

of

glue

bars

of

glue

bars

rigidity
of

section

as defined
as defined

constant,

moment,

as defined

moment for

concrete

force
coefficient

as defined

Ultimate

mean crack

Thickness

tb

Bottom

tg

Glue

of

cover

spacing

adherend
to

the

centre

thickness

(xi)

of

longitudinal

reinforcing

bar

tp

Plate

ts

Side

Axial

deformation

Shear

force

W, Wm

Mean crack

Wcr

Maximum crack

Wk

Characteristic

Neutral

Mean value

Lever

ae

Modular

ratio

'Y

Angular

deformation

Yin

Partial

safety

Strain,

as defined

Curvature

Proportion

Standard

af

Tensile

Shear

thickness
to the

cover

centre

of

longitudinal

width
width
width

crack
depth

axis

arm

of

factor

for

tension

materials

reinforcement

deviation
in

stress
stress

in

the

the

concrete

glue

(xii)

reinforcing

bar

CHAPTER 1
AND OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
1.1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In practice,

situations

replacement

to the

related

The cause may be inferior

loading.

damage or deterioration.

external

to increase

the

imposed
it

has

situations

arise,

strengthen

the existing

Unless

strength

properties

problem

Methods
great

of
care

generally

techniques

between

generally

and control.

However,
deal

or

Strengthening

external

integrated

another

method

structural

steel

of

plate

based

with

element

because

fact

the

of

connection

and the existing

structure.

and disruption

but

out,

and

may need

is

required,

involved

whether

strengthening

its

The main

construction.

to carry

an
that

adequate

concrete

can be carried

reinforcement

slab

repair
glue.

they

along

there
the

at

in which

has,

These

steel
glues

effective

with

guniting

to restore

Qf about

resins

provide

element

used

a cost

by several

out

More recently

used.

successfully

on synthetic

epoxy

shown that

and the

of

successfully

have been

structural

element
has been

additional

concrete

glues

that

structures

have been

techniques

of

to

to strengthen

any attempt

when extensive

concrete
of

reinforced

development

and it

of

prestressing

impregnation

When such

concrete.

Provision

techniques.

requirements

it.

operation

plant

faults,

more economical

straightforward

labour,

of

is

ensuring

are

a great

it

whether

is

strengthening

load.

design

original

service

under

from

and

may be

constructional

may arise

during

reinforcing

behaviour

or

determined

the

be steel

structure

the

a difficult

essentially

strengthening
action

composite

it

can be provided,

generally

are

Alternatively

to replace

supports

is

structure

design

above

member or

to its

materials,

to be considered

additional

existing

in

loading

Such inadequacy

the member or

of

a con-

of

to be inadequate,

found

becomes necessary.

strength

ultimate

beam is

concrete

then

or strengthening

when the behaviour

arise

can often

or prestressed

reinforced

ventional

is

OF THESIS

plates
have

to be strengthened.

dis-

sq m (75).
hand,

other
are

adequate

composite

polymer
a severely

35 per

on the

and

bonded

action
However,

opened
the

to

bonding

The

strength

between
careful

the

up

is

attention

necessary

The method has been used to


including:

in

bridges
in

gantry

limited

which

concrete
difficulty,

so that

failure

bonding

would

is

there
to

when prepared

in

strengths

has been placed

surfaces,

on this

to ensure

existing

structures

on the

tolerances

latitude

the

of

should

which

attainable

in

In
much

Although

concrete.

needed

care

2.

Chapter

the

of

7 N/mm2 without

can reach

glue

only

A review
in

given

(56).

Zurich

technique

the

crane

a concrete

in

exchange

is

subject

considerable
of

(53),

been reported.

by shearing

occur

a degree

the

the

of

of

potential

has so far

research

has been published


shear

emphasis

adherend

preparing

allow

the

satisfactory

on site.

OUTLINE OF THESIS
The purpose

out

carried

Points

and short

steel

plates

to investigate

the

of

reinforced

glued

to

their

effects

of

of

the

glue

(b)

thickness

of

the

reinforcing

(c)

number

(d)

plate

(e)

degree
stress

tension

lapping
of

of

(ii)

(iii)

faces.

The tests

were

varying:

layer
plate

plate

to bonding

prior

cracking

were

concentration

of

the

formed

in

on the plates.
some beams by cutting

notches

in

were:

study

the

i. e.

behaviour,

deformation

load-deflection

and

characteristics.
To determine

strains

beams strengthened

concrete

tension

flexural

static

techniques

To investigate

moment rotation

the

faces.

The aims
(i)

layers

to investigate

term,

thickness

of

is

work

(a)

of

concrete

long

bonded

by externally

the present

of

in both

behaviour,

their

operation

and England

a telephone

of

and future

systematic

(4)

joints

(51)

Japan

slabs

the advantages

amount of

literature

and floor

a variety

strengthen

(55),

France

(54)

France

Despite

1.2

strengthening

interaction.

adequate

great

the

of

stages

at all

through
To determine

the
the

internal

elastic,

the

first

bar

strains,

inelastic
crack

load

external

and ultimate
in

the

plate

strains,

and

regions.

concrete

and study

crack

and distribution.

propagation
(iv)

To investigate

(v)

To compare

The properties

18 months

out

bonding

durability

Before

studying

the

technique

4 gives

(Series

B) were
plates
In

details

forming

stress

of, the

the

tested

effects

long

term

bond.

plate

3 reports

Chapter

tests

the

i. e.

the beams,

an

reinforcement

carried
epoxy

concrete,

testing
in

of

uniform
of

centre

at

the

testing

are both

to

by a reduction

face

a single

over

the

span,

were
a beam
All

techniques.
span.

on reinforced

of

of

lapping

with

beams

concrete

was 2300 mm.

which

was started.
to

susceptible

These deformations

the

The

series.

thickness

glue
tension

the

together

points

and creep.

shrinkage

in

was performed
1/3

in both

series.

loading

point

A) and 100 x 150 x 1200 mm

and tapering

steps

programme

resins

accompanied

both

for

technique.

beams were

eighteen

used

were

unreinforced

the plating

Altogether

systems

on plain,

safety
in

of

structural

cohesive

or

time

dependent

may be critical

to

elements,
adhesive

strength

of

resin.

Eight
subjected

resin

and sometimes

if

A and B.

programme

and epoxy

serviceability

the epoxy

approxi-

beams tested

similar

experience

was studied,

under

testing

due to

particularly

beams tested

bonded

of

gain

same material

concentrations

Concrete

to

series

155 x 255 x 2500 mm loaded

deformation

in

results.

concrete/epoxy/steel

some preliminary

B the provision

series

The major

the

in

was made.

of

Two epoxy

A the

the beams were

Firstly,

and (b)

of externally

was performed

used.

series
In

(a)

of beams 150 x 150 x 710 mm (Series

were

studied.

studied

the manufacture

was made up of

two sizes

tested;

experimental

and bars.

plates

testing

in

used

beams which

concrete

with

the

of

involved

the materials

Chapter,

steel

on the plates

the

steel

This

above were

To study

on the materials

resin,

analysis

(vi)

of

properties.

plating.

after

appraisal

stress

theoretical

mentioned

14 days after

mately

interfacial

to

beams,
sustained

all

of which
loading.

have

identical

The parameters

internal
under

reinforcement
investigation

are
are:

being

(a)

glue

layer

constant

-3

mm

(b)

glue

layer

constant

-6

mm

glue

layer

variable

-3

mm to 8 mm

(d)

glue

layer

variable

25
25
x
mm notches
mm
-

(e)

single

plate

layer,

central

(f)

single

plate

layer,

laps

(g)

two layers

(h)

two layers

(c)

of
of

load

at

points

lap
the

at

plate,

central

lap

plate,

laps

1/3

at

1/3

points

of

in

outer

layer
the

of

points

span

span in

the

outer

layer.
beams have plates

All

were
in
will

to

open

8.

in

The short

test

(a)

plate

thicknesses

(b)

plate

thickness

(c)

plate

and glue

(d)

glue

theoretical
(f)
90% theoretical

four

from

are

loaded

given

specimens

long

on beams

beams was performed


term

tests

1.5

3 mm, central

lap

these

with

additional

and 6 mm

1.5,3

thicknesses
mm

1.5

mm, glue

prior

the

to 50%

3 mm, beams loaded

thickness

to 50% and

to plating.

beam was also


in

3 mm, beam loaded

to plating

prior

load

thickness

the

shear

tests

were

6 mm diameter

tested.
spans

of

all

these

failure.
The results

eight

left

beams

unloaded

These results

thickness

3 mm, glue

control

75 mm centres

Eight

beams were

are

3 mm, no plate

load

ultimate

An unplated
at

thickness

thickness

plate

the

1.5 mm, glue

thickness

ultimate

for

the

There

exposure.

twenty

of

All

beams and the

3 mm and 6 mm, glue

thickness

plate

months.

5 years

after

above

investigation:

eighteen

unloaded

series

under

(e)

after
eight

described

to those

parameters

provided

testing

due course

term

beam.
elements.

of

470 N/mm2.

stress

the

effects

The remaining

be tested,

identical

for

0.27. proof

internal

250 N/mm2, with

stress

yield

to each loaded

the weathering

to be returned

Chapter

bars,

beams corresponding

two unloaded
outside

20 mm diameter

3x

reinforcement

1.5 mm thick,

reported

as follows:

beams,

stirrups

were

to prevent

shear

Chapter

5-

strength

Chapter

6-

load-strain;

Chapter

7-

cracking

characteristics.

In most environments

the hardened

are

to be very

said

trate

This

sealing

in

placed

a fog

for

conditions
load

point

Lastly

design

Appendix
Appendix

lap

the

first

of

the
under

in

kept

were

eventually

coated

18 months
fog

tested
are

different

with
were

in

then
to

and in

a single,

with

testing.

dry

central
8.

Chapter

investigation

the present

may be

prior

chamber

given

pene-

100 x 100 x

prisms

The specimens

the

are

the

Appendix

5 gives

calculations

compared

loads

concrete.

Appendix
outline

of
of

the

CEB and ACI.


the

of

the

theoretical

stress

the

for

the

ultimate

3 gives

load

stresses

of

methods

for

the main

the
crack

used

in

of

calculation

beams A and, B.
series

of

24 beams.

24 beams by methods

calculations

between

in

distribution

test

these

6 gives

calculations

statistical

for

overall

technology.

the methods

preliminary

deflections
Appendix

interfacial

8 outlines

the

the

work,

work.

adhesives

used

Appendix

calculations

by CP110,

7 discusses

of

future

for
in

terms

of

the present

of

and proposals

compression.

4 gives

Appendix

limitations

calculation

and ultimate

crack

a brief

were

of

the

a glossary

Appendix

gives

layer

The results

results

9 concerns

1 gives

joint

recommended

and glue

for

epoxies

or concrete

concrete

humidity

heat

cured

will

and steel

of moisture.

recommendations

2 outlines

bonded

the

adhesives,

small

also

both

undergo

moisture

resin

characteristics.

by others.

Chapter

conclusions,

were

will

using

These prisms,

possible,

found

those

no sealant

a span of 450 mm.

over

the

100% relative

at

comparison.

Wherever
with

ingress

the

chamber

beams with

Control

The plate

to prevent

agents

However,

was investigated

problem

resins

many other

unlike

to water.

resistant

on one face.

500 mm plated

but

and moment rotation

epoxy

and the bond between

most epoxies

weakened.

load-deflection

changes,

and moisture

variation

characteristics.

glue

rotations.

and steel

widths
the

for

or

and Appendix

analyses.

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1

EPOXY RESINS

(Appendix

I gives

2.1.1.

a glossary

The use of
be traced

jointing

for

art

animal
for

for

back

boat

their

bonding

and blood.
were

the

made until

nineteenth

The advent
and organic
process

impetus

being

can be seen that

Ages

made from

the materials

and, no real

products

chemistry,

has led

in

in

used
was

progress

to

the

approach,

to

was, given

the

than

rather
are

research,

by the

of

physical
the

synthetic
invention,

any specific

now engineering
need

lightweight

the

of

to understand

development

adhesives

in

especially

respect

by scientists

has led

turn

in

particularly

to an attempt

intellectual

or joints,

bonds

strength

natural

a new dimension:

adhesives

it

cases

as a crude

By the Middle

glues

progress,

to

glue

of

used bitumen

can

century.

This

A change

A tremendous

from

systematic

adhesion.

adhesives.

craft

of

chemistry,

of

has given

From these

together

used a type

purposes.

sealing

had made little

obtained

all

and for

timbers

Egyptians

The Phonecians

coffins.

adhesives

of making
bones

The Ancient

their

onto

technology.

adhesive

I
two or more objects

to join

materials

centuries.

decorations

stick

the

adhesive

to

relating

(1-5)

Introduction

General

terms

of

materials.

to form

high
'of the

structures

air-

industry.

The first
in

Switzerland

decades.

several
and they

the

1930's,
Limited

became available

Epoxy
combination

practical

formulations
of

properties

application

of

although

their

production

of

in

the

early

developed
which

until

took

epoxy

resins

basic

chemistry

epoxy
1950's

resins

started

made them suitable

were
for

Germany and

had been known

on a commercial

there

place

in

available

in

the

for
1940's

late

scale.

systems

with

use as an adhesive

a
with

Epoxy

concrete.
of

Because

is

of

is

there

the high

little

degree

tendency

of

between

linking

cross

to creep'under

of water

by-products

or other

low autogenous

have

and can consequently

reaction,

a condensation

release

without

cure

systems

resin

long

sustained

loading

chain

(3).

shrinkage

epoxide

molecules

and moisture

resistance

good.

The confusingly

large

variety

of

available

products

the

epoxy

resins

for

structural

uses

of

progress
industry.

use of

The engineer

found

conditions

temperature

to formulate

Materials
A single

It
are
with

is

for

It

material,

the

resin

in

no loss

or

load

sustained

the

it

weather

prevailing

and

manufacturers
materials.

engineering

be found

systems

that

use of

which

must

temperatures

techniques,

and application
labourer.

such that

to

sold

are

which

in

who specialise
and fillers
it

is

all

suit

commercially
the

modifying

to meet

important

applications.

to

specific

system

end-use

follow

the manu-

use.

successful

in

cannot

resin

follows
for

resistance

any misunderstanding

site

structural

diluents

specification

preparation

manufacture

must

in mind

properties

formulators

of

mixing/application

and chemical

the

epoxy

logically

recommendations

an adequate

system

extenders,

Conversely,

surface

that

the products

flexibilisers,

facturers

these

construction

show little

to moisture,

or on exposure

satisfactory

resin

reason

generally

formed

the

and Mixes
epoxy

this

requirements.

of

With

variations.

be able

2.1.2

time,

of

the

the

under

curing

The bond thus

in

to have a consistency

and satisfactory

on site.

as a function

adhesion

should

requires

application

ease of

allows

resin

the

has hindered

thermal

a resin
include

expansion,

The specification

these

provisions
of

resin

such

for

should

system

from

as;

curing

creep

anyone

on the

requirements

and techniques,

etc.

the

depends

system

abrasion

be so worded

the

adherend

temperatures,

properties,

concerned

preparation

in

formulating

the

as to avoid
design,
chemist

to

2.1.3

Mixing
The accuracy

important

the

of

and a tolerance

tolerate

a wider

on both

variation
compound.
proportioned

units

by the

supplied

can be emptied

A low speed electric


that

strengths

continue

until

2.1.4.

if

the

the

of

of

the

properties
by the

so that

other,

cures

the

use of

the
the
cured

pre-

contents

of

one

into

hardener

usually

resin,

the

homogeneous.

may be used with

paddle
air

with

and hardener
is

when mixing

a mixing

can introduce

system
is

resin

which

can reduce

The manufacturers

two distinct

often
which

colours

and

adhesive

Mixing

entrapped.

air

the

should

facilitate
form

merge to

complete.

Temperature
Most epoxy

temperature
difficult,

flame

100F

temperatures

resin

during

40 - 150F,

range

temperature

the

of

system

heating

which

of

prior

to mixing.

turn

reduces

may also

or

is

2.1.5

Surface

Preparation

The strength

of

heaters

radiant

the

be necessary
surfaces

concrete

a bonded
cohesive

usually

may be shortened

system
in

as the

life

so it

is

tendency

to heat

difficult

too

helpful

This

reduces
air

adhered

to control

the

becomes
In

much.
to

to whip

the

in

favourably

react

60F mixing

40F

heating

as well

below

below

culation

adherends

the pot

today

available

although

often

are
resin

It

mixing.

formulations

resin

and above

Britain,

the

the

with

mixers

the mixture

by giving

one colour

into

drill

type

paddle

cohesive

this

effect

can

together.

mixed

caution

complete

of proportioning
manufacturer

if

be allowed

is

very

Some compounds

only

resistance

and chemical
method

desirable.

show the

which

is

and hardener

resin

should

such variations

available

accurate

container

and then

data

mechanical

The most

component

but

of

2% is

or minus

of plus

variation

has test

manufacturer

proportioning

required

Great

raise

the

the

viscosity

into

the

of
compound

Direct

surfaces.
and warm air

cir-

are preferable.

joint

depends

strength

-8-

of

on the
the

degree

resin.

of

adhesion

The aim of

to

surface

the

is

preparation
is

to

2.1.5.1

in

link

the weaker

that

ensure
the

develops

adhesion

to

the

extent

to remove

all

substances

that

the

cohesion

system.

Concrete
Concrete

to bond of

of

debris

by jetting

to

extent

the

from

resulting

method

with

in

incorporated
is

the

the

shotblast

particles

be taken

compressed

air

to ensure

that

and

dust

remove

be a surface
and free

exposed

good water

to prevent

system

and then
should

are

dirt

The simplest

operations.
surface

detrimental

dust,

compounds,

The result

air.

aggregate

Care should

contaminants.

2.1.5.2

to

curing

preparation

compressed

large

that

surface

is

this

achieving

blasting

such as laitance,

compounds

epoxy

debris

other

must be cleared

surfaces

abraded

from

and oil

dust

and

traps

are

after

contamination

and

shot-

completed.

Steel
As rolled,

thick

that

metal

itself.

the metal

a contaminated

surface

There

contaminants:

have

metals

three

are

solvent

exhibits

the

methods

cleaning

or

surface

the

of

properties

which

layer,

which

is

layer

and not

can be used to

remove

these

mechanical

abrasion;

or

degreasing;

so

usually
the

surface
chemical

etching.

For
chemical
using

site

would

is

practical,

solvents

before

into

the

field

consistent
After
cleaning
surface

must
is

cleaning

of

assuring

the

susceptible

by jetting
to

time

corrosion,

is

they

otherwise
adhesive

bond.
bonding

The only

particularly

their
deeper

practical,
is

shotblasting.

by the mechanical

created

compressed

for

can be forced

surface

that

unlikely

and degreasing

must be allowed

any dust
with

it

Cleaning

scale.

an adequate

and shotblasting

be removed

very

treatment,
of

industry

construction

adequate

weakening

method

solvent

but

mechanical

causing

metal

the

be used on a large

treatments

evaporation

in

applications

A cleaned

air.
in

a humid

metal
atmosphere,

so the work

after

possible

2.1.6

be planned

should

the

to permit

epoxy

application

as soon as

cleaning.

Bonding
its

In

broadest

to the

adhesive

sense

adhesive

and holding

adherends

bonding

includes

the

them in

position

until

application
the

of

joint

the

acquires

some strength.

The applicator

by the

affected

contact
This

wetting.

complete

or when fillers

systems

the

resin

penetration

by'applying

pressure

In

is

pressure
air

the

in

necessary
remove

region

the

by inspecting

2.1.7

the

heating

applied

of

the

a rate

at

Both

system.

are

applied.

be taken

should

to achieve

with

to ensure

higher

viscosity

adherend

the

adherend

further
this

also
of

during

away the

joint

This

it

is

resin

pressed

out

process.

hardly

moves when
taking

out

to

more adhesive

indication
an

gives

curing

the

out

can be increased

squeezed

usual

and squeeze

to assist

pressure

adhesive

is

glue

of

penetration

the

the

surface

reason

amount

surface.

joint

of

completed

a certain

apply
excess

under

of how even

along

the

joint.

the

physical

unwanted

pressure

the

is

than

pressure

to
was

Curing
To cure

chemical

applies

closed

amount

is

measures

more difficult

the

This

is

epoxy

and all

to

For

epoxy

present.

the

but

bubbles.

air

often

process

it.

with

is

of

applied,

bubbles

essential

are

The application

the

at which

is

the

of hardening

and rate

temperature

Intimate

that

ensure

life

the pot

with

compatible

should

change.
or

the

an epoxy
This
use of

resin
usually

a catalyst.

system

means to alter

means polymerisation
This

causes

the

brought
union

of

about

properties

by

by either

adjacent

molecules

of

adhesive,

often

interaction

During
at

curing

progresses,

is

a liquid

development

the

Fillers

stage.

of

2.1.8

Safety
Just

and Health

as there

etc.,

cement,

resins

are

there

are

sensitisation,

are

which

Safe handling
and using
readily

disposable
available.

as eyeglass

is

differential

expansion

Initially

the

becomes a gel.

as both

liquid

increases

so that

and gel

shrinkage

shrinkage

but

do not

practices

for

handling

this

can
in

and results
shrinkage

a
be

cannot
have

during

occurs

resin

During

These observations

stresses.
most

of moisture.

led

the

gel

affect

adversely

amounts.

proper,
also

safe

precautions
used with

health

handled

the

continues

in which

can develop

Provisions

and materials

Two typical
carelessly

normal

it

starts

strength

can be used to reduce

when used in

adhesion

such

compounds

ingress

The process

internal

producing

without

accommodated

its

some point

The

resin.

cracks

due to polymerisation.

change by flowing.

At

polymer.

up due to

set

important

not

solid

known as cross-linking.

the
bond
by
of

are

and also

is

a tough

be moved otherwise

loss

to

strains

shrinkage

volume

accommodate

is

and as polymerisation

or paste,

autogenous

lead

could

and adherends,

resin

period

are

must not

As curing
the

epoxy

joint

which

of

to

the

molecules

form

to

chains,

chain

interface

the

hard

such long

of

as long

existing

problems

skin

which

encountered

Goggles

adjustment

with

such

when handling

epoxy

as burns

materials

and rashes,

when
and skin

reaction.

can be accomplished-by
equipment

be observed

should

portland

them.

irritations,

an allergic

acids,

whenever
are

should

working

be avoided.

a well

Disposable

possible.

strongly

in

recommended,
In

the

ventilated
suits

area

and gloves

and involuntary

case of

direct

habits
skin

contact

dilute

merely

the

used for

a fire

are

initiating

fire

other

devices

Chlorinated
toxicological
the

solvents,

immediate

the

with

the

particular

not

dangerous

are kept

of

be barred

not

presenting

takes

in

will

place

the

area

Smoking

required.

area

a fire

for

substitute
should

must handle..

as reasonable

the

be avoided.

should

of

use.

hazard,

will

or

if

and

present

a fire

in

occurs

when inhaled.

epoxy materials
they

from

skin.

care

worker

be informed

The handling
is

taken

Those

education.
of

of

the hazards

of
is

epoxy materials
and equipment

and personnel

clean.

handling

of

sensitisation
losing

time

practices

are

the

of

possibility

makes knowledge

accidents

absolutely

but

rare

burns,

and observance

of

loss

of

safe

essential.

GLUED JOINTS IN CONCRETE

2.2.1

General

Uses
have been used in

Epoxy

resins

(7)

describes

Tremper
and Apton
Ciesielski
(14)

was found
shear

use of

as long

an eye and other

Levy

smoking

materials

Instances

2.2

while

equipment

is

solvents

require

and these

points

the

cleaning

used good ventilation

should

Most

into

penetration

low flash

Many can be toxic

area.

No amount
involved

if

problem

be used.

not

and equipment

precleaning

and if

hazard

should
their

aiding

Many have

precautions.

Ketones

soap and water

compound,

epoxy

The solvents
additional

than

other

solvents

(9)

for

(11)

and direct

repair
describe

reports
that

the

their

bond

use of
of

use in

strengths

tension.

epoxies

runways

resin

concrete

were

repairing

repair
greater

of

cracked

of

work

the

since

concrete

precast

than

pile

caps

and Blye
and beams;

elements.

concrete

1950's.

highways;

Wakeman, Stover

and roads;

injection
the

in

repair

strength

In

Gaul
(10)
and

general
in

and

flexure,

(8)

it

2.2.2

' Surface'Preprtion
The generally

discussed

vary

with

Moar found

that

will

methods
ment.
strength,

which

laitance.

For

increased

greatly

but

he was only

this

with

considered

(24)

found

preparations,

Lee and Neville


no special

term

grease

and

aggregate

"as

stripped",

joints.

that

This

equip-

short

exposed

to be inadequate

but

does he make any positive

state

treatment.

surface

dirt,

of

of

for

to be adequate,

surfaces

brushing

nor

(6),

and availability
important

these

of

joint.

compression

wire

convenience

amount of mechanically

the

of

are

preparation

removal

adequate

concrete

with

working

other

the

durability

the

Hallquist

on the

strength

site
was less

treatment

mainly

surface

The relative

construction

of

mechanical

term

(23)

Gorgol

location

depended
long

(22).
Moar
and

(21)

by Batchelar

concrete

of

methods

accepted

porous

does not

recommendations.

such as concrete

surfaces

incorrect
be
to
shown

has been

compare

require

by many other

researchers.

(12)

Guttman

bonding.

structural
in

found

Skin
in

bond strength

were

tabulated

Johnson

suggested

blown,

followed

and then

air

sensible

to degrease

tend

2.2.3

to

force

Moisture

the

deposits
minute

in most

curing

(13)

properties

grease

some cases,

inhibit

to

the

the

on the

contaminants

surfaces

quantities
of

the

surfaces

by degreasing

and remove

26 adhesives

of

dirt

before

deeper

into

of

for

suitable

led

to

75% reduction

used for

solvents

cleaning

adhesives.

should

be cleaned

and flushing.
shotblasting
the

It

by sand blasting
would

as this

seem more
operation

would

surface.

Effects

Lee and Neville

(6)

state

that

moisture

accelerates

the

curing

process

in

with

agreement
mechanical

findings

the

(24)

30 - 85% and found

(25)

high

comparitively

Shaw (27)

describes

long

the

the

the

these

dilutents
of

the

surface
etc.

resin

(28)

dry

mixes

opinion

of

term

Caron,

different

three

joints

dry

the

polyamides

joint

exhibit

strengths.

in both

wet

but

curing

the

and dry
rate

was

Lee and Neville.

in

The strength

resins.

epoxy
the

and 24 -

term

short

of

the

researchers
preparation

that
system

concrete
four

of

relation

prisms,

adhesive

after

with

450 glued

in

resins

strength

Three

scarf

resins

in

joints,
gave only

water,

whereas

strength.

only

techniques
the

can be accounted
A full

used.

could

systems.

8 weeks immersion

only

disagreements

can be added to
in

affect

on initial

strength.

tested

prisms

apparent

compositions

the

tested

to have no apparent

resistance
of

drawn by individual
also

can reduce

affected,

showed an increase

resin

Some of
chemical

containing

was not

16 - 65% of

long

and Smith

strength

fourth

(21)

use of

moisture

for

the water

compare

from

found

to be beneficial

Cusens

the

resins,

which

the

from

ranging

term.

Moar (22)

25% of

the

reduced

on 7 day strength.

certain

strength

contradicting

varied

that

and Batchelar

in water,

of wet joints

to

water

to humidities

exposure

effect

absorption,

The ultimate

conditions.

but

found

who also

after

epoxies

state

water

(26)

Shue Fai

tested

no significant

Geigy

Ciba

75% in

of

properties.

Hallquist

slower

(29)

Caron

be made considering

used.
basic

to moisture.

comparison

The various
resin

can all

for

by the
the

of

this
fillers,
affect

different

conclusions
factor

and

flexibilisers,
the behaviour

2.2.4

Miscellaneous
(18)

O'Brien
joints

of bonded

Johnson
long

that

the main

(15)

performed

term

may also

(16)

Taylor

still

tests

loads

greater

than

tests.

No shear

in

but

or

is
is

after

He suggested

is

not

scarf

in

control

50% of

the

working

for

stress

stress,

stress.

joints

in

than

for

as a shear

failure

the

the

translittle

and creep. were

given

specimens.

The shear

structural

less

joints

mortar

cycles.

only

of magnitude
were

epoxy

million

suitable

results

concrete
than

Flexibility

order

test

of

seven

approximately

an epoxy

joints

compression

showed

which

strength.

beams using

approximately

and in

tensile

term

vibration

and compression.

concrete,

joints

lap

on glued

short

on composite

formulated

his

earlier

so its

glue

use in

clear.

Summary
(6),

Lee and Neville


to be required,
(24),

Hallquist

(28)

strength.

found

and Gorgol

contrary

to

Guttman

(12),

(6),

Lee and Neville


Smith

gap filling

use to

to be no greater

creep

as it

by shear

the

term

was evident

2N/mm2 which

(20)

mitting

2.2.5

reports

significant

Johnson

50% of

long
the

(17)

was a maximum of

anything

term behaviour

creep.

and found

No debonding

connector.

is

cause

tests

of

a series

investigated

compression

Kreigh

but

long

the

of

their

restricting

to be only

strength

vibrations

under

factor

of knowledge

joints.

compression

the

is

lack

the

that

stated

moisture

Hallquist

(24),

the

(23)

found

(13)

Caron

(29),

and Cusens

Moar

to be advantageous
Shue Fai

(26)

(22)
to

and Smith

and in
curing

and Batchelar

surface

(21),

of Batchelar

conclusions

Johnson

no special

preparation

Moar
(28).

one system

and in
(21)

(22),

Cusens

some cases

found

moisture

and

joint
had

on joint'strength

no effect
(28)

Smith

found

(15)

Johnson

this

the

with

properties

that

its

affects

whereas

tested

joint

strengths

to

resist

to produce

and

one with

However,

temperature

moisture,

and Cusens

considerably.

as concrete.

of magnitude

(25)

Geigy

systems

resin

various

same order

ability

Ciba

reduced

moisture

(20)

Shaw (27),

cycling

creep

to what

extent

is

etc.,

not

reported.

can be seen that

It

and comparisons

available

could

deal

a great

only

preparation;

surface

chemistry;

is

there

of

be made when all

involving

facts,

the

curing

application;

information

contradictory

and test

method

glue

technique;

are known.

2.3

STRESS DISTRIBUTION
External

homogeneous
a uniform
highest

forces

body.

fail

first

The earliest

very

stiff

adherends

the

loading

adherends

apart.

that

Goland
account,
is

theoretical

of

and Reissner

considering

assumed to bond

do not

which

a lap

shear

joint

(31)

two distinct
flexible

gives

the

failure

of

lap

forces,

in

joints
the

rise

cases.

Firstly,
and secondly

joined

together

(ratio

of

elastic

follows.

layer,

adhesive
It

(30),

for

the

case

was soon recognised

tending

taking
a thin

of

moduli

The more highly

joint

the

an

due to Volkersen

to bending,

a theory,

the

specimen.

of

bend on loading.

formulated

adherends,

of

and size

analysis
of

including

in

even

concentration,

on many factors

and a progressive

distribution

the

considered

The stress

shape

stress,

of

two or more materials

of

likely.

and the

field

a uniform

consists

depends

and adhesive,
areas

stressed

produce

less

even

to mean stress),

adherends

of

seldom

When a body
is

stress

IN LAP JOINTS

to peel

these
stiff

vice-versa.

the

stresses
layer

of

into
adhesive

(32)

Cornell

beams and the

simple

Wooley
finite

(54)
in

concrete

both

tension

and tension

and are

in

critically

carried
lap

compared

out

joints.
(35).

by Mylonas

in bonded

distributions

stress

springs.

(34)

and Yashida

like

behave

adherends

concentrations

stress

for

a theory

gives

Fujii

and Amijima,

have been suggested

theories

joints

(33),

the

by shear

represented

to investigate

analyses

Bresson

is

adhesive

and Carver

element

Many other

2.4

varied

by assuming

theory

this

steel/

and compression.

GLUED JOINTS IN METALS

2.4.1

General
Delmas

Gilibert,

specimens

and apparatus

different

glue

Allen
failure

to ensure

into

research

(38)

that

states

of molecules

to

that
long

full

fabrication
of

was little

there

of
for

tests

in

scatter

test

comparing
their

results

term properties.

loss

a primary

achieve

the

studied

good reproducibility

The fact

systems.

facilitate

should

(36,37)

and Collot

of bond

strength

due to poor

linking

cross

is

due to

batching

the
and

mixing.

2.4.2

Surface
Cagle

the most
would

(39)

important

states
role

that
in

the

the

seem to assume a greater

generally

service

selection

and life

environment
of

surface

understanding

of

the

play
This

techniques.

preparation
bonding

expectancy

process

than

abrasion

prior

is

accepted.

Smith
solvent

Preparation

(40)

cleaning

and Olsen

(41)

as contaminants

both

criticise

can be driven

mechanical
deeper

into

the

metal.

to

(42)

Shields
surface
in

consisting

(43),

It

likely

during

time

not

displacement

resin

system.

of

Ramel (44)

hand,
surface

that

the

(37)

showed optimum

adhesion

of

of
from

air

contact

a resin
the

If

due to the

surface

of

40 - 50% rusting.

increased

factor

in

loss

does
are

resins
of

viscosity

(45),

De Lollis

a rough

surface

filled

heavily

is

pockets
to

resin

on bonding

effect

adherend.

change with

Thus a rough

area.

had little

rusting

same metal

application

concentrations.

was an important

corrosion

the

properties

and so the

specific

that

for

size

grit

is

and humidities

temperatures

resins,

displacement

stress

withstand

(42)

surface

Ciba

Geigy

strengths

if

Flushing

after

Chemical

treatment

2.4.3

(36)

for

the

various

on the

other

of bond,

soon after

action,

chemicals

preparation.

Shields
modify

resulting

may be incomplete

air

found

Some could
stated

each other

fluid

the

of

causing

mean a high

used,

that

by viscosity,

air,

necessarily

resins.

a peened

produce

over

optimum

The rate

controlled
can trap

surface

different

give

curing.

essentially

shots

bent

different

However,

be remembered

also

should

as round

of metal

and Collot

and Delmas

by shotblasting.

most

pieces

grits

layer.

Jennings
achieved

sharp

of many loose

a weak surface

would

recommends

jagged

not

Moisture

found

that

physically

(25)

point

in
used

addition

unlikely

to

their

cleaning

and chemically.

out

that

correct

to remove

treatment
is

the

in

can lead

chemicals

or

strength,
traces

of

to be used in

the

all

for

inferior

to

the

chemical

duration.

right
is

bond

also

very

industry,

construction

important.
however.

Effects

Buck and Hockney

(46)

immersed

lap

shear

specimens

for

up to

1000 hours

in

water

and water

vapour.

20C;

60 and 90C and control


immersion

(47)

and Gledhill

Kinloch

in

water

that

joint

20C the

at

strength

was not

was a 25% reduction.

At 45C there

affected.

was found

It

strength

in

distilled

humidity.

56% relative

the

reduced

joints

lap

exposed

They

considerably,

water

20,40,

at
that

considered

at high

particularly

temperature.

2.4.4

Miscellaneous
(48)

Tests

from

ranging

pressures
joint

have been carried

when the

low pressure

the

of

rate

number of
McNicholas
premature

loading

tests

performed

tests

It

practically
stresses.
so that
one.

were

adversely

0.35

to

in

in

26.5

natural

weathering

conditions

In

series

high

on

another

In

limited

the

However,

was observed.
the

at

was no effect

tons/minute.

strength

together

There

affected.

showed that

which

(37)

and Collot
was found

optimum

partly

the body

the

of

a filled

the

to be 0.5

mm.

of

the

thick

In

this

resins
joint

that
in

joint

loading

As the

between

thinner

the
a joint

joint

the

shrinkage

could

joints

rates

produced

possibly

0.05

mm to

1.5 mm

increased

thickness

i. e.

failure,

failure

the

a fracture

plane

adherend

and adhesive,

failure

was completely

adhesive.

when thicker.

Theo-

became brittle

should

are more likely

from

thickness

and cohesive

interface

glue.

joints

filled

adhesive

the

mean stress

thicker
In

varied

along

from

was concluded

retically,

curing.

were placed

change

had been held

which

failure.

passed

through

from

was varied

was due to a combination


which

joints

no significant

(49)

Delmas
and the

bonded

during

joints

when the

except

strength,

400 lb/in2

2-

joints
on

out

increase
to have

with
air

and temperature
be stronger

joint

bubbles,

than

thickness,
flaws

stresses

and partly

but

internal
and

are much lower

a thinner

unfilled

Cusens
in

systems
of

found

was

surface,

and

slightly

in

had
little
+35C
and
-70C

effect

factory

fatigue

all

4.5

107

N/mm2 for

water

curing

was

on joint

found

that

included.

Temperature

There

strength.

cycling

was satis-

a stress

contamination

slight

It

blasted

the

of

sustaining

specimens

The effects

were

roughness

resin

range

of

dust

with

or

harmful.

was not

application
is

It

difficult.

very

It

cycles.

The practical
is

with

cycling

temperature.

curing

between

performance,

the

with

loading.

cyclic

temperature

increased

increase

with

and

on four

tests

comparative

static

and of

strengths

shear

performed
under

temperature

elevated

that

have
joints

lap

steel/steel
at

curing

(28)

Smith

and

in

techniques

of
to

easy
test

small

all

these

findings

the

surface

control

but

specimens,

breaking

to predict

and application/

preparation
in

more difficult

loads

actual

site

is

shot-

applications.

2.4.5

Summary
There

blasting.

is

general

for

sizes

grit

recommended but

that

differentresins,

However,

optimum

agreement

these

the

temperatures

same metal

again

the best

would

adherend.

depend on the

preparation

surface

and humidities
Various
type

glue
glue

of

different

give

thicknesses
for

etc.

are

optimum

strength.

Smith

(40),

and chemical

solvents

cleaning
completely

from

mechanical

blasting

driven

deeper

the

into

surface
is

not

a loss

in

joint

Shields

(42)

treatments

prior

and Ciba

can lead

to bonding.

recommended as this

the metal

Buck and Hockney


to produce

(41),

Olsen

(25),

Geigy

agree

of bond if

to loss

The use of
would

all

chemicals

lead

to the

not
prior

that
removed
to

solvents

being

water

immersion

surface.

(46),

and Kinloch

strength,

which

and Gledhill
increased

(67)
with

found

temperature.

(49)

McNicholas

is

it

Again,
knowing

without

techniques

and others

loading

the

of varying

on the

results

effect

impossible

the

chemistry;

resin

different

the

to compare

surface

exact

findings

author's

loading

preparation,

etc.

2.5.1

General
The application

of

under

(a)

resin

used as a filler

(b)

applications

(50)

Tabor
uses of

in

epoxies

Type

(b)

depend

gives

examples

civil

(52)

Quinton

telephone
bonded

with

2.5.2

upper

epoxy

L'Hermite

joint

(53).

from

In

crane

of

adhesive.

his

general

in

and Bresson

contaminants

must be bonded

first

(51),

review

the

of

surfaces.

Britain

the
(54)

France

(57)

describes

a spherical

In

by the
South

the

bridge,
the

of

addition

Africa

use of

have

at

Switzerland

used
(56)

bars

reinforcing
tank.

concrete

prefabricated

steel

has been

technique
and in

had

11 bridges

has been used

technique
(55)

to repair

confined

some 240 bridges

by 1975,

loading,

vehicle

largely

and are

and a motorway

Franke

strengthen

From L'Hermite's
be freed

uses

rare

In Japan

and lower

floors.
to

strength

(a)

remain

and in

a travelling

exchange

shear

type

increased

against

and Swanley

to strengthen

of

still

strengthened

similarly

on the

of bridges.

their

to

glued

engineering

civil

engineering.

applications

been strengthened,
plates

to

resins

which

strengthening

and/or

epoxy

may be

structures

two main headings:

classified

the

contradictory

GLUED JOINTS BETWEEN STEEL AND CONCRETE

2.5

been

give

rate.

almost

the

(48)

(54,55,58,59)
experiments

and surface
quickly,

or

he concluded
oxidation,

alternatively

-21-

that

the metal

and to prevent
a primer

oxides

applied.

surface

mus t

reforming

Beams with
shearing,
with

Beams with
behaved

their

but

the

plate

loads

is

In

tests

plates

with

is

m long,

reinforced

cases

full

nearly

in

and crack

steel

plate

fact

were

double

For

deflections

glue

type,

premature

on six

and sudden

failure.

(61)

the beams away from


so that

the
they

etc.

the

of

edges

(62)
beams.

concrete
towards

a corbel

However,

by 20%

preparation,

secure

reinforced

with

half

increased

to

(60)

capacity,

sustained

surface

indispensible

effect.

horizontally

to

in

action

for

external

was developed

benefits
a given

the

study

the

by horizontal

that

term

columns

stiffening

used

a joint

structural

failure.

Laboratories

I shaped

of

without

was found

to prevent

loading,

cyclic

shear

one end which

information

useful

The

was

The columns,

corbel.

be regarded

could

as under

beams.

composite

(a)

level,

have been reported

observations

occurred

The main

it

slabs

local

The tests

Failure

the

increase

to

sides,

long

one year

angles

Tests

concrete

thickness,

cycles

on stress

were positioned

plate

on their

and Road Research

used were

from

after

given

bonded

had a considerable

4.9

was delayed

between

or

beams,

concrete

cracking

action

of beam, under

types

on plated

Flexural

obtained

of

combined

a close

one million

that

Transport

specimens

for

stated

no information

2.5.3

onset

reinforcement

and both

well

ultimate

It

however,

reinforced

crushing

beam.

and concrete

also

as normal

the

by concrete

failed

all

They behaved

indicating

reduced

propagation

load,

failure

to

plates

reinforcing

by debonding.

not

regard

tension

crack

shear

in

effects

of

changes

reinforcement
between
the

the

concrete

in

type

and load

of

adhesive,

cycling.

steel,

resin

adjacent

to

In

and concrete.
the

glue

layer.

were:
width,

an unplated

the
beam.

applied

load

for

the

all

plated

beam was

(b)

The post

(c)

There

loading

before

immediately
in

cracking

the

to failure

beam that

Long

term

was not

exposure

industrial

and high

the prisms

are

beams under

All

beams from

debonded.

The control

priming

such

after

only

epoxy-bonded
for

are being

Beams of'3.5

m length

flexural

this

indicate

that

less

was considerably

sites

than

on full
of

investigated

On the

(a)

Four

different

resin

(b)

Four

different

glue

(c)

Different

concrete

(d)

Jointing,

end bolting

of

amounts

showed no signs

bridge

being

corrosion,

used

of

additional

to

investigate:

strengths.

-23-

layers.

corrosion.

may

and surface

with

thicknesses.

plate

steel

failure

structures

and checked

and multiple

the

and become partially

systems.
line

whole,

stronger.

preventing

at present

failure

the

tests.

are

Half

period.

shown that

sites.

adhesive,

scale

prisms,

in marine,

exposure

have

laboratory

the

Methods

their

showed varying

the

concrete

and 10 years.

1,2,5

tests,

were

with

in

plates,

and marine

exposure

contact

steel

during

rainfall

exposure

years.

techniques

from

on small

of

periods

loading

high

occurred

a-few

12 - 24%.

under

out

carried

1 and 2 year

beams kept

corrosion

was cracked

the plate

are being

during

had been in

from

ranging

precracked.

from

the

by 35 - 105%.

The results

in

strain

sustained

for

it.

to

with

load

sustained

which

occur

to

lower

corrosion,

If

which

sites

to date

slightly

the

been tested

tests

rainfall

subject

The results
were

load

the

500 x 100 x 100 mm, reinforced

loads

failure

was bonded

plate

prior

a similar

in

was an increase

beam has since

A seventh

was increased

stiffness

exposure

2.5.4

Development
investigating

the

bonded

epoxy
steel

as formwork

(63)

the

plate

For

these

of

problem

a lack

purposes

a resin

required

concrete

important

and 344 mm length.

fresh

beams 2m

long

onto

the

is

decking

for

medium

reinforced

with

directly

on to

cast

both

serves

plate

the

glue

of

that

ductility

was good,

The smaller
temperature,

beams,
cyclic
type

of

of

The

compaction

would

through

of water

and bond degradation,

as

as well

layer.

to
for

344 mm long,

of

Solomon

with

with

flexural

loading

the presence
quality.

permeation

corrosion

to study

adhesive

facilitate

reinforcement,

especially

in

during

line

glue

was probably

which

inhibiting

has a rust
the

tests

1 mm was required

failure

strength

on the behaviour

coated

static

its

on to hardened

plates

the mode of

also

glue

report

plate

on the

thickness

tests

the

have been used

the

steel

as external

and thickness

fatigue

in

(28)

type

curing

Dundee,

Thus the

steel

retains

could

Cusens' earlier
plate

a steel

concrete

cause

of weakness

in

penetrating

as this

to

and glue

points

using

is

resin.

of bonding

which

and which

particles

Cusens and Smith

of

of

slabs

concrete

epoxy

with

ductility

of

used.

aggregate

seem to be most

forming

case the

method

thickness

damp is

prolonged

this

used

He found

concrete.

the

has been coated

concrete

of

consist

Unit,

forms

two main

of

In each

Research

and reinforcement.

Solomon

due to

forms

Both

plates.

steel
which

plate

feasibility

practical

Span bridges.

and long

(70)

Bridge

the Wolfson

at

work

(63)

(44)

(28)

Dundee University

the

and the
It

behaviour.

bond between

ensure
thicker

were

glue

used

immersion
and
seemed to have

to

of

effects

of
that

concrete

casting
(28),

tests

was found

2.0

feasibility

procedure

In more recent

ductility

beams of
the

confirmed

with

epoxy.

the

concrete

adhesive
a minimum
and

and steel

layers.

investigate

in water.
little

the
In both

significance.

effect

of

static
The

and

majority
70% of
all

their

surfaces

static

failure

except

the

of moisture

as formwork

for

a new type

of

floor

concrete

length.

entire

the beam under

2.5.5

in

this

The loading

rig

testing

Warwick
This
to

plates,

combination
failed

of

at

stress

the

top

forming

level

2.5.6

by

a feasibility-study
in

durability

made of

hold

flexure

tests.
their

along

plates

reinforcing

which

sheet,

beams failed

therefore

would

strengthening

the

plate

ends onto

internal

at

the end of

zone would

the

these

plate

The results

produces
its

achieving

would

additional

Most beams
towards

and spreading

plate

specimens,
it

than

provide

the

be in

failure

flexural

resisted

which

the

central

shows that

a shear/bond
full

to a

subject

shear.

and vertical

reinforcement.

member from

and shear,

a concrete

bonding

by epoxy

bridge

The beams used were

bending

end of

the

in

of

supports.

of

probably

as bending

compression

ingress

formed

steel

of

the

is

had the

supports

the

at

greater

effect

All

however,

section

the

to

were part

buildings.

tension,

concrete

is

for

above

longitudinal

the

prevents

as well

the

surface,

concentration

thus

indicating

surface

conditions.

concerns

by a crack

section

(> 33%) with

strength

on

University

work
the

flexural

applied

The tests

No mention,

beams mentioned

the

sealed

on beams similarly

adhesive

the beam soffit.

to

and showed good ductility.


All

of

tests

report

fresh

the

onto

concrete

wet

loss

of beam specimens

on the plate

corrosion

(70)

and Gopalani

Solomon
pouring

causes

serious

52 and

between

range

interface.

the

at

top

immersion

Water

a load

having

cycles

load.

due to

mainly

some adhesives,

acts

1.5 million

of beams survived

the
and
This

strength.

longitudinal

a beam, where

the

tension

deeper

stiffness.

Miscellaneous
(65)

Lerchenthal
reinforced
reinforced

with
with

0.25
strips,

carried

mm sheets.
in

both

out

tests

on model

Simultaneously,
directions,

cut

300 x 300 x 30 mm

slabs
tests

from

were
the

carried

sheets.

out
For

on slabs
the

same

of

quantity

the

steel

showing

the exploitation

bonding

were used;

sheets
layer

ally

the

with

problem
the

depth

the

reduced

the

of

edges

(66)

Fleming

(67)

Failure

capacity,

Three

methods

slabs

thin

a grip

with

was found,

reinforced

sheets

and all

The sheet
convention-

were

used no

who had to hold

by Bresson,

as found

onto

concrete

a sheet

of

plates.

beam tests

with

used showed a large

and King

reinforcement.

angle

describes

The resin

concrete.

Because

was encountered

bonded

to

relative

cracks,

onto

the

by debonding.

not

concrete,

reinforcement.

lifting

edges

down with

Cirodde

of

of

or

fresh

difference

No significant

sheet

and spacing

poured

twice

sheet.

pouring

concrete

it.

the

of

concrete;

cured

to

of

same area

strength

and fresh

applied;

were by rupture

failures

onto

and sand glued

grit

of

bonding

resin

with

the biaxial

of

had almost

sheet

a complete

with

slab

amount

of

in

the

creep.

along

concrete

bonded

plates

no internal

beams 150 x 150 x 1680 mm with

plated

occurred

and aluminium

steel

a plane

to

parallel

the

layer.

adhesive

(68)

Kaifasz

describes

beams having

concrete

bars

reinforcing
occurred,

tests

bonded

externally

simply

satisfactory

carried

to

glued
results

the

were

out

bars

and plates.

underside

of

obtained

and T section

on rectangular
Except

the beam, where


good agreement

with

in

the

case of

debonding
with

theoretical

predictions.

2.5.7

'E. M. P. A. Swiss Federal


(56) (69)
'and'Research
Tests

of

were

carried

and the

concrete

effects

as applied

at E. M. P. A.

out
joint.

a steel/epoxy/concrete

ends

Laboratories

of
to

long
floor

term
slabs

The tests
fatigue
in

for

Testing

to investigate
studied
loading.

a Zurich

Materials

the

ways of

bonding
anchoring

The technique

telephone

exchange

properties
the

plate

of

plated

is

reported.

to

The first

short

be given

to anchor

subjected

to both

deflection

after

load

two'million
are

A second

ends.

given

special
tests

of

attention

0.8

and 1.2

Tee beams,
static

of

times

the

working

and formu-

thickness

glue

preparation,

should

on plated

showed an 85% increase

between

cycles

surface

of

that

series

loading

and dynamic

static

indicated

tests

static

the plate

No details

load.

term

lation.

The efficiency

Deflections

measurements.
for

in bending

increase

At present

techniques.

2.5.8

Sheffield

the
of

the

the

steel

and crack

and short

term

an

widths.

in

testing

and thickness

quality

has been published

no report

type,

glue

Beams were

tested

the

steel

range,

but

of

from

thickness
plates

of

types,

glue

long

strengthening,
had provided

strengthening

deflections

series

used reinforced

adhesive

addition

of bonded

the

reducing

an extensive

different

(71)

serviceability
glue

that

and after

and

on these.

University

to plating.

that

is

So far

Bouderbalah
investigate

thereby

during

before,

by field

was checked

strengthening

was concluded

stiffness

there

lapping

prior

It

investigating

progress,

slab

were measured

loadings.

different

floor

the

of

thickness,

plate

in

to a precracked

lapping

plate

flexural

the

modes and it
flexural

ultimate

on the

shear

8 mm had no significant
beam,

and precracking

and shear

increased

had no effect

1.6 mm to

beams 100 x 150 x 1200 mm to

concrete

of bonded

and lapping

capacity

and

The variation

capacity.
effect.

was found

The application

plates

shown to

were

be successful.

Reinforced
investigate
and three
plates

the
over

increased

The beams with

beams 100 x 150 x 2400 mm were

concrete
effects
reinforced,
bending
1.6

of

plate
before

stiffness

Five

thickness.

For

plating.

and flexural

5
3
mm thick
mm,
mm and

plates

-27-

used by Ang (72)

beams were
the

under-reinforced

under-reinforced

capacity
failed

and reduced
in

to

a flexural

beams the
crack

widths.

mode by

the

of

yielding

10 mm thick

steel
failed

plate

due to plate

The mode of
the

face.

compression

failure

crushing
separation

in

increase
gave an

Both

was by debonding

at

of

concrete.

at

its

on its

beam was plated

One over-reinforced
the

by local

followed

The beam with

end.

face

tension
capacity

of

and the

on

22%.

approximately

ends followed

the plate

other

by shearing

of

concrete.

The failure

loads

of

all

the

be satisfactorily

beams could

plated

by CP 110 methods.

predicted

A limited
loading

during

capacity

of

series
glue

with

were

the

study

not

effect

loaded

of

cyclic

on flexural

effects

showed no adverse

beams which

control

to

was performed

The results

curing.

when compared

(73)

tests

during

the

curing

period.

2.6

CONCLUSIONS
is

It
are

still

not

evident

from

lack

detail

of

apparent
fully

that

understood,

the published
in

many factors

the

and consequently

literature

information

(a)

glue

composition

(b)

plate

thickness,

(c)

behaviour

(d)

long

(e)

durability

there
given

is

not

fully

some degree

on the

of

bonded

controlled.
of

disagreement

following:

and thickness
lapping

of precracked

term behaviour
of

the behaviour

affecting

epoxy

techniques,

end anchorage

beams

under

sustained

resin

bonded

load
joints

exposed

to moisture.

joints

As is
and

CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL

Practical

and test

experience

Chapter

2 illustrate

that

varying

conditions.

The possibility

Nevertheless,

engineer.

having

engineer

strengthening

the

of

concrete

cracking

is

important

the

to minimise
elasticity

is

addition

to

the

respectively,
3.1

importance
tensile

in

the

Experimental

A trial
properties

the

in

controlling

analysis

of

control

and in

of

application

Modulus

of members,

the

of

steel

to

in many

this

bond.

deflection

strengths

and compressive

such

The resistance

concrete/epoxy/steel
the

in

a structure;

of

continuity

on the

limitations.

their

and the

strength

reinforcement

of

the

of
and in

and concrete

members.

structural

practice

Procedure

the

concrete,

beams used
strengthening

concrete

would

use of

: 2.45,

Febflow.

with

in

bridge

is

often

of

the

19 mm aggregate

the

out

Bearing
after

and acquired
concrete

for

480 kg
1124 kg
450 kg

lm3 are

several

substantial

constituents
ratio

that

with

construction.
carried

of

and strength

workability

was consistent

a water/cement

The quantities

sand

cement

which

have matured

The proportions
1.05

to assess

mix was performed

of

prestressed

1:

tensile

corrosion
of

importance.

considerable

civil

CONCRETE

3.1.1

the

of

degradation

of

of

under
simply

the

depend

involved

and concrete,

steel

in maintaining

prevention
the

of

to

will

and knowing

retained

structures

interest

adhesives

properties

on its

depends

cracking

in

properties
are

the

use of

are

concrete

particular

in

outlined

adhesives

epoxy

reinforcing

be of

their

such as were

of

of

could

in

operations,

results

properties

efficient

confidence

Similarly,

cases

the

epoxies

using

and effectively

PROPERTIES

0.4

given

were

used

in mind
years
increase

precast
in

that
in

service,
in

strength.

approximately

and plasticised
below.

in

by the

water

177 kg

Febflow,

140 cc/50

hardening

Rapid

Ferrocrete,

cement,

maximum,

uncrushed

gravel

gradings

for

are

these

The mixing
with

0.127

the

addition

for

compaction

of

fine

shown in Fig.

concrete

aggregate

for

and the

was natural

dry

were

a further

in

out

was carried

specimens

river

a non tilting

were

in

cast

for

mixed

steel

pan type

vibrator

(b)

12 - 500 x 100 x 100 mm prisms

for

modulus

of

rupture

300 x 100 x 100 mm prisms

for

modulus

of

elasticity.

The moulds
in

stripped

were

a mist

room

21C

at

strength

24 hours

after

the

and

specimens

humidity,

100% relative

and

and after

as follows,

moulds

26 - 100 mm cubes

compressive

mixer

was used

(a)

4-

The

sand.

two minutes,

A poker

two minutes.

for

was 19 mm

aggregate

3.1.

The materials

of water,

The coarse

was used.

and the

m3 capacity.

(c)

placed

kg cement

until

then

were

for

required

testing.

Compressive
in

carried

out

3.1.2

Results

accordance

3.1

Table

Modulus

at

results.

strength

modulus

tests

The mean strength

28 days was 36.0


3.3

of

kN/mm2 with

shows the modulus

of

a Poisson's
rupture

The mean Young's

results.

elasticity

ratio

of

0.16.

The mean value

results.

at

N/mm2.

Conclusions
for

The results
Modulus

Young's
acceptable

were

mean compressive
and their

consistent

strength

modulus

standard

of

rupture

deviations

fell

adhesive

were

and
within

limits.

EPOXY RESINS
In

the

were

Standards.

British

of

recommendations

compressive

shows the modulus

28 days was 5.59

3.2

the

and Young's

rupture

of

N/mm2.

3.2

Table

3.1.3

with

shows the

28 days was 69.5


Table

modulus

strength,

preliminary

test

series,

Type A

CIBA GEIGY

XD 808

Type B

COLEBRAND

CXL 194

two types

-30-

of

used.

at

_
)

W
J
Q.

Ln
r-
m
"

`Io
'\

\\

Ci))

0
r

LO

ca
C?
N

0
zQ

V)

a"
U)

E
Co
l'r

M
uJ I-N-

N-.

N
W

LL

w
>
w
N

tD
Z
O

"

oN
o
cD

co

w
o
o
w

0
LO
I
I

vOOOO

cm

Co

LC)

ONISSVd 30b1N3083d

Q
r

0^

(A
c
0
U_

E
LO

TABLE 3.1 CONCRETE

COMPRESSIVE

3 DAYS
N/mm

STRENGTH

7 DAYS
N 1mm2

mean

14 DAYS
N/mm2

mean

47.6

60.3

48.0

64.1

46.0

62.4

70.1

48.4

61.4

64.4

46.7

62.4

47.2

43.5

52.3

65-2

47.0

55.0

56.8

47.6

63.0

50.2

64.5

TABLE 3.2

64.7

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

mean

Pols

ris

36.2
35.7
36.0

0.16

37.7
34.5

TABLE

3.3

MODULUS OF RUPTURE

N /mm

28 DAYS
PJ/mm,
N /mm'

5.71

5.52

5.64

5.21

5.82

5.37

mean

5.59
5.33

5.47

5.65

6.00

5.31

5.91

coe. tt

69.6
68-4

28 DAYS
kN/mmz

N/mm2

mean

70.4

64.8

60.6

mean

28 DAYS

o1

variation

4 lo

69.5

In

the main

series

long

of

term

and short

tests

only

A was

type

glue

used.
3.2.1

Lap

Shear

Tests

A qualitative
glue

by the

average

3.2.1.1

same sheets

of

The glue

Bonding

took

place

at

thicknesses

of

least

glue

at

used.

were

but

two minutes,

were

slightly

used

for

to

with

grit
N/mm2.

at

280 rpm fitted


minutes.

the

shorter
Four

testing.
for

and two specimens

type,

humidity.

in

failure

days before

ten

The

shotblasting.

three

induce

the

series

150C and 56% relative

at

for

each glue

after

operating

offset

to cure

allowed

steel
- 0.75

no more than

conditions

from

cut

preliminary

using

one hour

within

3.2

the

of 0.55

a pressure

a low. speed drill,

controlled

were

in

to bonding

prior

together

using

plates

The specimens

side.

bonded

under

lapping

The central

the

as judged

plate,

as shown in Fig.

reinforcement

340 microns

of

then

for

of

find

to

out

thicknesses

glue

were prepared,

was shotblasted

was mixed

a paddle,

with

was carried
two layers

various

used as external

size
were

pieces

steel

the

of

specimens

steel

a mean particle

tests

Procedure

The steel

tests.

lap-shear

of

strength

Experimental
lap

Tension

to be used when lapping

shear

Double

of

series

thickness

optimum

in

-'Steel/Steel

each

thickness.
3.2.1.2

Results
3.3

Fig.

shear

average

These
of

range
scope,

tests

and the
to

used,

results
enable

each glue
linear

0.5

should
a choice

mm - 3.5

in

reduction

be treated

This-series

mm joint

pieces

in

glue

thickness.

strength

over

the
in

limited

The control

thickness

of

against

was very

qualitatively.

0.5

of

and plotted

mm.

The value

tests.

shear

was

between

lapping

is

important

plates.

Conclusions

to

induce

peeling

efficient

of

variation

suggest

for

lap

the

of

showed an almost

The alignment
not

results

was found

stress

thicknesses

sufficient
3.2.1.3

shows the

that

of

the

all

stresses

in

the

for

any batch

some specimens

had better

glue

the

lap

joint

when load

varied

from

alignment

-33-

1 to
than

is

very

applied.

24% and this


others,

rather

so as

The cowould
than

any

330

C
v

13D

\I',
25R

20

30

8D

40

L-14-

8D
DOUBLE LAP SHEAR
-

SPECIMEN

20 R

0
Co

20R

LD
CD

lf')
(0

type B

type A

IV
2-5

40
1
thickness 25mm

...
l

Rmm%
thicknPcc
.... _.... _.. _ ........ -

40

t"

TENSILE

SPECIMENS

150

50

.0

0
LO

COMPRESSION

FIGURE 3.2

SPECIMEN

DETAILS OF ADHESIVE

-34-

TEST SPECIMENS

DOUBLE LAP SHEAR TESTS

aE
E

CXL

194

X0

808

5.0
p
4.5!

4.0

3"51

39

w
cr
Lo

w
=
N

3.0
it

w 2.5
w

2.0

po

XD

CXL 194

1.5

1"o.
0.5

0.5

1.0

FIGURE 3.3

2.0
2.5
1.5
ADHESIVE THICKNESS

3.0

MEAN SHEAR STRESS vAOHESIVE

3.5

THICKNESS

4.0

mm.

in

fault

the

itself.

resin

The general
(37)

others
0.05
0.5

the

3.2.2

grit

Tension

tests

cast

in

types

steel

prisms,

shape after
type

(C),

length

in

steel

for

CXL 194 only.

adhesive

as the

resin

different.

were

were

drawn

from

strain

To determine
readings

3.4.

(A)

Type

the

set

gauges,

shown in Plate

are

to

and 12
3.4.

2 mm gauge

with

to obtain

demec points

50 mm.

of

(B)

angles

right

at

stress-strain

specimens

fitted

curve,

a gauge length

over
(C)

each casting

and cut

in
Fig.
as shown

each type
were

(A) was

(C) were made from

24 type

specimens;
for

Type

milled

and subsequently

6 type

Histograms

3.2.

(B) and

types

shape;

moulds,

of

resistance

strain

The test

were

also

results

are

3.1.

Results
(a)

Tensile
(A)

Type
deviation

of

(ftg)

strength

specimens

0.92

N/mm2, coefficient

of

(B)

gave corresponding

values

Type

(C) gave corresponding

values

Modulus

Young's
3.4.

of

Modulus

Between

zero

2500 and 7000 microstrain

of

gave a mean value

Type

(b)

three

treatments,

in
Fig.
as
shown
used

were

(C) specimens

ratio.

3.2.2.2

and chemical

required

A total

type

shown in Fig.

the

cast

were made.

for

fitted

performed

specimen
of

curing.

electrical

Poisson's

of

were

Three

that

Procedure

moulds

which

fact

the

of

from

ranging

seems to be coincidental

cases

blasting

were

Experimental
Three

However,

optimum.

findings

the

with

thicknesses

glue

with

mm as the

agreement

Tests

Tensile
3.2.2.1

0.5

for

size

joints

shear

in both

optimum

formulation,

Fig.

lap

who tested

mm - 1.5 mm and found


mm is

seemed to be in

conclusions

of

N/mm2,0.77

N/mm2 and 5%.

of

16.6

N/mm2,0.79

N/mm2 and 5%.

considerably

with

was 1650 N/mm2;

specimens.
(c)

Poisson's

ratio

('

7%.

14.7

and 2500 microstrain


it

of

variation

N/mm2 and a standard

(Etg)

elasticity
varied

13.2

tg)

-36-

the

stress

range

as shown in

Etg was 2060 N/mm2 and between


these

values

are

the

average

of

vi
3i
..

Type C
Type A

-2

1E

:3
z
--I

I
IiIIi
12 .0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5
15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
Tensile stress N/mm 1ROOM TEMPERATURE Tensile stress N /mmt

20.

AGE

28 DAYS

tn

1a. a

tn
s

Type B

-4

16.

L
4!

i
-2

"E
E
Z

F-L-j

14

'
Z

T1

13.0 13.5 14-0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0


Tensile stress N/mm

12
uNi
w

1o

zW
1-

Elastic Modulus 1650 kN/mm:


8J
x Specimen 1
Specimen 2
+ Specimen 3

Type C

4J

Elastic Modulus
2-

2.060 kN/mm
,

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 100001100012000 13000
10-b
STRAIN
FIGURE 3.4

TENSILE STRESS STRAIN CURVE


CXL 194
ADHESIVE

FOR

EPOXY

a-

compressive

-cornpr?

c-

tensile

ssrie

A *o

PLATE

3.1

GLUE TEST SPECIMENS

-38-

compressive

; rir ,,

strength

Youngs

youngs

and

modulus

lap shear

The average

3.2.2.3

calculation

adhesive

testing

CXL 194 were

system

The value

over

the

the

tensile

range

7000

to

zero

and in

3.2.3

2000 N/mm2

vtg

0.33

ftg

16 N/mm2

of variation

from

chosen

were

(B)

type

specimen

expected

the

of

when

gave mean values

within

the

sometimes

occurred

at

varying

because

seems realistic

specimens

fracture

specimen

order

specimens

(A)

type

of

of

(C)

the

of

types
type

properties

as:

Etg

deformation

was considerable

of

taken

and the different

polymers

by 12%.

the values

purposes

The coefficients

testing
the

there

machine's

jaws.

Compression'Tests

Compression
3.2.3.1

fitted

tests

Experimental
The type
with

determining

results,

stress

strain

specimens

after

3.2.3.2

Results
(a)

pieces

strain

stress
from

2500 microstrain

CXL 194 only.

type

glue

is

shown in

electrical

from

The prisms

strain

gauges

length

was drawn

for

3.1

shows the

were

for

de-

50 mm for

of

as shown in Fig.

Plate

prisms.

3.2.

on a gauge

A histogram

curve.

the

Fig.

resistance

on 50 mm cubes,

tests

curve

the
3.5,

compressive
together

with

compressive

failure.

Compressive

of

Modulus

The mean value

(c)

used

and demec points

ratio,

deviation
(b)

for

out

Procedure

(f

strength

The mean compressive


standard

carried

2 mm gauge length

the

strength

were

test

of

Poisson's

termining

the

specimens

Conclusions
For

jaws,

three

was 0.33.

microstrain

epoxy

from

value

2.27

strength

from

three

ratio

of

cubes
variation

was 40 N/mm2 with


6%.

(Ecg)
specimens

and 2200 N/mm2 between


Poisson's

eighteen

N/mm2, coefficient

of Elasticity
from

cg)

was 3050 N/mm2 between

2500 and 7000 microstrain.

(vcg)

-39-

zero

and


..

4
3

FZ,
Trr

39
38
36 37
Compressive stress

40
KUUM

41

42

I tMIJtKA

1E
-T

43

44

I UI'tt

45
N/mm
-

AGE 28 DAYS

403 8.
36-
3 4_
32.
30-.J
28

26_I
wE

24-

E
22-,
Z
2
cn

w
1
>1
Ln

%SPECIMEN1
c SPECIMEN2
+-SPECIMEN3

140-

2:
012u
Elastic

Modulus

2.200 kN /mm

lo
8.

4000 600080001000012000 140001600018000


20000220002400026000
ZOOO
STRAIN 10-6
FIGURE 3.5 COMPRESSIVE STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR EPOXY
ADHESIVE CXL 194

The mean value

from

three

was 0.36

specimens

the

over

range

to

zero

7000 microstrain.
3.2.3.3

Conclusions
For

the

calculation

tests

taken

were

the

purposes

compressive

strength

found

properties

from

as:
Ecg

3050 N/mm2

40 N/mm2

V=0.36
cg
fcg
3.2.4

Lap

Shear

Shear
3.2.4.1

tests

carried

were

two 3 mm thick
as shown in

and the

with

place

within

surface

two hours

were

at

shearing

off

had to be taken

to

to

was abraded

with

surface

of

locations

one of

all

plate

loose

concrete

a disc

strains

faces

right

and dust.
After

were
3.6.
very

two ends which


to

angles

then

at

twenty-eight
rate

five

at

failure

to

adhesive

the

Results

by the

The average
efficient

of

Fig.

3.7

area

of

value

from

the

variation

both

at

stress

total

for

3.2.1.1
and

took

days

the

4 kN/minute,

of

during
was by
layer

as shown

LIBRARY

The theoretical
in

of

SHEFFIELD
UNIVERSITY,

The mean shear


load

axis

sanded

stages

The mode of
close

in

hand

in Plate 3.1.
3.2.4.2

the

The bonding

a loading

taken

and

layer

glue

the

ensure

grinder,

preparation.
machine

mm thick

cubes

was as described

steel

particles

shown on Fig.

the

and at

the

of

a compression

Readings
the

each other

preparation

of
in

tested

failure.

loading,

a3

care

to remove

nitrogen

specimens

only.

two 100 mm concrete

80 mm x 180 mm, with

were parallel

concrete

blown

up to

Great

The surface

plates.

CXL 194

type

glue

were made up from

plates,

3.6.

be loaded

would

for

Compression

Procedure

steel

Fig.

out

specimens

shear

in

Steel/Concrete

Experimental

Three

the

Tests

of

being

glue
three

was calculated

the

failure

(80 x 80 mm x4-2.56.104

sheared.

test

by dividing

specimens

was 2.87

N/mm2, with

mm2).
a co-

6%.

stress
the

failure

axial

is

distribution
stress

in

the
-41-

derived
plate

in

Appendix

and the

shear

2 and shown
stress

in

the


concrete

C
N

cube

C
co

0
N

steel plate

C)
N
CV

0
CO
_-T -^=

__ - -

glue
80
100
f

100
f

SIDE ELEVATIONS OF TEST SPECIMEN

1--

- --------------r

ii

i
I
I
I
I
,...
_

IED

25
---+

PLATE

E OF CUBE

1" C3.i

STRAIN GAUGE

I
I

i
i

L-

LOCATIONS GF ELECTRICALRESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

----.

FIGURE 3.6

DETAILS OF SHEAR SPECIMEN

glue.

The theoretical

distribution

factor

(maximum stress

to mean stress)

plate

properties

experimental
in

stress

Assuming

used.
shear

the

stress

The experimental

from

obtained
3.2.4.3

electrical

concrete,
it

glue

to

the

the

and

mean

maximum shear

of

3.7.

Fig.

axial

The experimental

strain

the

values

2 mm gauge

of

gauges

in

stress

plate

were

length.

Conclusion
distribution

The assessed

confirmed.

5.2

N/mm2 seems reasonable

axial

of

value

tensile

the

the

of

strength

shear

in

stress

of maximum shear

as the

by Bresson

proposed

stress

(54)

glue,
is

concrete

5 N/mm2.

approximately

REINFORCEMENT

Prior
behaviour,
3.3.1

to manufacturing
of

the

steel

the

beams,

preliminary
bars

reinforcing

the

stress-strain

was investigated.

and plates,

Bars

3.3.1.1

Experimental

Procedure

determine

the Young's

tensile

tests

recommended

in

stress,
readings

BS 18:

50 mm gauge

then

same manner,

bar

diameters

3.3.1.2

are

first

loaded

without

high

steel

strength.
carried

the

out

as

of
nominal

an extensometer
bars

"straightening".

any initial

in
Fig.
shown

yield

to

yield

The initial

released.
using

used

lack

25% of

to about

and then

were

any initial

were measured

The 20 mm diameter

but

specimens

To eliminate

The strains

taken.

bar

round

by the manufacturer,

length.

the

were

tensile

and ultimate

strength

yield

2,1970.

Part

6 mm and 20 mm, were

diameter,

6 mm standard

specimens

as specified
were

Modulus,

on the

the

straightness,

each bar

from

Two specimens

were

tested

The results

for

of
in
both

3.8.

Results
The high

point.

the

intensity

a stress

N/mm2 for

values

resistance

was

The

for

5.2

of

and theoretical

The theoretical

3.3

gives

and applying

value

a value

as shown in

show good agreement

1.82

of

this

gives

stress

shear

failure.

at

glue

of

tensile

The elastic

steel,

modulus

for

unlike

the

both

steels

mild

-43-

steel,

had no definite

was 200 kN/mm2.

The yield

yield
stress

1-0-1
r

W
U

FQ
W
J

-9
--

0-8-1

`-o"a

07- 1

-0-7

0.6-1

r-o-6

"

Max.

x
1

W
V

W'

0"5I

'0.5

Z
N

M9

N_

rt"o

o"4

0"4
N

LOi

w;

=0"3LO
cr
w

c=i 0-2-i

-0-3
a-

-o- 2

`-0.1

. 0"1 -a

-i

iIIIIIIIi

0.1 0-2 0-3

0-4 0-5 0-6

0-7 0"8

0-9

1"0

DISTANCE ALONG PLATE -x


TOTAL LAP LENGTH -t

FIGURE 3.7

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS


IN A BONDED STEEL/CONCRETE LAP JOINT UNDER
COMPRESSIVE SHEAR LOADING

EXTENSOMETER

" 20mm high yield steel


Fracture stress 507 N/mm

0.2. /. Proof stress 470 N/mrt


Mastic Modulus 200 kN/rn4
x 6mm mild steel
Fracture stress 336 N/mm
Elastic Modulus 200 k.N/mri

1000
FIGURE3.8

2000

3000

4000
STRAIN

5000
10 6

6000

TENSILE STRESS STRAIN CURVES FOR

7000

8000 -

6 mm &2 0 mm BARS

of

the

for
320
N/mm2
and
was

6 mm bar

20 mm bar

the

the

proof

stress

was

470 N/mm2.
3.3.1.3

Conclusions
The samples
the

satisfied
3.3.2

of

steel

requirements

of

British

behaved

tested

as expected

and

Standards.

Plates

3.3.2.1

Procedure

Experimental
The external

different

thicknesses

thickness

of

steel

commended in
mechanical

was in

reinforcement
i. e.

1.5

were

plate

tensile

and ultimate

strength

extensometer

of

of mild

mm, 3 mm and 6 mm.


used

to

determine

The strains

50 mm gauge

steel

Young's

were

The results

from

Modulus,

carried

were measured

length.

plates

Two specimens

their

The tests

strength.

3,1970.

Part

BS 18:

form

the

out

three

of
each

yield

as re-

by demountable
are

shown in

3.9.

Fig.
3.3.2.2

Results
The elastic

modulus

3 mm and 6 mm thicknesses
The respective
3.3.2.3

fracture

was 200 kN/mm2,


were

and the yield

236 N/mm2,258

stresses

were

steel

plate

stresses

for

1.5

mm,

N/mm2 and 248 N/mm2 respectively.

310 N/mm2,316

N/mm2 and 308 N/mm2.

Conclusions
The samples

for

were

which

use as the

of mild

external

reinforcement

behaved
to

the

as expected

plated

beams.

and were

satisfactory

165
65 II-

500

0
N

20

30

10

40

400.

44E
E
z

300
N
w
U-)
w
J
N

z
w
200thick
1.5
mm
d
thick
o3mm
+6
mm thick

100J

3d00

4000

STRAIN
FIGURE 3.9

_L
10

TENSILE STRESS STRAIN CURVES

5600

6000

FOR STEEL

7600

PLATES

Bobo

CHAPTER 4
OF TESTS

SERIES

PRELIMINARY

INTRODUCTION

fully

not

affecting

the

behaviour

and consequently

not

fully

so many factors

Since

understood,

a preliminary

series

of

(a)

to

(b)

to investigate

tests

some knowledge

gain

for

of

the

of

surface

joints

bonded
it

controlled,

be performed

would

of

two main
of

properties

the

are

still

was decided

that

reasons:

epoxy

resin

systems

used

in

strengthening

would

It

was felt

have

less

The

preliminary

in

results

testing

was

beams,

series

were

plates

4.1.1.1

of

wastage

two

up of

made

resin

used for

Series

tested

and were
the

produce

series

large

of

materials

beams

test
be

would

series

B.

and

-A

supports

would

were

Al,

In

series

the

beams were

The other

rig

therefore
bending

support.

Eight

beams were

eighteen

no tension

tested;

two sizes

A) and 100 x 150 x 1200 mm (Series

strengthening

on a loading

a particular

this

beams with

concrete

plain

used

in

were

the

both

series

A and series

B.

both

for

same material

B) were
The

series.

a roller

all.

Altogether

systems

The beams designated

studied.

and unplated

tested.

The beams designated

at

and that

150 x 150 x 710 mm (Series

Two epoxy

steel

with

the main

that

PROGRANNE

A and B plated

reinforcement

used.

at

ensure

would

Beam Details
In

bar

this

variation

EXPERIMENTAL

4.1.1

of

that

application

beams.

concrete

unreinforced

and resin

preparation

to a minimum.

reduced

4.1

simple

methods

4.1)

(Table

3,5,7
which
cause

had no roller
a relative

were

bonded

support.

increase

in

type

A resin

The friction

force

with

the

applied

load

to

moment.
A2,4,6,8

effects
tested.

beams had shear

were

of

uniform
Beams Al

reinforcement

bonded

with

and tapering

type

B resin

glue

thickness

and A2 had no internal


at

the

supports,

and tested

were

reinforcement
to

avoid

shear

DETAILS OF PLAIN CONCRETE TEST BEAMS :

TABLE 4.1
BEAM

ADHESIVE

CONCRETE

M K.

AGE AT

NO.

TESTING

TYPE

THICKNESS

das

PROFILE

mm

Uniform

Al

86

4.0

A2

114

4.5

A3

85

3.5

=_

A4

114

5.0

==_

AS

88

3.8

Tapering

A6

114

B"

4.0

A7

84

Unplated

A8

114

=0_

TABLE 4.2
BEAM

DETAILS

AGE AT

NO.

TESTING

glue thickness

"_

glue thickness

beam

OF PLAIN CONCRETE TEST BEAMS : SERIES B


ADHESIVE

CONCRETE

MK.

SERIES A

TYPE

PROFILE

THICKNESS

days

mm

B1

83

3.5

B2

108

3.0

B3

83

5.0

B4

108

3.0

B5

77

B6

106

B7

77

B8

Uniform glue

"

Uniform

thickness.

glue , lopped plates.

Unplated

beam.

Unplated

notched
,

106

B9

85

3.5

810

100

3.0

average

thickness

at

midspon.

beam.

Plated notched beam.


,

failure
thickness,

Beams A7 and A8 were

In beams Al
stopped

short

4.1.1.2

over

Series
Series

were

studied.

Fig.

4.2

B consisted

steel

The steps

and the

were

series

75 x 1000 x1

Beams B1 and B2 had uniform


For

these

with

latter

a cover

thickness
lines.

beams,

of

approximately

This

was intended

precast,

prestressed

unplated

control

were

bonded

numbered

i. e.

Bl,

again

centre

span of

4.1.2

Material

Properties

soffit

the beam

of

as shown in

used,

The cover

the

short

each

stepped

beams were

plates.
other,
with

a glue
glue

consisting

of

as beams B9 and B10.

marks,

a roller

bonded

supports.

stepped

deck

and

Beams B5 and B8 were

even numbered

were

the

was bonded

a bridge

of

soffit

with

supports
of

butting

plate

longitudinally.

and tested

the

the

Beams B9 and B10 had tapered,

mm.

3,5,7,9

at

stopped

were

plates

mm thick.

beams with

All

glue

B3 and B4 had lapped

whilst

Beams B7 and B8 were

support.

an effective

with

tested

i. e.

B2,4,6,8,10
Beams with

odd

A resin

and were

tested

central

point

support.
type
under

loading

1100 mm.

Concrete
The concrete

used

mm thick,

simulate

B resin

over

4.1.2.1

0.5

A the

type

with

a roller

without

under

uniform

face

tension

reinforcement

two 500 mm long

beams.

of

on the

steps

of

had shear

box beams spanning

series

marks,

glue

to

effects

beam's

the

thickness

75 x 400 x1

plate

As in

tested

and were

4.2.

Table
this

the

provision

into

cast

were

in

the beams in
plates

the beams in which

of

of plates

and detailed

All

mm thick,

610 mm.

span of

an effective

100 x 500 x1
The beams were

50 mm.

by about

supports

beams.

were

plates

steel

glue

as shown in

thickness

glue

control

unplated

A3 and A4 had uniform

lapping

thickness,

the

to AS, the

the

of

loading,

point

A2,

beams AS and A6 had tapering

whereas

4.1.

Fig.

Beams Al,

length.

the plated

outside

in

Section

bridge

chosen

for

construction

the

using

beams was designed


precast

prestressed

to be consistent
beams as detailed

with

that

in

3.1.
The concrete

properties

for

the

two series

of

tests

were

as follows.

For


Q
-v
C

E
E

v
c+
Q

c0

tn

(0

c
0

N
.Q
.a

J3

_J
Q
1W

cD

.t

p
--y

IL

-51-

BEAMS

UNIFORM GLUE THICKNESS

Bt and B2

6mm. dia. at 100mm.+

600

tI

0
U')

1000
100

1100
1200
Nominal glue thickness
3mm
Plate 1000 x 75 x1 mm thick

BEAMS

B9 and

B10

NOTCHED BEAM

333

variable . glue thickness

BEAMS B3cndB4

LAPPED

PLATES

.q

Nominal
FIGURE 4.2

DETAILS

200

glue

OF TEST

thickness

3 mm

BEAMS :

SERIES

3-6

mm,

beams of

varied

from

rupture

of

the beams at

N/mm2 with

were

tested

5.22

from

this

at

rupture

4.1.2.2

the beams

of

The modulus

and 4.94

of

N/mm2 with

a mean

of

70.6

N/mm2.

to

82.7

N/mm2 with

The cube strength


a mean value
to 5.35

5.1

from

67.2

from

varied

to

when the beams


76.7

of

N/mm2 with

N/mm2.

The

a mean value

had an average

of 0.16

ratio

elastic

and an average

36 kN/mm2 at

of

modulus

3 months,

280 x 10-6 m/m.

shrinkage

of

bars

used for

Steel

stress

yield

plates

tensile

4.1.2.3

reinforcing

two series

were

carried

to determine
were

strength

used for

the

tests

modulus

elastic

steel

in

as detailed

were

and hanger

stirrups

3.3.1

Section

with

bars
a

320 N/mm2.

of

Tensile
steel

in

and bottom

top

of

the main

the

out

tensile

on standard

tensile

specimens

The average

strength.

yield

125 N/mm2 and 200 kN/mm2 respectively.

the

test

was 132 N/mm2.

plates

as detailed

series,

in

This

from

cut
stress

the

and

The ultimate

plate

the

was not

same as

3.3.2.

Section

Adhesives
Two epoxy

A was a2

part

Glue

factured

by Colebrand

to use when lapping

Based on these
properties

liquid

results,

part

detailed

system

but

were

in

Section

with

the

shear

carried

mm thickness

used

in

Geigy

a paste

series
Ltd.

A and B.

and designated

consistency,

manu-

CXL 194.
of

lap

double

were
by Ciba

manufactured

strength

specimens
0.5

systems,

and designated

shear

plates,

tensile

were

a2

Ltd.
the

filled

system

B was also

To determine

as the

both

adhesives,

XD 808.

glue

N/mm2.

4.37

N/mm2 with

testing

age of

28 day cube strength

the

age varied

The 6 mm diameter

sheet

65.5

56-60

N/mm2.

a Poisson's

Clue

of

between

varied

B,

71.9

The two concretes

at

the

a mean value

series

a mean value

varied

of

at

from

N/mm2.

75.2

of

The cube strength

testing

the beams of

For

modulus

N/mm2.

28 days varied

at

cube strength

64 to 66 N/mm2 with

4.65

of

the

58.3

of

mean value

value

A,

series

glue,
tests

out,

the

on specimens
as detailed

was chosen
3.2.

and hence

for

plate

best

cut

in

from

Section

lapping.

thickness
the

same

3.2.1.
The other

4.1.3

' Preparation

All

humidity,

relative
fog

room,

surface

The beams were


laitance

All

preparation

to

pressure

plate

resin

were

and the

the

to

prior

in

this

body of

the

where

its

days

after

glue

to cure.

4.1.4

which

surface

distribution,

technique,

mechanical

layer,

air

and not
is

to

the

Small

all

cloth.

emery

nitrogen.
tests,

shear

under
operations
to both

was applied

of hardened

pieces

The plate

thickness.

the
epoxy

was then

left

for

least

were

generally

another

ten

for

left

days

to

interface,

glue/steel

or

glue/concrete

at

be restricted

generally

would

The weights

greatest.

and steel

the

in

the

under
stage

steel

plate

a single

central

and the

state

between

and over

the

77 and 114 days

load.

concrete
of

at mid-span

length.
100
gauge
mm
on a
face

point

deflection,

central

were measured

strains

compression

ages varying

tested

At each

stages.

extensometer
at

The glue

any entrapped

the beams were

strain

The concrete

3.2.1.1.

glue

to remove

and bonding

Mixing

the

brushed

four

to allow

the

Procedure

in

loaded

lap

visually.

of

to remove

with

the

the beam.

grinder

100 grit

with

operations.

by weights.

position

the beams were

All

as for

Section

wire

by blowing

removed

to control

on bond

Testing

at

prepared

glue

effect

measured

in

then

following

the

of

by hand,

sanded,

as judged

used as spacers

Using

were

gritblasted,

grade,

as described

and held

applied

tested

from

removal

24 hours

a disc

with

They were

were

were

plates

a uniform

performed

steel

they

and debris

dust

face,

tension

aggregates.

Finally

The steel

were

the

and expose

remaining

the

for

1007.

21C,

room at

After

atmosphere

the beams consisted

of

on the

abraded,

particles.

were

a warm dry

a fog

testing.

or

plating

in

cured

preparation.
The surface

loose

in

the beams were kept

The beams and control

castings.

and then

for

required

until

four

24 hours

after

stripped

were

specimens

beams were made in

test

the

Specimens

of'Test

were

of

(at

ages

the

strains

beam.

from

noted.

a demountable

The concrete

depth

strain

cracking
using

The beams

14 to

were

The beams were


30 days

after

gluing).

The concrete

testing

given

were

in

the

age of

4.1.2.1.

Section

The load-deflection
two typical

load-strain
4.3

and Tables

4.6

under

the

4.2.1

' Deflections

show the

glued

reinforcement

are

shown in

Figs.

and 4.6

for

beams of

series

has four

range

2.

It

increases

the

stiffness

3.

It

increases

the

ultimate

4.

It

makes the beams more ductile.

uniform

beams of

reinforcement

plates

(Fig.

4.11

failure
below

discussed

but

flexural

beams of

These results

A (Figs.

the beam,

of

capacity

showed better

show that

a tapering

higher
at higher

presence

of

the

comparable

thickness

of

beam A2 with

than

this

beam A4

that

seen

glue

stiffness
loads

and

than

performance

Beam A6 with

cracking

is

it

and 4.4),

4.3

showed initially
with

B.

for

the beam.

of

supports

hand,

thickness,

stiffness

became

of beam A2.
series

beams;

behaviour

lapped

to

behaviour.

elastic

reinforcement.

other

In beams of
unplated

of

series

at

shear

that

than

4.8

effects:

the

3 to 6 mm, on the

better

distinct

increases

glue

are

and 4.4

4.3

curves

It

beam A2 without

shows

beams after

show typical

The properties

results.

1.

shear

less

4.5

Figs.

Considering
with

test

and 4.7
Figs.

section.

concrete

and 4.2

4.1

4.6

to

and Strains

The load-deflection
series

across

the

4.3

Figs.

sections.

relevant

A and in

shown in

Plates

curves.

to

are

curves

distributions

strain

show the

with

also

B,

the

plated

beams,

the beam B2 with

than

showed marginally

beam BiO showed marginally

the notched
uniform

better

on

effects

showed no adverse

notches

Beam A4 with

thickness.

glue

than

performance

beams B2 and B10

4.6).
The measured

Fig.

at

strength

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.2

the

flexural

and the

cube strength

4.7

for

distribution
loading

whereas

approximately
in

the

tensile

the

over

beams A2 and B5.

two typical
remained

range

strain

distribution

linear

These
in

zone the

the

depth

of

diagrams

the beams is
show that

compression

strain

distribution,

the

in
shown
strain

zone throughout
approximately

the

wX
Cr
6
Iy J

IA

01

It

In

10
0

CO

i
r0

z
w

it

w
IA

0
w

11

E
t^ E

c
It

t0

U.1

II

[T

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li

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,

If

t0

(I.)

ui
U

OD

Pd--.
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w
m
w

0
b

4.
F
Ln

In

o
v

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w
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r
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0
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52

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0
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ir

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c
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m

lLLill

d
fy

ai

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w
cr
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0
^NM ObOI 03llddtf -

wz :x
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co

w
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11

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r6o

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8

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II

11

m
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ar

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N
Y

11

il

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w

w
N

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11

11

OJ
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m

to
m

n
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rn
m

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0

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03
Ff-

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0

co

1:

NO
NM

Co

to

O1101 0311ddd

-57-

T--_-7
TN

LA-

COMPRESSION
1000 750

6
(10

BEAM A2

500 250

20
E
E

40
60 2

a
W
O
i

80
loo

120

140

250

COMPRESSION(10

500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000


TENSION (10-6)

6)

BEAM B5

1000 750 500 250


0
20

E
S

CL
W
O

40

..

60

...

80

100
W
m

120
140
a.

250

500 750 1000 1250 1500 17502000


TENSION (10-6)

FIGURE 4.7

TYPICAL

STRAIN

DISTRIBUTIONS

linear

low

at

cracking.

Within

assumption

that

As expected,
the

wards

became increasingly

loads,

limits

the

face

compression

The variation

in mind

of

and 4.9

4.8

Figs.

for

the

that

strength
yielding

stage,

in

strain

4.8

Figs.

in

series

B, the beam B10 with


beams B2 and B4 (cf.
Modes'of

the

but

crack
glue

only

ing

was observed.

in

tensile

plate

in
all

the

is

for

the

the

low yield

of

to

the

the

past
The

deflection
In

discussed

earlier.

side

showed better

tension

Bearing

two series.

similar

behaviour

B.

were well

plates
in

beams tested

shown in

series

A and B are

With

plate.

crack

extended

two or

into

compression

cases

only

one major

the

load,

the

behaviour

in

formed

series

B, only

crack

developed

the

additional

the

one or

tension

cracks
Because

zone.

tensile

no extensive
cracks

in

concrete

in

three

beams of

the

increase

reinforcement,

longer

in

beams occurred

the

all

the

beams,

point

by vertical

largest

propagated
In

(or

in

up to
the

(Plates

nearly
4.1

the
the

shorter

vicinity
load

the

Yielding

crack.

point

beams the

failed

by tensile

vertical)

and 4.2).

of

cracking

concrete

occurred

beam A3,

except

by vertical

loading

initiated
the

and 4.11

show that

to-

axis

failure.

at mid-span

series

on the

neutral

4.6).

Generally

in

followed

central

the

the

beams as well.

the

of

that

concrete

crack-

beams of

shorter

two cracks

leading

of

were

to a simple

failure.
All

sheet

in

tensile

A, whereas

evidence;

Fig.

and the

internal

lack

series

plated

plate

4.10

the

notches

one major

the

of

for

due to

Failure

The first

formed

the

all

shown in Fig. 4.4 and confirm

zone above

steel

- 4.11

curves

4.2.2

valid

in beams A2, A4 and A6 showed trends

strains

than

the

used for

plates

confirms

approached

A and Figs.

failure,

at

loading

loads

4.7

showed a movement

as the

series

steel

(125 N/mm2),

steel

distributions

strain

is

plane

higher

at
Fig.

experimentation,
remain

sections

plane

the

of

non-linear

of

the

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Failure

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plane

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glue

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concrete

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failure.

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plane

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locally

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the bonded

reduced
of

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the

4.2.3

loads

ultimate

The experimental
in

both

as the

concrete

and in

observation

is

first

(composite)

section

with

first

load

the

section,

crack

assuming

further

tests

and 4.6

show the

in

the

line,

glue

However,

had

which
at

94%

crack

and

beam failed

the

was

beam.

bonded

A and B respectively.

loads

relate

to
is

based

strength

After

values

kN/mm2 and tensile


for

of

strength

crack

(composite)

4.3

These values

glue.
test

preliminary

to Tables

first

the

in

as described

glue

transformed

The theoretical

transformed

60 N/mm2 in

Chapter
but

3.

loads

4.5

Tables
the

using

16 N/mm2 as determined
and failure

were

was complete

series

and 4.4,

The

thickness.

glue

6 kN/mm2.

of

glue

the

more approximate

the

to

cracks

observed

on an uncracked

on a cracked
of

visually

necessarily

based

the

the

equal

strip
is

for

on the

first

and experimental

experi-

are

given

in

crack

loads

in

3.

concrete
the

latter

concrete

good agreement

show that

consistently

even then
the

is

corresponding

The results

but

occurred

and this

series

concrete

an E value

Sample calculations

Appendix

that

in

glue

in

4.1),

in

to a thin

load

performed

50%.

The latter

glue.

a tensile

were

of E=2

mentally.

the

the

by the manufacturer.

as supplied

values

in

about

only

crushing

(Plate

plate

voids

theoretical

crack

confined

theoretical

crack

and although

were
of

were

cracks

Loads

show the

first

the

correctly

the beams tested

all

load,

and signs

air

by about

a similar

and 4.4

of

the

occurred,

ultimate

of

large

of

and Ultimate

4.3

Tables

the

debonding

presence

for

First'Crack

never

beams,

crack.

cross-section

load

ultimate

crushing

concentration

Beam A3 showed extensive


found

longer

80-95% of

strain

failure

the

concrete

about

severe

the

whereas

span),

shear

vertical.

generally
the

short

in

is
the
is
with

slightly
composite
clear.

the

theoretically

underestimate
overestimated
effect

the

experimental

as they

on delaying

The theoretical

experimental

predicted

values

first

are

the

loads.
based

formation

crack

when assuming

-62-

first

loads

It

is

on visual

likely
examination,

of

the

first

in

the

glue

60 N/mm2 for

the

crack
show
glue's

BEAM Al

'IV

_.

uniform

tapering

PLATE

41

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glue

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TYPICAL

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TEST

TABLE 4.5

RESULTS FOR PLAIN' CONCRETE

GLUE FIRST
CRACK MOMENTS

FAILURE

BEAMS

RATIO THEORYTHEORYTHEORYTEST

MK
No.

TEST /
THEO

kNm

kNm

Al

1.40

5.15

A2

1.40

A3

d.

SERIES A

MOMENTS

BEAM THEORYTEST
b.

RATIOS

e.

EST/
T6T/
THRY THE

TEST/
Y
THECF

Nm

3.68

2.91

3.02

2.05

5.71

1.96

1.89

2.79

5.32

3.80

3.04

3.15

'2-05

6.43

2.12

2.04

3.14

1.40

4.24

3.02

2.78

2.89

2.04

5.34

1.92

1.85

2.61

A4

1.40

5.32

3.60

3.17

3.28

2.07

6.87

2.17

2.09

3.32

AS

1-40

4.81

3.44

2.86

2.97

2.05

5.60

1.96

1.89

2.73

A6

1.40

4.56

3.26

2.91

3.02

2.05

5.95

2.04

1.97

2.90

A7&8

as o

table

kNm,

4.3

TABLE 4.6

TEST RESULTS FOR PLAIN CONCRETE BEAMS :


GLUE FIRST

MOMENTS
FAILURE
CRACK
MOMENTS
BEAM THEORYTEST RATIO THEORYTHEORYy
THEORYTEST

MK.
No.

TEST /
THECR
kNm

kNm

Si

1.10

4.18

B2

1.10

B3

c.

e.

SERIES B

RATIOS

TEST/
TEST/ TEST/
THEORYTHECRY THEORY

kNm

kNm

kNm

kNm

3.80

2.09

2.17

1 "53

4.74

2.27

2.1B

3.09

3.30

3.00

1.99

2.07

1.53

4.13

2.08

2.00

2.70

1.10

4.18

3.80

2.38

2.46

1.54

5.73

2.41

2.33

3.71

B4

1.10

3.30

3.00

1.99

2.07

1.52

4.57

2.30

2.21

2.99

B5 - B8

cs o

table

B9

1.10

3.56

3.24

2.09

2.17

1.54

4.70

2.25

2.17

3.06

B10

1.10

3.98

3.61

1-99

2.07

1.52

4.26

2.14

2.06

2.81

bcd-

4.4

based on cracked trcnsbrmed section, E glue 2000 N/mmz,tensile


strength glue 16 N/rrrn2
based on yield stress of p'ete, plus tensile strength of glue(16 N/mm2)
.
based

e-__=__=

on ultimate

stress of plate,

no tensile strength in glue.

tensile

but

strength

first

in

load

crack

when assuming
the

The theoretical
on a rectangular

value

of 0.6

fcu.

the
sults

to

interface

large

together
to

spread

with-the

local

of

yield

the

of

the

crack

positions

the

of

on

give

redid

plates

leading
This,

steel.
of

based

glue

the

each side

at

the

a stress

considered

although
at

hardening

zone are

in

are

with

computations

force

that

and 4.4

compression

the

place

plate

4.3

tension

the

appears

and strain

are. below

leads

a crack,

debonding.
first

The theoretical
show poor

agreement

glue

tests

are

different

when the

and failure

crack

experimental
strength
is

glue

of

It

16 N/mm2,

the

the

glue

the

tensile

properties

steel

almost

all

and con-

plate

twice

the

(Tables

strength

the

although

tensile

actual

and 4.6

4.5

that

appear

with

moments were

in Tables

given

would

compositely

failure

16 N/mm2 for

assuming

loads

values.

acting

The experimental

values

etical

with

gave a tensile

beam.

crete

strains

the
that

had taken

straining

shear

in

It

in

concrete

suggest

values.

considerable

shown in Tables

and including

plate

to experimental

closest
fracture,

not

The results

the

of

strength

ultimate

3.

the

loads

theoretical

possible!

distributions

stress

in Appendix

as detailed

for

block

not

loads

failure

stress

Three

is

which

concrete
ultimate

based

16 N/mm2 the

theor-

4.5

and

4.6).
4.3

CONCLUSIONS
From the

be drawn.

results

is

It

The use of
face

tension

due to
those

that

emphasised

this

these

following

the

chapter,
conclusions

conclusions

limited

are

to

the

can

variables

here.

studied

the

in

reported

(a)

it

(b)

for

the
in

of

it
in

plain

a given

load,
of

form

of

elastic

reduces
the

the

concrete,

of

steel

following

plates

glued

to

effects:

behaviour
tensile
glue

strains
and steel

in

the

plate,

concrete,
compared

to

beams

delays

service

action

range
it

the

beams has the

concrete
the

composite

in

reinforcement

increases

unplated

(c)
increase

external

the
loads

appearance

of

the

first

visual

cracks

with

a resulting

(d)

it

increases

at

corresponding

(e)

it

enhances

(f)

it

increases

deflections

For

increased.

Lapping

with

the neutral

is

gauge reading
the

position

crete

the

beams,

of

This

tests.

first

to

glue

in unrestrained

loading,

above

some beams and

with

the

strain

depends

which

strain

an average

this

series

plates

of

low yield

the

glue
that

ultimate
in

the

the

tests.

glue

it

was found

and the

glue

were

exhibits

the

of

far

on

from

However,

further

found

those
tests

section.
based

on exin

observed

by testing

would

con-

makes a

when acting

properties,

different

load,

those

plain

glue

composite

ultimate
below

in

that
the

strength,

strength

properties,

and concrete,

steel

is

Strain

arm.

beam has cracked,

the

in

load

crack

suggests

the

was linear

once

but

strain,

reinforcing

with

it

axis

lever

throughout

plane

remained

because

studied

determined

perimentally

neutral

in

increase

beam

to a corresponding

compared

the

thickness

as glue

cracks.

contribution

The values

due to

is

beams increased

the

stiffness

sections

true

variables

with

significant

the

the

the

of

For

plane

This

not

reduces

capacity

of

increased

Below

and thus

failure.

at

stiffness

probably

others.

with

ductility

the

plates

axis.

flexural

ultimate

the

showed that

measurements

irregular

the

plate,

a continuous

loading

throughout

stiffness

loads

area,

plate

a constant

flexural

the

compositely
samples

be needed

to

of

confirm

this.
indicate

The results
if

it

the

in

the

line,

beam was able


voids

in

the

these

to

to

sustain

glue

There

approaching

up to 50% of

find
the

94% of

cannot
loads

was,

be cracked

failure

at

would

be approximately

however,

some evidence

because
half

of

of

surface

failure.
that
width
the

even when large


at

load

the

critical

voids

were

present

section

in

beam A3,

by a similar

achieved

beam with

in
the
no

glue.

Experience
from

by experiment.
glue

the
failure

theoretical

was interesting

It
glue

the

found

values

cracking

the

then

were

that

tests

with

the

emphasises

preparation
the

for
need

of

the
care
-69-

steel
at

all

and concrete
stages.

With

surfaces
plates

gained
only

1.5 mm thick
warping.
interfaces
critical.

it

was essential

Applying

the

and confines

glue

to grit
to both

them to

blast
concrete

the body of

both

sides

and plate
the

glue

of

the

minimises
where

to prevent

plates

they

voids
are

less

at

the

'CHAPTER 5
STRENGTH' PROPERTIES
5.1

INTRODUCTION

The performance

the methods
Plain

Flaws

even before

propagation

of

In

order

The poor

in

strength

of
the

of

concrete

conditions

may be more critical

loads

service

should

not

The preliminary
plain
steel

concrete
plate

of

to

the

It

should
face

tensile

producing

(b)

a more even distribution

(c)

a reduced

(d)

reduced
the

higher

crack

and magnitude

showed the

of

provides

tensile

strength

since

the

the

tensile

a member.
design

serviceability
Codes of

practice

deflections

based

at

of
that

external
the

concrete

addition

member should

a bonded

of

result

cracking

propagation
i. e.

rotation,

up to failure.

-71-

deflection,

on

reinforcement

loads
of

such

on criteria

elements.

effects

a reinforced

bars

refined
the

of

are

which

follow,

therefore

cracking

deformations,

loading,

in which

of

considerations.

limits,

certain

series

(a)

throughout

materials,

structures

cracks,

the

strength

to

necessary

ignore

to

and

on loading.
is

increase

strength

strength

surface

it

flexural

or damage to non-structural
test

beams.

than

exceed

aesthetics

as corrosion,

high

enlargement

has become practice,

the

and micro-

reinforcing

techniques,

crack

manufacture,

fracture

element,

does not

design

using

the

The use of

it

reason

members produces

the width

and

to

volumetric

due to

to brittle

to it.

concrete

and slender

is

lead

member but

towards

during

strength

when estimating

trend

the material

a load-bearing

this

techniques

that

in

resistance

due to inherent

which

a structural

reinforced

The present

recommend

tensile

flaws

For

in

applied,

properties

itself.

concrete

strength

internal

resistance

establishment

is

load

to use concrete

tensile

tensile
the

the

its

of

the materials

of

and little

strength
develop

or microcracks

changes.

structural

by the behaviour

design.

their

any external

determined

depend on the properties

turn

has low tensile

concrete

propagation.

of

for

adopted

a structure

in

members which

component

impart

of

is

strains

etc.

in:

This
service

in

load

width

5.2

EXPERIMENTAL

Previous

concrete

increasing

post

in

5.1

the

and

glue

layer;

adhesive

to 219 had a6
were

of

were

used,

thicknesses

steel

onto

plates

deformations

The main

series.

and

the

of

the

beams

are

in

described

were

used

materials

were

variables

Details

techniques.

For

206 had a 1.5 mm thick

beams 203 to

215 had a3

layer.

mm thick

mm thick

and 216 had 1.5


plate;

thicknesses

three

glue

of

and beams 216

layer

adhesive

thickness

each

beams 203,207,211,212

mm thick

of
beams

plate;

and 219

and beams 205,209,210,218

plate.

Beams 206,213
beams with

and 214 had two layers

a single

layer

beams having

continuous

Beams 222 to 224 were

of

1.5

mm thick

for

plate

comparison

3 mm plate.

of

Beams 211,212,213,214

and 215 had laps


layers

of

in

their

plates

for

comparison

before

their

plates

were

plate.

preloaded

and cracked

on.
Beam 220 had an adhesive

its

rotations,

members.

this

properties

of

controlling

lapping

and 217 had 3 mm thick

had 6 mm thick

bonded

in

and

beams 207 to

used;

204,208,215

with

in
flexural

of

tested

were

thickness

plate

Three

with

deflections,

4.

Chapter

plate

stiffness

beams

four

Table

of

beam,

the unplated

of

bonding

has shown external

beams to be effective

cracking

thickness;

criteria

The

methods.

strains.

(54-73)

work

Twenty

different

the

that

above

crack,

PROGRAMME

reinforced

given

bar

and steel

beams,

first

experimental

by accepted

calculated

the plated

of

the

compares

those

with

as a basis

using

crack

glue

loads

service

studied,

investigation

the

of

and ultimate

increase
is

part

layer

of variable

thickness,

3 mm to

8 mm, along

length.
Beam 221 had

to produce

points

of

'V'

notches

stress

cracking

of

the

in

its

tension

face,

at

the

loading

points,

concentration.

Beam-202 had an adhesive


investigate

cut

glue.

layer

3 mm thick,

but

without

a plate,

to

Beam 201 was unreinforced


was used for

beams were

All

tested

four

under

5.3

TEST PROCEDURE
The beams were manufactured

in
as

the preliminary

test

cubes

for

strength

compressive
testing,

with

After

to

taken

to a commercial

to

spans

shown in

are

4, with

Chapter

same manner

three

control
for

were

24 hours

after

stripped

of

modulus

in

and cured

prepared

The plates

were

degreased

trichlorethylene

of

shotblasting

large

the

as described

in

and then

with
of

size

company where

corrosion

to

returned

4.

Chapter

A minimum

of

for

and bonding

The mixing

and contamination.

steel

immediately

laboratory

the

had to be

with

abraded

were

as
24 hours

they

the plates

they

for'bonding

14 days was required

and testing.

plating

resistance

bar

prior

to

casting.

glued

to

the

at

Electrical

external

The day prior


Demec discs
the

strain

reinforcement

as shown in

was roughened

in

the

the beams were

surface

200 mm along

same materials

days

to prevent

longitudinal

and in

fourteen

mean size,

Electrical

viewing.

shear

100 x 100 x 500 mm prisms

and three

340 micron

out

the

described

Because

shotblasting.

carried

locations

the

in.

conditions.

4.

Chapter

prior

between

in

and instrumentation

specimens

approximately

in

described

were

2.3

each beam.

laboratory

uncontrolled

bonding

and

255 mm deep and 2.5

on a span of

were provided

from

series

The beams and control

of

plate

and 5.2.

5.1

grit

bending

point

The beam details

Figs.

rupture

nor

glue

155 mm wide,

size:

75 mm centres,

at

failure.

shear

prevent

in

identical

all

6 mm diameter

Stirrups,

neither

comparison.

The beams were


long.

having

externally,

side

testing

were
of

and cleaned

of

gauges

strain

being

after

plates,

as shown in

Fig.

to

glued

were

one day

5.2,

6 mm gauge length

bonded

onto

the

the

were

beam,

at

5.2.

Fig.
to

locations

three

resistance

reinforcing

7 mm gauge length

of

gauges

used

the beam was whitewashed


to

locate

the beam at
with

acetone

the

a mechanical
centre

prior

section.

to gluing

-73-

to

facilitate

extensometer

crack
on a base

The concrete
on the

discs

with

of

surface
'Plastic

N
M

(%j

_
N
Ln
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COD
IS)

C:)

"M

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^

CO

tD

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ln

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1

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LP
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CO

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ta

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100

2300

Icrosshead of
reaction frame
hinge

roller support

support

spreader
beam
}load cell
1 and jack
767
(a)

766

LOADING

RIG AND SUPPORT SYSTEM

that gauges
inclinometer

(b)

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTATION

beam
section

FIGURE 5.1

LOADING RIG AND MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTATION

9sz

a,
v
dn

j
(-!
Lr)

I-

"-.

n"M

"-.

't

"-.

"

U.`
a,...
v

LA

tD

0 .,

cr)
pcnN
aM OX"

N
a,
O
0

>

vi
a,
c

UC
U

-d

L
r

Ql

tl

C
0

tl

a1

C7
Co
r)

9 "L

a,
.C
ZS.

_L

jj

lDio
- CD
4
C,
nM

LO

htn

a
cr
N

WR

r ZQ

W
0

CD
M;

W
cc

V:6
Ihr

cr

,
i'N l
i

cr

IW

1.
0

ttD
n

"o.

LO
LO

co

0
Na

>-

MtA

w
Ul)
N

w
0

Fn

LL
o

ZU)

oz

-76-

w
0

N
oz `n

oi+OZ
l+

"-

Co.
"

LL

ia

the first

In

Padding'.

but

midspan,

as the

beam demec discs

discs

beams the

subsequent

For measuring
150 mm apart
divisions

0.01

were

were measured

at midspan

mm divisions.

On the plated

beams the

the beam was also

Fig.

5.1.
The beams were

in

to be consistent,

on steel

nuts

An inclinometer

tested

and measurements.

either

of midspan

side

beam resting
The load

glued,

were

with

one second

the jack

between
between

positioned
secured

pairs

the

at

top.

longitudinally.

rollers
in Plate

supports

The ends of
bars

Macalloy

One end was a fixed


Both

beam were

the

other

that
on

moving

The test

rotation.

allowed

load

up to crossheads

and the

support

mid point.

is

rig

shown

5.1.
Load was applied

detected

visually

load

gradually

Each increment
the

stage
concrete

glass.

first

rotations;

crack

width,

crack

appeared,

Load was then


121% of

was approximately

deflection;

strains;

the

until

a magnifying

using

up to failure.

strains;

35 mm diameter

of

beam.

its

at

spreader

and a calibrated

voltmeter

spreader

flange

wide

jack

crack

383 mm on

positions

150 mm deep,

differential

and the

to facilitate

uppermost

hydraulic

the

of

shown in

is

gauges

at

having

gauges

movement

dial

of

upwards

hand operated

capacity

dial

with

vertical

face

tension

a stiffened,

by a linear

was measured

relative

Load was applied

by means of

on a 50 ton

placed

their

with

and support

The location

measured.

observation

each

the beam at

of

only.

resting

points.

Deflections

to

were

bearings

and loading

support

face

on each

on one side

sides

was used.

plate

cell

ball

to both

stuck

readings

glued

rotations,

the

at

showed the

results

were

the

and height

spacing

in

applied

reinforcing

steel

which

loading
bar

were

was
increments

range.

At

and plate

measured

and

recorded.
The beams were
of

the

lined
Plates

loaded

5.2

to

black
5.8.

marking

in

failure

composite

plate/glue/concrete
by thick

to

system.

pen and the

order

to

After

beams were

observe

the mode of

failure

the

then

cracks

photographed

rupture
were

out-

as shown in

test

b-

beam
spreader
loading
jack
hand
pump
tie rods

cdetgh-

PLATE

beam

a-

51.,

crosshead
gauge apparatus
strain
digita! voltmeter

DING
,

ARRANGEMENT

UNPLATED

BEAM

- noglue

3 rrur

or

glue

plate

thicknes

rio
,

plate

3mm glue thickness, 1 5mm

,, T ,!,

centre

j,.;

i"

'. 3i

plate

FIIf'

If1i

plate

Fi

, 1! t'

thickness.

K,

: ap

52

CRACK

PATTERNS

sapped
plates
PLATED
AND

",

above the load points


UNPLATED
BEAMS

II. 'j ,,,

1 5mm

plate

3 mm plate

6mm

5-3

-RACK

PATTERNS -

thickness.

plate thickness.

2 layers

PL:. -

thickness.

of 1.5 mm plate.

BEAMS WITH 1.5mm

GLUE

THICKNESS.

1.5 mm plate

3mm

thickness.

thickntss.

pkitt

S mm plate thickness.

6 mm plate
PL:, : 5.4

RACK PATTERNS .

BEAMS

thickness

WITH

3 mm

GLUE

THICKNESS

3mm

plate

thickness

2 layers of 1-5mm plate, centre

plate tap.

2 layers of 1,5mm plate, lapped plates


the
load points.

P'_t,'

55

: RACK PATTERNS

3mm

GLUE THICKNESS

above

15 mm

3 mm

6 mm

, 5-6

plate thickness

Platt thidtn

plate

thickness.

.5 mm

clue

].

...

_.

F'

c'"_

:. '

5.7

:. :

'r

2mm-8mrr

3Tm.
form

! h! cknes,.

icKneSS

vcricbte

glue ! hir/resc

gimme'hicness
with notnes
c. ',
cbove the
stress
concentrations

RNS -'

Smm

P'-ATE

TH'CKNESS.

'oad

o r'

3mm glue thickness, 1.5mm

:i
50%

plate thickness

5rrv
1
loader:
pi...
vA
-1n
Rness,
c,
,
. _,,
.x.,
bonding the plate on
load before
ultimate

r"

3 mm glue thickness, ] 5mm plate thickness, beam loaded


90"'* ultimate toad before bonding the plate on

3mm

give thickness,

3 mm glue thickness,
50 'Is

PLATE

5-8

ultimate

CRACK PATTERNS -

load

3mm

piate

thickness

plate thickness, beam loaded


before bonding
the plate on.

3mm

PRELOADED

to

BEAMS.

to

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

5.4
5.4.1

Crack

First
The first

the value

based

For

theoretical

glue
given

above.

glue

thickness.

load
for

5.3

Fig.

range

of

glue

and plate

load

is

well

above
from

for

was 0.35
6 mm thick

the

Increase

of

Service

The deflection,
bars
load;

the

at

centre.
This

100 M.

were

being

defined
by 1.6.

deflection

(b)

rotation

(c)

maximum crack

(d)

steel

respective
experimental

113 x 10-4
width

found

for

as the

for

with

it

is

load

the

of

two ratios

on the

the

beam the

deflection,

rotation,
All

and

plate

load

cracking

clear

the

that

The CP110 service

Ym - 1.15

for

and 1.5

steel

load

to CP110 service
1.5

beams with
(Table

respectively.

the

width

mm, 3 mm and

5.2)

ultimate

in

and strain

its

beam at

unplated

The properties

load,

as found

described

above

the reinforcing
CP110 service

by CP110
were

as follows:

radians
0.09

mm

1020 x 10-6

strain

each plated

results.

and 0.32

load

be

would

4.6 mm

(a)

For

crack

maximum crack

section

bar

first

load

effect

beam.

with

the

The experi-

the

However

glass.

Loads

rotation,

divided

recommendations,

load,

times

from

effect

unplated

The mean values

0.45,0.37

were

the

CP110 failure

beam.

crack

used.

for

value

1.38

restraining

was little

there

of experimental

unplated

plates

that

first.

The

a magnifying

and the

apparent

and using

prisms.

beam was 1.12.

the

is

of

thicknesses

the

the

The ratio

However,

variation

with

accurate

width

test

on average,

unplated

are not

crack

shows the

can be seen

It

was calculated

5.4.2

of

the

the beam,

of

inertia

moment of

observed

was,

the

visually

increase

on the

concrete.

for

had initiated.

cracking

after

cracking

obtained

were

load

The same ratio

being

values

the

5.2,

Table

face

tension

from

concrete

beams the experimental

and plate

for

transformed

the

of

the

at

concrete,

uncracked,

in

given

value.

recorded

the

rupture

of

values,

the plated

mental

on the

of modulus

experimental

for

loads

crack

calculated

were

Loads

these

m/m.

corresponding
crack
values

width
are

loads

which

and strain
given

in

produced
were

Table

found

5.3.

the

same

from

the

STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

TABLE 5 .2

(1)
CP 110
EXF-ERN61T
BEAM
2 ' NUMBER FIRST (1) SERVI
(2)
LOAD
CRACK
kN
LOAD kN

E ,03: 4EN E (PE4, EN (3)


SERVICE( ULTIMATE
(2)
(4)
LOAD
LOAD
KN
UN

(4)
(2)

E
Ju

E
wU

201

35.0

100

0.35

145

232

1.45 2.32

202

39.9

102

0.39

153

245

1.50 2.40

203

501

116

0.43

169

270

1.46 2.33 1.5 1.5

204

50.1

134

0.37

169

270

126 2.01 1.5 3.0

205

548

166

0.33

133

213

0.80 1.28 1.5

6.0

206

55.0

135

0.41

138

220

1.02 1.631.5

2x1.5

207

55.0

119

0.46

164

262

1.38 2.20 3.0

1.5

208

49.0

135

0.36

165

264

1.22 1.96 3.0

3.0

2 09

52.4

167

0.31

138

220

0.83 1.31 3.0 6.0

210

50.1

166

0.30

134

215

0.81 1.30 3.0 6.0

211

54.8

119

0.46

158

253

1.33 2.13 3.0 1-SL

212

47.0

117

0.40

155

248

1.32 2.12 3.0 1.5L

213

50.1

135

0.37

158

253

1.17 1.87 3.0

1.5

214

50.1

135

0.37

158

253

1.17 1.87 3.0

15

215

49.8

134

0.37

156

250

1.16 1.87 3.0

30L

216

54.0

118

0.46

164

262

1.39 2.22 6.0

1.5

217

480

135

0.36

161

257

1.19 1.90 6.0.3.0

218

51.4

168

0.31

121

194

0.72 1.15 6.0

6.0

219

55.0

168

0.33

138

220

0 82 1.31 6.0

6.0

220

54.8

118

0.46

164

263

1.39 2.23 3-8

1.5

221

548

117

0.47

161

268

138 2.21 3.0 1.5

222

51.1

117

0.44

168

268

144 2.29 30

223

53.0

118

0.45

165

264

1.40 2.24 3.0 1.5P

224

47.2

136

0.35

156

250

115 1.83 10

L -lapped

plates

P- precracked beams.

-87-

00
30

1.5P

30P

55-

50-

Z
.x

45-

x-1.5
mm plate thickness
3 mm
o=
mm
0-6
=

40-

U- 35

NO PLATE

30
3.0
4.0
1.02.0
ADHESIVE THICKNESS mm.
FIGURE 5.3

5.0

6.0

VARIATIONOF FIRST. CRACKLOAD

170 -i

160-1

150

NO PLATE

S
140
cr

W
LO

130
2:
120-

110
1.0

FIGURE5.4

2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
ADHESNE THICKNESS mm.
VARIATIONOF EXPERMENTAL SERVICELOAD

6.0

TABLE 5.3
BEAM
NUMBER

INCREASE OF SERVICE LOADS


(4)
(3)
(2)
LOAD 4
LOAD 3
LOAD 2
LOAD 1
kN
kN
kN
kN

(1)

(1)

(2)

(3)

100` 100 100

(4)
100

EW
z

WY

tt Ft

202

101

102

106

102

1.01 1.02 1-os 1.02 3.0

203

104

106

144

120

1.04 1"os 1.44 1.20 1.5

1.5

204

110

124

153

151

1.10 1.24 1.53 1.51 1.5

3.0

205

131

138

170

171

1.31 1.38 1.70 1.71 1.5 6.0

206

113

123

158

155

1.13 1.23 1.58 1.55 1.5 Z(1-5

207

111

106

153

116

1.11

208

126

134

160

150

1.26 1.34 1.60 1.50 3.0 3.0

209

130

144

184

210

1.30 1.44 1.84

3.0
z"1o

6.0

210

133

146

199

170

1.33 1.46 1.99 1.70 3.0

6.0

211

111

117

145

130

1.11

1.17 1.45 1.30 3.0 1.5L

212

11}

114

137

130

111

1.14 1.37 1.30 3.0 1.5L

213

110

130

138

154

110

1.30 138 1.54 3.0 va-5u

214

119

137

142

153

1.19 1.37 1.42 1.53 3.0 U. 5L1

215

120

133

158

168

1-20 1-33 1.58 1"sa 3.0

3"0L

216

111

113

145

143

1.11 1.13 1.45 1.43 6.0

1.5

217

123

133

145

165

1.23 1.33 1.45 1.65 6.0 3.0

218

134

156

190

1.34 1.56

219

136

160

180

200

1.36 1.60 1.80 2.00 6.0 6.0

220

104

106

146

130

1.04 1.06 1.46 1-30 3-

1.5

221

111

111

148

128

1.11

1.5

222

100

120

123

143

1.00 1.20 1.23 1.43 3.0 1.5P

223

85

108

123

140

0.85

1.06 1.53 1.16 3.0

1.5

1.90 6-0 6.0

1.11 1.48 1.28 3.0

1.23
1.40
3.0
1"5P
1.oa

172
160
1.20 1.33 1.60 1.72 3.0 30P
224
133
120
P- precracked beams.
L- lapped plates
*-CP110 service load - unplated beam.
.
LOAD 1- load in plated beam corresponding to 4.6 mm defection (urplc ted beam at 100 kN )
fad
113x10
LARD 2-=
rotation (
009 mm crack width (
LOAD3-=
1020
(___)
LOAD4'
microstrain
=__=

5.4.2.1

Deflection
beams were

The plated
before
11% for

beams strengthened

6 mm thick

beams again

113.10-4

of

rotation

plates

Maximum

5.4.2.3

10 to

23% for

37% for

beams strengthened

7 to

beams
with

Bar

Steel

5.4.2.4

1.5

In

general

1.0,

for

except

flexural

capacity

the

safety

would

service

gave the

367 for

3 mm thick

1.5

mm thick

for

the

38 to 60% for

plates;

beams

corresponding

3 mm thick

plates.

bar

steel

the

strains

50 to 68% for

plates;

increases

corresponding

3 mm thick

were

and 70 to

plates

5.4

thickness.
load

16

1107

can be seen that


of

increasing

to

ratio

the

their

mode of
varied

All

failure.
1.02

to be greater

to

than

external

reinforcing

serviceability.
load,

service

plates,

from

for

states

load.

the

of

of experimental

6 mm thick

beams with

be expected

limit

the

CP110 service

plates

addition

these

ratios

which

did

(experimental
are

their

not

reach

The ratios

for

the

1.46,

a mean value

1.0

with

than

greater

beams with

as CP110 includes

1.28.

of

material

factors.
Fig.

plate

the

due to

mm and 3 mm thick
value

deflections

25 to

plates;

increases

the

6 mm thick

shows the

= 1.6),

load

ultimate

it

effect

5.2

Table

mm thick

reaching

plates.

had the

plates

beams as for

before

Strain

mm thick

6 mm thick

loads

plates.

width

crack

When considering
43% for

1.5

6 mm thick

and 70 to 997 for

plates

17% for

37 to 50% for

as follows:

higher

sustain

Width

Crack

When considering

This

as follows:

varied

beam

the unplated

plate;

The corresponding

10 to

and 38 to 42% for

to

able

were

radians.

increases:

following

1.5

and 30 to

than

Rotation
The plated

for

The increase

mm.

plate

loads

plate.

5.4.2.2

to

higher

sustain

1.5 mm thick

with

3 mm thick

with

strengthened

were

of 4.6

a deflection

reaching

to

able

shows the variation


The beams with

whereas

those

with

experimental

service

and 3 mm thick

plates

of
1.5

6 mm plate

thickness

-90-

load

with

glue

and

show an increase

in

show a decrease.

5.4.3

Three
the

Loads

Ultimate

(a)

Ultimate

(b)

Strain

Compatibility

- glue

cracked.

(c)

Strain

Compatibility

- glue

uncracked.

The general

assumptions

in

calculations

of

the

with

of

are

in

given

and experimental

theoretical

moments for

compatibility
including

when the

marginally
series

a low yield
a large

testing

differences

cut

in

of

plates.
moment
5.2

Plates

from

1.09,1.06

of

3% in

each

case.

glue

is

in

force

the

large

due to

1 nun thick.
in

force

tensile

4,

Appendix

to

included.
fact

the

experimental

actual

the

was not

glue
to

form

beams without

cracked

stress
these

preliminary
used had

plate

therefore,

was providing

was no internal
strain

condition
mm thick

failure.

concentrations
notches.

the

only

for

curve
More

compatibility.

a3
at

strain

respectively,

the

stress

stress
with

that

to

compatibility

varies

In

as there

the moments by strain


the

CP110,

ratio

the

experimental

and strain

This

the beam,

the

between

and 1.05

The glue,

showed that

face

glue

were

condition.

tension

the

of

i. e.

calculation,

on beam 202,

similar

an

ultimate

16%.

The mean ratio

The test

from

in

was good agreement

glue,

to be done to determine

the

5 to

the

was used when calculating

and no plate,

there

contribution
in

As shown in

needs

mm and 3 mm thick

from

moments.

was very

the

that

methods

and was only


of

proportion

composite

notches

three

tensile

the variation

reinforcement.
glue

the

force

strength

of

Thickness

failure

of variation

a coefficient

1.5

that

over

showed a decrease

beam varying

unplated

no tensile

tensile

the

beams with
plates

can be seen

theoretical

with

moment capacity

failure.

it

5.4

From Table

17% for

1.5 mm Plate

Beams with

5.4.3.1

flexural

reinforcing

beams after

show the

8 to

6 mm thick

compared

capacity

the

and examples

the ultimate

from

beam varied

The beams with

the

loads

ultimate

4.

unplated

test

theoretical

to CP110.

State

Limit

The increase

with

the

calculating

beams.

test

Appendix

5.8

used for

were

methods

in

the

adhesive
Beam 221,

glue

in

layer
with

had no significant

ULTIMATE

TABLE 5-4

LOADS

STRAIN
ER1V1ENT
STRAIN
CP 110
TBUI UIMATE
ULTIMATE CCWATBLMCOMPS
MOMENT ULTIMATE ULTIMATE OMENT
(4)
m
MOMENT MOMENT
-(1)
(NO GWE) (" CLUE)
LLJ
kNm
kNm
kNm
kNm
mz
(4)
(2)
(3)
(1)

(4)
-(2)

(4)
-(3)

FAILURE
MODE
w

Zw wY
Q. --

201

81.2

83.7

83.7

88.9

1.09

1.06

1-06

FLEXURE

202

82.8

85.9

87.0

93.9

1.13

1.09

1.08

FLEXURE 3.0

203

90.1

92.4

92.8

103.5

1.15

1.12

1.12

FLEXURE 1.5 1.5


FLEXURE/

204

100.1

102.5

102.9

103.5

1.03

1.01

1.01

205

118.7

120.3

1246

81.7

0.69"

0.61`

0"G>

&LEAR
13l

1.5

3.0

1.5 6.0

206

100.9

104.3

104.9

104.3

1.03

1.00

0.99

FLEXURE/
3-EARBCNC1.5 2x1.5

207

92.2

95.5

966

1046

1.09

1.05

1.04

FLEXURE 3.0

1.5

208

100.9

103.6

104.2

101.2

1.00

0.98

0.97

SURE/
BCT 3.0 30

209

11919

122.1

122.4

84.3

0.70`

0.69'

0.6T

ST-ARECtt 3.0 6.0

210

118.9

1208

121.2

824

0-69'

0.0

0.68`

aim9al

211

92.7

96.3

97.2

97.3

1.05

1.01

1.00

FLEXURE 30

212

90.4

92.9

93.5

95.8

1.06

1.03

1.02

FLEXURE 3*0 1.5L

213

103.4

101.0

104.0

96.9

0-96

0.94

3.0

EXURE/3.0

0.93

B. /

6.0
1.5L

"5L

214

101.3

104.2

104.9

97.0

0.96

0.93

0.92

215

102.0

105.2

106.0

95.8

0.94

0.91

0.90

c9-

216

91.9

951

96.7

100.6

1.09

1.06

1.04

FLEXURE 6.0 1-5

30

-51.

3'0 3-OL

EXURE/

217

101.3

104.2

105.5

98.6 '

0.97

0.95

0.93

218

120.2

1223

122.7

74-5

0.62

0.61

0.60'

BAD 6.0 6.0

219

120.8

123.1

124.3

84.3

0.70

0.68

0.68

6.0 6.0

220

91.7

95.0

96.3

1008

1.10

1.06

1.05

FLEXURE 2-8

1-5

221

91.3

93-9

94.6

98.9

1.08

1.05

1.04

FLEXURE 3.0

1.5

222

91.4

93-9

96-3

102.7

1.12

1.09

1.07

FLEXURE 3.0

1.5P

223

92.8

96.3

96.9

101.2

1.09

1.05

1.04

FLEXURE 3.0 1.5P

0.91

FLEXURE/
E4RBa 10

224

102.0

105.1

105-8

95-8

0.94
1.05

0.91

-01

a-ENRIM

6.0 3.0

1.00 (* not included)

30P

5.4.3.2

Two Layers
of 1.5'mm'Thick
Plate
of 3 mm Thick

Beams with
One Layer

theoretical

it

5.4

From Table

can be seen

and 0.95

0.98,0.95
case.

There

given

above,

of

were

4% in

of

each
as

moments,

two layers

or

the

as before,

failure

of

3 mm plate

of

between

variation

the mean ratios

one layer

the beams with

for

The mean ratio's,

a coefficient

between

was no difference

or

was good agreement

moments.
with

respectively,

there

that

failure

and experimental

Plate

1.5

of

mm

plate.

5.4

From Table

5% in

and thicker

the

of

from

5.2.

1.83

to

CP110.

in

the

5.4.4

This

indicating

is

difference

strain
load

than

In

those

the

plates,

the

material

safety

the

general
strain
the

uses
this

load

values
1.60

with

plates

from

beyond

CP110 service

to

compares

due to

largely

loads.

hardening

6 mm thick
This

thicker

CP110 calculation

of

2.08.

the

thicker

adding

proof

point.

are

given

in

from

ranged

as recommended
included

factors

method.

1.5 mm Thick

Beams with

of

the

concrete

in

yielding
the

of

to yield,
at

the

a faster

a spread

Plates

1.5 mm thick

beams with

by combined

increased

beams with
of

higher
the

ultimate

that

of

to increase

possible

by simply

service

variation

Modes of Failure

All

started

the

a mean value

with

CP110 design

5.4.4.1

crushing

for

at

of

not

point

that

no account

experimental

of

Except

2.33

by

and takes

it

were

fact

the

that

be noted

should

properties

due to

a coefficient
is

failure

theoretical

with

a certain

CP110 calculations
is

steel

The ratios
Table

deformational

This

compatibility.

it

Nevertheless,

the

found

mean ratio

therefore,

a beam beyond

to

experimental

of

and 0.67

apparent,

of

plates.

enhance

stress

is

capacity

ultimate

greatly

the mean ratios

It

case.

each

Plate

were 0.68,0.67

as before,

moments,

the

6 mm Thick

Beams with

5.4.3.3

width
rate.

of

yield

reinforcing
bar

tensile
the
of

one or

With
in

and plate

compression

the

steel

in
bars

in

As the
at

load

or
the

and plate

a flexural

tensile

near

mode

followed

reinforcement

zone.

two cracks

increase

failed

plates

the

adjacent
along

by

reinforcement
critical

section,

cracks

grew wider

the

beam.

The

increase

in

towards

the

crack

None of

glue

and/or

then

occurred

This

debonding

5.4.4.2

face.

in

the

was probably

caused

high

and 103% of
of

bars

steel

towards
tually

cover

concrete
It
reducing
use

area

two layers

length

but

with

failure

beam,

All

with

layer

only

need

these

96% for

of

failure
used

layer

6 mm Plate

to

and evenbut

occurred

the

thickness

mm plate

its

along

the

206
beams
and 213 were
of

was to
full

the

and
the

across
ends.

Its

length

layers

of

CP110 ultimate

as given
the

by

loading

the

thickness

theoretical

however,

this

glued

at

this

accomplish

had two full

beams 213 and 214,

be prevented

between

had 3 mm plate

investigate

diagonally

root

could

being

halfway

was stopped

by shear/bond,

the

away.

first

103% of

in

to failure.

its

No debonding

94

was no sign

readings

prior

at

crack

The method

therefore

between

and propagated

plate

the

and shear/

There

The strain

beams 213 and 214 which

to be done to

beams failed

the

type

the

and 1.5

which

achieve

had occurred

plate.

ends.

plate,

206,

was still

Beams with

5.4.4.3

second

the

unloading.

flexure

of

as they

or plate.

shear/bond

characteristics

moment-rotation
tests

at

after

deflections,

moment capacity.

was ripped

Beam 206 reached

mm thick.

The mode of

this

moment region

compared

capacity

Further

the

was compared

1.5

bars

mm thick

This

bending

behaviour

plate

1.5

points.

constant

plate

that

of

of

as usual

support

internal

the

the

the

The debonding

zone.

was a combination

yielding

of

from

or

zone widening

separation

was thought
the

mm Plate

the end of

at

debonding

plates.

and concrete

compression

partial
to

the

between

apparent

post-failure

CP110 ultimate

that

plate

height

crack

a point

at

compression

must have been predominant

initiated

concrete

the

of

and was only

large

of

crushed

the

of

a mode which

indicated

crack

causing

in

the glue

and plates

the

strains

theoretical

between

A shear

the

in

however,

their

debonding

due to

Two Layers
of 1.5
Plate
of 3 mm Thick

These beams failed


Flexure,

concrete

moment region

constant

very

the

failure

after

except

Beams with
One Layer

bond.

Finally

propagation

beams showed any signs

these

concrete,

have

would

was accompanied

width

compression

loads.

the

by a slow

in

Table

load-deflection
almost

5.4.
and

identical.

technique.

Thickness
by shearing

off
-94-

the

concrete

along

the

level

of

the

internal
sign

reinforcement,
debondirrg

of

there

any sign

5.5

Fig.

at

characteristics
5.6

Values

with

loads

service

from

the

load

plate

rotations

and glue

of

view.

and cracking

6.

Chapter

included

bars

steel

point

is

5.5

Fig.

failure

to experimental/theoretical
are

was

the beams strengthened

that

deflections,

(28)

the

the

with

ultimate

in

nor

was no

to failure.

apparent

discussed

are

Smith

and

load

is

in

readings

failure

There

cover.
to failure,

prior

prior

It

changed

Cusens

plate

occurred

the

of

when considering

ordinates
by

obtained

5.5

had not

satisfactory

were not

or

concrete

The strain

glue.

failure.

modes of

behaviour

their

Fig.

yielding

the

shows the variation

6 mm plates

However,

in

that

and their

thickness,
with

in

the

off

and concrete

cracking

indicated

and plate

the glue

of

of

ripping

effectively

for

comparison.

the

following

replotted

load.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results

in

presented

this

section

conclusions

can be made.
1.

The use of external

visual

2.
failure,

No debonding
thus

3.
beam which

addition
5.

was observed

had a layer

of

of

6.

(a)
or

in

the

or

steel

glue

the

of

first

in

Further

the

glue

to

prior

including

to failure,

prior

conditions

occurred

loading.

throughout

was achieved

stress

in

flexural

could

This

concrete

a plate.

bonded

tests

layer

need

the

to be

when acting

the

ultimate

strength

steel

plates

was found

capacity

be satisfactorily

the

of

of

to be only

predicted

17%.

beams with

concrete
using

beam by

an unplated

all

three

external
methods

4.

More research

failures.

the

appearance

loads.

service

without

externally

Appendix

from

the

and concrete.

The ultimate

in

detailed

in

adhesive

the

steel

reinforcement

plate

action

The maximum increase

4.

bond

composite

glue

No cracking

with

compositely

the

full

the

of

to determine

performed

increase

a resulting

with

cracks

delays

reinforcement

could

variation

is

needed

to

investigate

possibly

be achieved

of

end geometry,

plate

thickness

-95-

methods

of

preventing

shear/

by:
either

by reducing

the

width

x -1.5 mm plate thickness


mm.
n-3
0- 6mm.

290280-

MODE OF
FAILURE

270Z

G
X

260-

Q
250

x FLEXURE
FLEXURE/SHEAR
BOND

w
Q 240
NO PLATE
2307-220
W

210

SHEAR-BOND

w 200
190
2.0

4.0
5.0
6.0
ADHESIVE THICKNESSmm
VARIATIONOF ULTIMATELOAD

1.0
FIGURE5.5

3.0

1.25-1

x
1.00-I

0.750

0
0.50-

e Cusens and Smith


(plate thickness 3.4 mm

0.25-a,

1.0
FIGURE5.6

EFFECT

4.0
5.0
6'0
ADHESIVE THICKNESSmm
OF ADHESIVETHICKNESS

2.0

3.0

(b)
lower
should

modulus

elastic
therefore

(c)

of

variation

delay

near

the

the

plate

the onset

provision

glue's

of

of anchor

elastic

ends would

modulus

at

reduce

the

the propagation
bolts

or

straps

of
at

large

the plate
shear

stresses

shear

the plate

ends.

cracks
ends.

A
and

CHAPTER 6
" DEFORMATION PROPERTIES

6.1

INTRODUCTION
In

the

load

due to

high

their

this

increased

deformations.

of

that
this

will

is

reduced

be incapable

depends

distribution

limit

ledge

the moment-curvature

or

Baker

of

of

the

of

in

factor
local

means that

resisting

the

become plastic

total

of

which

are

relationship,

require

in members.

If

The

is

method

the

that

calculated

resistance

moment it

moment at

the

of

on a know-

either

by Sawyer

proposed
such

reSeveral

structure.

based

So at

can get.

The amount

such as that

relationship,

against

safety

some calculated

and yield.
capacity

of

damage due to

a design

the

has

there

structures.

a member.

this

design

strength

construction

means transferring

position

moment-rotation

the

regions
in

behaviour

and concrete,

as that

(87),

proposed

by

problems

and

(88).

is obvious

It
can also
is

under
resulted

However,

of

hinging

have been proposed

design

of

on a knowledge

moduli

of

This

then

steels

indeterminate

deformational

on the

theories
of

cracked

ultimate

possibility

inelastic

to another

strength

an adequate

capacity

the member will

position

low

were

and rotations

members.

elastic

statically

can be used.

a support

section

for

including

one position

moment at

the

maintaining

theories

moment redistribution
moment at

in

deformational

the

advantage

and concrete

severely

and sophisticated

to a greater

rise

gives

design

of

not

high

use of

to use slender

possible

correctly

collapse,

knowledge

the

increase

Although

Limit

steel

deflections

small

of more accurate

been no corresponding

major

towards

have made it

materials.

members were

Therefore,

trend

development

procedures

both

stiffness.

The present
and the

concrete

conditions.

for

stresses

allowable

reinforced

and as a result
service

the

past,

give

of great

rise

that

excessive

to public

importance

but it

concern.

deflection

can cause structural

The prediction

is complicated

and control

by the many factors

of deformation
which

influence

the behaviour

conditions,

span and support

Additional

of cracking.
of primary

The object

of

this

and degree

of precracking

term deflections

lapping

thickness,

are

which

was to assess

techniques,

the

multiple

load-strain,

load-deflection

was observed

for

on the

extent

and shrinkage.

investigation

the

of

creep

and the

effects
layers

plate

and moment-

characteristics.

rotation

behaviour

The load-strain
bars

reinforcing

and the

both

steel

internal

the

In

plates.

steel
the

addition

con-

was measured.

methods

accepted

for

deflections

the

predicting

beams were

concrete

reinforced

of normally

bonded

externally

distribution

strain

surface

The use of

for

assessed

the

and rotation
beams.

plated

/PROCEDURE
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

6.2

in

described
measured

by electrical

concrete

strains

length

the

at

6.3
6.3.1

rotations

above being

at

part
are

and procedure
and plate

at various

deflection

were

locations,

extensometer

The load

this

of

and the

200 mm gauge
by dial

was measured

incrementally,

was applied

each stage.

Introduction
6.1

6.3

to

summarise

The deflections,

rotations

The neutral

depth

is

then

found

axis

The curvature

culated

taken

bars

in

'DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Tables

strain

The central

only.

were used

apparatus

steel

gauges

by inclinometer.

described

readings

strain

the

by a demountable

were measured
section

test
in

The strains

resistance

centre

gauge and the


the

5.3.

Section

5.2

Section

The instrumentation,

investigation.

the

in

beams described

four

The twenty
of

of

loading;

of

properties;

long

controlling

effects

part

and plate

glue

crete

the

are

of varying

and section

materials
variables

importance

and distribution

the magnitude

a member such as:

of

by the

is

neutral

by dividing

and strains

axis
the

the

obtained

from

by dividing
depth.

applied

main
are
the

results
taken

bending

directly

strain

from

distribution

the measured

The experimental

from

obtained

concrete
flexural

moment by the

curvature.

the

the
in

tests.

measurements.
the

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Tables

6.1A

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crack

load

and at

visible

being

The latter

loads.

service

for

1.15

the

ultimate

by 1.6.

Design

as given

in Table

to

the

first

at

first

the

above

found

load

for

deformation

loads.

crack

load

safety

factors

design
by strain

A, which

design

at

was calculated

- 1.5

load

service

C was taken

characteristics

service

material

load

for

B, which

and

concrete

was calculated

compatibility

methods

as 130 KN for

comparative

and dividing
purposes,

6.2C.
deformation

shows the
rigidities

the

theoretical

with

design

is

The flexural
compared

just

show the

for

6.2B

service

6.3

Table

is

6.2A

Table

steel.

by taking

and 6.2C

including

by CP 110 methods

characteristics

comparisons.

6.2B

Table

is

60 kN, which

used for

6.2A,

Tables

deformation

show the

characteristics

found
values

from

the

both

before

near

load.

ultimate

experimental

readings

were

cracking

(Tables

and after

6.1

6.3).
60 kN load,

At

3% and 86% higher


for

rigidity
to

mental
0.56
1.5

increased

the
At

behaviour
the

130 kN the

only

flexural

than
in

unplated

mean ratio
0.93.

At

the

the

plated

the

of
flexural
the

of

for

loads,

calculated
of

beams gave values

for

was 0.66,

can be seen at
the

extent

of

from

ranging

it

plates
just

load,

this

experi-

For, beams with

gave 0.54.
3 mm thick

between

was 0.76

above

the

and therefore

cracking

beams.

unplated

The ratio

the

with

beam gave a ratio

beam 223 which

rigidities

constant

beams were

plated

When compared

have reduced

plates

the

was 0.86;

it

Thus

beam was 0.74.

service

unplated

of

rigidity

and rotations.
the

the

stiffness

higher
140%
and

the

precracked

0.77.

6 mm plates
load,

sections
while

the

of

beam.

the mean value

plates

crack

the

rigidities

unplated

0.56

of

except

mm thick

for
and
first

uncracked

theoretical

to 0.86,

the

than

the

flexural

the

of

beam.

the

However,

moment region
beams as a whole
to

experimental
For

plates

-106-

figures

and a better
is

found

theoretical

3 mm plates
the

beams were

these

beams reinforced

beams with
therefore,

plated

with
it
are

between

represent

representation
through

1.5

was 1.0
effectively

the
of

deflections

the

flexural

40

rigidity

mm thick
and for

plates

for
the

6 mm plates

increasing

the

flexural

above

rigidity

190 kN load,

At

100 and 300% higher


tion

Since

the

tween

two cracks,
the

least

e,

load,

in

had a 1.5
spacers
out

squeezed

Fig.

almost

surface

the

are

strains

bar,

and

same level

are

reinforcing
the

at

it

200 mm so that

of

at

crossed
in

curves

given

almost

identical.

6.1

Fig.

shows that

with

glue

excess

beam.

Beam 204,
two layers

3 mm thick

with

of

strains

1.5

up to

mm plate

thereafter.
behaviour

for

beams with

Beam 210 was considerably

itscbehaviour
glue

bar

1.5 mm, the

Beams 209 and 210 both


but

the

of

increases.

show similar

mm thick

the

thickness

a glue

to Beam 206-, with

closely

fact

with

unplated

the

cracks,

The load-strain

surface

thickness

layer,

placed

identically

for

plate

in

6.4

in

strain

be-

bars

the

of

extension

across

length

was read.

respectively.

glue

loads,

the

on

strain

may be neglected.

that

amount

by the

tensile

Bar Strains

and 6.4

6.3

3
mm thick
and
service

it

identically

layers

glue

representa-

and deflection

the

that

small

given

that

concrete

and concrete

and very

Figs.

than

is

surface

the

shows that

behaved

service

the

bar

as the

decreased

which

in

the

6.2

Fig.

thick

a very

can be concluded

Reinforcing

6.3.2.2

plat

is

cracks

the

at

each time

one crack

confirmed

are

it

strain

that

rotation

(94,96,97)

The demec gauge had a gauge

identical.

from

the

a better

below.

between

width

crack

therefore

again

Review

surface

concrete

However,

obtained

has been shown by many authors

It
the

beam.

beams were between

plated

Characteristics

Literature

6.3.2.1

is

the

of

rigidities

unplated

beam behaviour

Load-Strain'

6.3.2

the

beam.

unplated

flexural

as reported

characteristic

the

of

the

than

total

the

of

that

was almost

layer.
line

It
to

is

identical

its

a glue

layer

had 6 mm thick

plates

more flexible

above

to

Beam 205

therefore,

thought,

control

3 mm and 6 mm

thickness

that

(Fig.

some of

have

must

6.9)

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the

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be

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bar

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beams 207 (no precracking)


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a reduced

with

were

behaviour

this

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glue

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cracks

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when

was between

were

be expected

could

than

stiff

plates.

that

beam which

a similar

glue

The behaviour

220 and 221,

bar

reinforcing

is

in

found

reduction

beams which

the

plate

thickness

glue

thickness.

layers,

constant

an increase

for

as the

glue

and 6.11

show that

when the

strains

constant
glue

beams with

of

as large

was not

and notched

be relatively

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that

1.5

of

thickness.

those

number

cracking

lapped

Beam

Beams 213 and

lapped.

were

would

to

plate,

section.

3 mm lapped

3 mm and 6 mm glue

by assuming

increased

beams having

show the

thickness

on the

to bonding

tensile

the

a single

seems somewhat anomalous.

beams would

before

the

variable

the beams with

comparison

and 6.9

plate

the beams with

the

layers

upper

two layers

a general

increasing

explained

centre

1.5 mm, 3 mm and 6 mm respectively,

although

prior

3 mm thick

the

must be a certain

6.7,6.8

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before

the

at

plate

manner;

beams with

thickness,

of

lapping

This

stiffer.

1.5 mm plate.

Figs.

varied.

an unlapped

a similar

there

that

slightly

Beam 208 with

1.5 mm plate,

of

were

increased.

and the beam with

stiffer

strains

plates

slightly

mm thick

214 had two layers


beams behaved

lapped

arm is

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as the

Fig.
215 which

beams with

the

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by assuming
to

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strains

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in

beam stresses,

would

3 mm thick

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in

were

beams strengthened

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bar

the

strains

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is

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than

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bar

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mm);

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posite

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beam for

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strains

the

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unlikely

6 mm plates.

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plates,

reinforcement

the

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to

and 6 mm plates
plated

the

external

adding

same area

reduced

70-81%

(6 mm).

and 24-43%

(3 mm);

for

beams with

190 kN load

at

at

also

research

60 kN load

47-58% for

to

reduced

were

strains

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area

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plates;

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plates;

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6.1B

Table

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6.3.2.3'

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plates

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the steel

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from 850 to
elastic

limit.

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6.12 to 6.21 show similar

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C-Z
00
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0
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0
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0
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6.22

Fig.
a constant
level

of

Increasing

straining.

but

ness has a similar


increases

The strain

varies

only

is

largest

strain

the

joints
at

plate,

The measured
as they

strains

it

Therefore,

follows
of

representation
that

the

plate

is

in

strain

or around

Such an array
it

the

gauge length

small

strain

the

joints

and cracks

of

external
in

than

load

stage

section

of

the

beams with

strains

in

the

plates

of

the

the

around

the

end

the
It

the

should

layer

strains

with

end of

the

gauges

entire

logger.

obtain

area.

Alternatively
be useful

also

would

the
in

contours

over

to

be noted

many strain

It

glue

the

stress

by a data

techniques.

local

the

more accurate

from

pattern

be monitored

to

gauge length.

concrete,

a grid

the

fields

distrib-

similar

stresses.

seen to be greater
the

best

embedded within

shown diagrammatically

At

in

be needed

gradient.

a finite

distance

in

The

be developed.

To obtain

width.

load

the

this

of

obtained.

any particular

strain

6 mm gauge length

the

gauge length
is

across

would

gauges

The variations
are

at

plate

the

reaches

stress

over

the

smaller

to use photoelastic

adhesive

utions-of

values

thick-

plate

be an approximation

can only

general

moment region.

but

plate,

must

distribution

gauges would

of

may be possible

to have

the

it

constant

changing

cracks,

strain

a constant

measurement

rapidly

on average

strain

constant

not

such areas,
of

the

the

of

that

the

end of

and around

based

are

the

an accurate

of

values

in

the

reduces

until

For

strains.

can be seen that

moment,

slightly

obtaining

measurement

more accurate
of

for

suitable

was not

for

It

effect.

plate

thickness

thickness

bending

at-the

of

plate

glue

much reduced
as the

gradient

the

the

beam,

the

along

points.

increasing

thickness,

glue

distribution

longitudinal

shows the

1.5 mm thick

that

varied
plate

indicates

that

extensive

was not

visually

evident

is

of

to

failure,

mm thick
from

The effect

the

of

plate

3000 to

strain

thickness

and glue

can be

thickness

plate

gauges

at

3900 microstrain.

prior

beam was under


1

to

load,

centre
that

The yield

as shown in

has occurred

the

indicated

reinforcement

1300 microstrain,

the

plate

thickness.

glue

yielding
while

6.24.

Fig.

prior
1.5

plate

Fig.

failure.
it

3.9.

the

strain
This

Although

became obvious

this
when

9-PL

NIb81S
-122-

3 ldld
4

2500
x 115 rrfn plate.
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mm. plate.

"6

2000 -a

%0
In

1500
N

a
cr.
N

-!

J
W
W

FwZI

500-11

60 kN LOAD

123-4
FIGURE 6.23

GLUE THICKNESS

INTERNAL

STEEL

BAR

6
mm

STRAIN Y
,

PLATE & GLUE

THICKNESS

3000

1.5 mm plate.
3 mm plate.

06

mm plate.

2500

02000
N

z
Q
1800
U')

190 kN LOAD

1300
J

a
J
W
W
N

J1000
z

130 kN LOAD

G-l
V-1
X
w

500

60 kN LOAD
f.

"

123456
GLUE THICKNESS

mm

FIGURE 6.24 EXTERNAL STEEL PLATE STRAIN v

PLATE & GLUE THICKNESS

plate

load

the

releasing

away from

warped
At

the

plate

ing

of

load

the

For

the beams with


The yield

of

evaluations

nor

plates

the

the

plated

from

varied

interfacial

are

calculated

from

It

should

given.

1300

indicates

This

stresses

be treated
and the

1200 to

failure.

at

are

the

The shear

made.

measured

plate

be emphasised

these

that

The tests

qualitatively.

values

load

stage

1.5

mm plate

beams the

and for

in

strain

mean values

found

are

limiting

not

failure

for

the

values

2407 microstrain;

unplated

beam was

as follows:

for

the

were

3 mm thick

beams with

6 mm thick

beams with
to

prior
-

concrete

410
microstrain;
-

plates

of

demec extensometer

Values

the
of

the

ultimate
the

straddling

226
microstrain.
-

plates
were:

3 mm plate

beam 3350

unplated

2080
microstrain;
-

recorded

1200 to

5000 microstrain

concrete

strength

plates

and some beams with

strain

capacity

strains

involves

having

section

at which

the

those

are

strains

normal

failure.

yield-

- 1230 microstrain.

Furthermore,

at

strains

point

should

the

For

The determination
of

indicating

again

of

also

compressive

1.5 mm thick

microstrain;
6 mm plate

yield

stress

the

- 356 microstrain
At

their

plates,

was 1500 microstrain.

such properties

study

60 kN load,

455 microstrain.
beams with

the

3 mm thick

Strains

Concrete
At

3.9,

stresses

beams with

the

stresses.

ultimate

6.3.2.4

to

for

plates

Fig.

are

stresses

interfacial

designed

not

were

bond

Local

strains.

bond

anchorage

deformed

plastically

2900 microstrain,

7 some assessments

In Appendix
and the

6 mm thick

approaching

are

plates

2300 to

strain,

the

stage

failure

to

prior

this

beam.

concrete

from

plates.

the

stress

stage

the

microstrain.
that

the

varied

strains

At

failure.

after

measured
for

have been reported


3 mm thick

had been achieved,


The beams with

plates

the
(98).
it

prior

For
would

as was exhibited

6 mm plate

did

-125-

not

reach

gauge

beam would

to,

ultimate

the

and not

limiting

length

fail.
at

strain

failure.
of

beams with

1.5

mm thick

that

the

full

appear

by crushing
their

full

of

the

strain

concrete
capacity.

Typical

the beams cracked

axis

the

of

indicates

tension

not
of

true

the

In

axis

Above
linear
the

once
is

but

3 mm and 6 mm plates.

beams with
well

(1.5

reinforced

under

first

crack

which

axis

position

steel

to

tension
the

half

depth.
the

of

strain

but

non-linear

on the

positions
the

to

The rise

to yield.

beams were
balanced

of

for

than

mm plate

an almost

is

demec reading

depends

the

This

same order

the

the

1.5

and

neutral

moved closer

beams with

mm plate)

Before

that

axis

started

showed that

load,

has cracked

6.25.

outer

is

neutral

'strain'

the

This

the

the

as the
in

from

concrete

neutral

was greater

position

fact

the

the

Fig

the

at

the

concrete

failure,

to

prior

from

above

an average

the beams the

all

face

compression

being

because

strain,

cracks.

neutral

is

This

strains

of

elasticity

approximately

were

it.

of

in

given

removed

slightly

and compression.

distributions
below

is

the

arising

amount

section

the modulus

are

between

was a small

composite

that

in both

difference

the

faces

compression

distributions

strain

concrete

from

changing

(6 mm

section

plate).
The mean ratios
failure

to

prior
plate;

percentage
purpose

this

the

of

steel

added
that

experiment
fore

for

present
bond

is

fails

concrete
is

reinforced

tension

of

design
series

failure

Their

values

that

a limiting

for

to

in

steel

in

compression,

the

the
appears

to

of x/d

being

value

ratio

from

of

yield

0.4
x/d

of

0.4

to 0.5.

the

and 0.44

brittle

avoid

It

flexural
beams with

the

to

be better

As tension
found

It

by

0.6,

there-

beams in

a more brittle

1.5

for

plated

before

stress

failure.

respectively.

would

The

approximately

For

1.5 mm

on the

placed

yield

has been

is

stage

6 mm plates.

process.
its

reach

when x/d

purely

come between

will

increases.

x/d

limited

generally

transition

steel

and thus

does not

steel
is

the

that

ensure

is

design

the

load

beams with

beams with

beams some limitation


during

the

at
for

0.40
for

and 0.47

a beam,

to

beam;

unplated

concrete

a beam the

it

the

depths,

effective

3 mm plates;

beams with

In normally

to

axis

neutral

0.31

were:

for

0.44

of

the

shear/

mm and 3 mm plates.
would
plated

seem,
beams.

therefore,

M first crack load


(ii)service load
(iii)near failure load

I1

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 600QoP0

20Qa 1000 0

1000 2000 3000 4000 5003

R-

0
O

2
H

a
w
0

cn

(d)
BEAM 218
6 mm. glue
6 mm plate

0
0
r-

o
LO

ol
07
N

1000 2000 3000 4000

FIGURE 6.25

TYPICAL
AT THE

N0
STRAIN
CENTRE

1000 2000 3000


DISTRIBUTIONS
SECTION

IN

THE

C0

CONCRETE

by Ang (72)

The beams tested


shear/bond
values

This

also.

it

is

thought

thicker

plates

loads.

By modifying

However,
beams with

the

under

ultimate
back

changed
and then

the

and 0.47

0.39

of x/d-being

between

occurred

to a flexural
limiting

that

the

to

3 mm and 5 mm plate,

type

of

the

plate

Further

x/d

bond

shear

be alleviated,

could

of

beams with

flexural

their

respectively.

mode.

value

from

showed a transition

is

testing

by the

found
in

as discussed

ends such

suggested

failure

failures

Chapter

present

be

could

to verify

needed

in

this,
may be

series

increased.
6.3.3
6.3.3.1

of Literature

Review

the

properties,

the

analysis

is

such deflections

the

of

to

compounded when applied


known to

concrete

Because
only

feasible

so that

of
but

engineers

the

the

that

order

material

not

undue

to a load,

15 to

other,

20%.

of

which

this

the

property

only

rise

to

a local

by

et

h
where

cc is

the maximum compressive

et

is

the maximum tensile

is

the

depth

of

the

strain

strain

at

at

the

section.

-128-

the

section,

section,

to be not

procedures

a beam undergoes

and

of

strength.

appear

on predicted

is

difficulty

addition

would

simple

0 may be expressed
cc+

In

and

of variation

characteristic
it

gives

results

coefficient

since

reliance

a section

and computed

the

specified

relatively

will

place

measured

deflection,

that

curvature

determined

of

essential

This

experimentally

the

also

on the

the most

structures,
is

nature

Even with

shown that
of

actual

designer

and tension

section.

have

in

probabilistic

analysis.

between

variability

When subjected
one side

using

(82)

Studies

in beams is

a rational

of variation

range

high.

surprisingly

is

of

methods

sophisticated

for

methods

statistical

requires

behaviour

deflection

The actual

for

Characteristics

Load Deflection

be used

results.
compression
curvature

on
at

a beam consisting

For

.M
_. EI

where

M is

the

applied

moment at

E is

the

elastic

modulus

I is

the

second

moment of

integral

or double

single

deflection,

the

is

a,

of

section,

the

of

of

of

the

local

the

where

and k is

the

depending

important

The most

1960 - Yu and Winter

(a)

deflections

instantaneous

value

tension

To account

B.

Method

the

to

cracks

length

the

throughout

rigidity

(76)

where

correction

0.1

fcu2/3

been

determined

that

method

h(h

followed

factor

empirically.

B gave

of

curvature

along

short

term

the

general

beam

the

are

for

the
of

at

somewhat

methods

for

the

midspan

simple

contribution

the

given

using

the

beam for

the

of

are

of
below:
calculation

load.

calculated

inertia

deflections

20. years

two simple

service

under

beam the

The

elastic

methods.

is

as a constant

used

spans.
of

the

concrete

deflections

from

between
method

A were

'Mj
-*.

F=1
Ml

In

last

the

over

presented

factor

by a correction

multiplied

by computing

respectively.

variation

predicting

proposed

moments of

transformed

cracked,

of

The deflections

A.

Method

beam may be found

k01t2

on the

methods

members,

concrete

reinforced

section.

beam.

the

span of

and

by

given

a constant

the

curvatures

a=
k is

beam material,

area

or deflection

The rotation

of

0 is

curvature

by

given

the

local

the

material,

an elastic

of

- x)

and M' =

an elastic

theory

Comparison
better

service

results.

-129-

with

moment.

approach
test

with

data

for

The derivation
the

factor

0.1

of

the

having

90 beams indicated

(b)

1961 - Comit6

determining

deflections

deflection

taneous
uncracked
deflection
less

cracked

the moment at which


from

culated

section

strength

the

is

produced.

of

the

produced,
to

in

instan-

of

the

of

and the

the working

latter

This

concrete

value

deflection

the

sum of

cracking

is

the

moment

moment being

bending.

for

method

cal-

can be

This

by:

expressed

Mcr
R2FEC

a=k

(M -

+4

Mcr

is

the moment at which

is

the moment under

EctEs

are

Iu

is

the

uncracked

As

is

the

area

is

the

effective

the

of

(1-2g3)1
is

cracking

produced,

consideration,

moduli

of

and steel,

concrete

transformed

inertia,

moment of

reinforcement,
depth,

and

"A

elastic

Mcr)

(1-2q)

ESASd

I3
where

in which

a moment equal

under

cracking

tensile

the

to

equal

the moment at which

under

the

of

(CEB) gave a simplified

loads,

term

short

under

was considered

section

(78)

du Beton

European

(S)
(_
)
D
J.
cu
is

This
of

a load

lower
in

uncertainty

satisfies

tion

M=
in

of

the

Mcr the
relation

the

tensile

(77)

Branson

concrete

sion

load.

which

In practice,
strength

for

can allow

of

the

the

application

however,

there

is

concrete

as this

some
can be

by shrinkage.

inertia

properties,

method

working

assessing

1963 - D. E.

moment of

large

the

than

considerably

reduced
(c)

a sound and logical

gave a form

a beam in which
strength

limiting

cracking

the

and extent
conditions

moment,

of

effect
of

Ieff

and Ieff

bending

of

is

cracking

I'

= approaches

I -

(Iu

- Icr)

Cl

Mcr
-

(M)

n1
J

the

effective

moment,

included.

a Vu when the

to Mcr
Ieff

for

expression

moment at

section
The expresthat

when M is

very

sec-

n is

where

(83).

an unknown power.
distribution

the

to

relative

Branson

used the

determine
vidual

that

mined
average

same type

for

Ieff

n.

was found

n=4

the

of

simply

is

a,

to

effective

but

where

with

beams with

relation
by Murashev

was established

T beams),
moment of

to

empirically

inertia

at

be used

uniform

loading.

iMMr) 3]

Icr

and

an indi-

was further

It
could

n=3

(simple

beams,

good agreement.

give

for

deteran

The equation

as:
im)3
then

Iu

kM L2
Ec Ieff

depends

which

a coefficient

Cl

by

given

a=

k is

effects

supported

equation

Ieff
The deflection,

the

supported

above was rewritten

given

For

function

a power

some 58 laboratory

from

results

for

the value

section

cracking

of

beams and simply

two span rectangular

for

A precedent

on the

type

of

loading

form

of

the

and support

conditions.
(d)

1968 - Beeby
where

relationship

(84)
0,

an idealised

proposed

the

curvature

was given
Mcr
E

it

Firstly,

values
for

was assumed

when compared with

X were

given

the results

and
1970 - CEB (85)
to

+M-

I'

X
but

Ec I'

this,

from 133 test

overestimated

beams.

the

Alternative

values

as:

E (0.825
(0.57

X=

and subjected

by:
Mcr

X=

that

X=

(e)

cu

moment curvature

for

beams of

symmetrical

a.

=2 k

loading
Mcr
(E
I3

Ed

constant
the

Icr
Icr
section,

midspan

loaded

deflection
Mcr

+4M-

ES AS z (d - x)

in

simple

is

given

bending
by:

Mcr,

where

z=

lever

d=

effective

x=

neutral

is

This

the
the

depth,

their

in

concrete
In

beam.

the

with
give

better

integration

6.26

Figs.
6.26
reduced

the

of
the

cracks

was found

method

to

beam.

involves

which

the

calculating

finding

the

deflection

by

however,

The code does,

suggest

Curves

to

6.35

mm plate
3 mm plate.

Figs.

6.28

a beam with
and a central

of

6.27

shows that
than

same behaviour
those

identical

results

and 6.30

thickness

mm glue

for

the

the

deflections

The beam with

thickness.

plate

curves

to

behaviour

show similar

two layers

of

a single

layer

beams with

the

beams.

test

for

beams with

3 mm

respectively.

stiffer

slightly

1.5

a constant

increasing

with

load-deflection

show the

for

gave almost

Fig.

with

rigidity

between

tension

that

was assumed

the

The second

an approach
and then

the

along

shows that

and 6 mm plates

the

to

resists

strength.

suggests

Load-Deflection

6.3.3.2

of

flexural

it

method

in

strain

approach.

simplified

1.5

first

the

concrete

initially,

sections

of

numerical

are

In

deflections

results.

curvatures

Fig.,

the

relating

part

and compressive

zone has no contribution

its

1972 - CP 110 (86)

(g)

determining

maximum tensile

respectively.

second method

as much as 75% of

for

two methods
the

using

tension

the

the

with

modified.

describes

determined

(1961)

recommendations

being

(80)

and concrete

steel

as before

same meaning

and

earlier

stiffness

cracking

curvatures

the

depth.

axis

1972 - Stevens

from

have

IU

arm,

to

similar

to post
(f)

Es,

M, Ec,

the

as for
beam with

an unlapped
lap

the

joint.

the

beam with

unplated

beam.

strains,

i. e.

a continuous

3 mm thick
Two other

plate

a glue

layer,

but

The beams with


slightly
plate

to another

beams are

lapped.

Fig.

6.29

beam having

shown which

is
showed

plates

deflections

reduced
layer.

no plate,

compared
also

compares

3 mm plate

had two layers

dv
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0
v

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of

1.5 mm plate,

fell

6.31

The deflections

thickness.

glue
but

so much as when the

not

The beams with

thickness.

beams with

similar

produced

variable
glue

a 1.5

the

as the

reduced

is

for

lines

thickness.

Figs.

is

for

increases,

constant
follow

6.32

glue

very

and 6.33

closely

show

The stiffening

plates.
as the

reduced

beams

varying

thickness

increased
glue

four

all

plate.

glue

and notched

thickness

glue

of

thickness

mm plate

3 mm and 6 mm thick

beams with

by increasing

3 mm thick

thickness

plate

The behaviour

unlapped

are

constant

for

behaviour

similar

the

beams with

compares

lapped.

being

layer

outer

the beam with

6% of

within
Fig.

to

the

thickness

plate

increases.

the

have deflections

plates

load,

but

less

70 to
beam.

beam's

deflection.

plate),

59 to

At

6.3.3.3
11
loads.

A measure

deflections

at
reduction

a small

was obtained
beams with
should

6.4

for

and their

values

examination.

of

the

100% (1.5

mm plate),

values

the

were

of

78 to

to

reduced

not

deflections,

the

67% (6 mm plate)

deflections

reduced

54% (6 mm plate).

unplated

96% (1.5

of

the

to

69 to

These

mm

unplated
837

(1.5

results

mm

are

6.36.

deflections

shows experimental
of

the

ductility

of

220 IN and 130 IN loads


in

an unplated

that
were

in

ductility

1.5 mm thick

be noted

further

85 to

to

similarly

and 51 to

beams were

60 kN load

decreased

on

Predictions'of'Deflections

Theoretical
Table

190 kN the

The control
needs

at

and 61 to

in Fig.

this.

to bonding

prior

beams up to working

control

load-strains

were

69% (3 mm plate)

shown diagrammatically

their

94% (6 mm plate)

and 60 to

87% (3 mm plate),

plate),

than

were

deflections

130 RN the

the

be seen that

beams,

the precracked

68 to

as for

it-can

beams loaded

that

beams above

control

6.18

95% (3 mm plate)
At

greater

behaviour,

From Table
for

the

than

This

precracked.

except

indicate

and 6.35

6.34

Figs.

the

beam.

plates;

two beams,

the

at

beams was found

for
plated

each of
beams,

The reductions

13% (3 mm plates)
210 and 218 failed

extrapolated.

-136-

220 kN,

the

130 kN and 60 kN
by comparing

test

however,
were

the

beams.

There

only

one value

as follows:

107 for

and 117 (6 mm plates).


before

reaching

is

It

220 kN load

-137-

313
C

110
O

to
N

cn
10
11

r'1

mv
N

NN

;-

TO

`V
U

i--

fV

x
V

W
r^
JW
QJ

aa
$

" o
v,

..

Ln

to
w
00

00

N0
NN

N'l

ab01

0
N

mnddd

0
N

0
N
LO

NX

OVOI

C31lddV

0
lo

0
v

0
N

x
"

1.5mm plate.
3mm plate
6mm

plate.

16 -I

14-I

p
E

12

10-

19OkN

8..a
6-
130 kN
4

2
}-60kN
123456

GLUE THICKNESS mm
FIGURE6.36

CENTRALDEFLECTIONV. PLATE & GLUE THICKNESS

DEFLECTION

TABLE 6.4
N

w
u
~
mz

U)
Wz

EXPERIMENTAL
ONS..., mm.,
DEFLECTI

FIRST

CL

CRACK

130

CHARACTERISTICS

THEORETICAL
DEFLECTIONS-(130kN)

CP110.
220 kN
mm

ACI.
mm

CE B.
mm

EXPERIMENTAL
THEORETICAL
CP110. ACI.
mm
mm

CEB.
mm

}o
=ry

C
=

1-00

7-30

20-40

6"12

6.10

710

119

1-20

1-03

2-79

1-20

6"90

17-70

6-12

6"10

7-10

1-13

113

0-97

2'56

1"70

6-60

16-20

5-00

5-00

5-81

1-32

1-33

1-14

2"45

201

202

203

1-5 1-5

204 1-5

1-65

6-00

13-80

4-20

4"30

4-99-

1-43

1-40

1-20

2,30

205

1-5

1-20

4-60

11,00

3-50

3'43

3"97

1-31

1'34

1-16

2-39

206

1-5 2x1"5

1-40

5-70

13-00

4-20

4-30

4"99

1"36

1-33

1-14

2-28

207

1-5

1-80

6-00

16-00

5-00

5-00

5-81

1-20

1-21

1-03

2-67

208

1.40

5"00

12"60

4-20

4-30

4-99

1-19

1-16

1"00

2-52

209

1-30

4-50

11-50

3-50

3"43

3-97

1-29

1-31

1-13

2-56

210

1"20

4-30

1100

3"50

3'43

3-97

1-23

1-25

1-08

2-56

211

L
1-5,

1,65

5-80

14-00

5-00

4"89

5-83

1-16

1"19

0-99

2-41

212

1"51 1-35

5-80

14-80

5-00

4-89

5-83

1-16

1-19

0-99

2"55

213

2x1"51 1-45

5-40

1300

4-20

4-30

4-99

1-29

1.20

1-08

2-41

214

15.L

1-35

4-80

12-00

4-20

4-30

4-99

1-14

1"12

0-96

2-50

215

3L

1-35

4-70

11-60

4"20

4-30

4-99

1-12

1-09

0"94

2-47

216

1-5

1-60

5-70

1400

5-00

4-89

5"83

1-14

1-17

0-98

2-46

217

1-00

4-80

11-60

4-20

4-22

4-99

1"14

1-12

0-96

2-42

218

0-90

4-20

1080

3"50

3-43

3-97

1-20

1-22

0-96

2-57

219

1-20

4-20

1040

3-50

3.43

3-97

1-20

1-22

1"06

2-48

220 28

1"5

1-70

540

13-80

5-00

4-89

5-83

1-08

1.10

0-93

2-56

221

1-5

1-70

6-60

16-00

5-00

4-89

5"83

1-32

1-39

113

2"42

222

1"5.P

2-00

6-40

13-50

5"00

5-00

5-81

1-28

1-29

1-10

2-11

223

1"5P 2-60

7.00

14-60

5-00

5-00

5"81

1-40

1-41

1-20

2-01

224

3.P

4-80

11-00

4-20

4-30

4"99

114

1.12

0.96

2-29

1.23

1.23

1.05

1-65

mean ratios
LP-

lapped

plates.
precracked.

The deflections
in Appendix

described
mental

values

tion

for

1.05

(CEB).
Within
best

the

of

were

1.15

(CP110),

of

as the most

6.3.4

local

6.37(a)

behaviour
into

be divided
The first

beam.

parts

OX, is

behave

slope

of

the

decreasing

In

curve.

cracks

and the

At

either

the

YZ,

part,

compression
at

starts
least

shown in Fig.
uncracked

state

region

steel

section
cracking

are

and the

studied

(CEB),

gives

three

to

of measured

theoretical
the

confirming

and the

the

the

area
the

of

stages

their

begins

changing

and the

tension

steel

beams.

The curvatures

-141-

ultimate

of

typical
the

capacity,
reaches

when the
beam along

is

The concrete
strain

range.

inelastically.

slope

its

and

compression

inelastic

to behave

the

by a changing

face.

compression

behaviour.

of

concrete

characterised
in

of
can

between

and both

concrete

the

a reflection
The curve

different

reaches

characteristics

is

section.

is

approaching

1 is

by integrating

relationship

XY,

by a rapidly

Distribution

a typical

of

curve

uncracked

part,

concrete

or

in under-reinforced
6.37(b).

to

is

towards

steel

cross

by a linear

section

characterised

Y and Z the

Between

stage,

is

the

the

of

up the

corresponding

spread

fibres

third

deflections

can be found

The shape

making

this

compression
Y,

beam.

The second

elastically.

as the

point

(A. C. I. );

1.23

diagram

rotation

characterised
since

moment and curvature,


steel

deflec-

predicted

predicting

were

moment-curvature

The total

the

three

part,

for

mean ratios

give

to

method.

the materials

of

experi-

(A. C. I. ) and' 1.01

1.21

shows the

along

curvatures

with

Review

concrete

reinforced

comparison

(CP110) ;

1.23

to

methods

of measured

by Ang (72)

found

three

Characteristics

Literature
Figure

for

CEB method

results

appropriate

Moment-Rotation

6.3.4.1

the

The test

6.4

Table

as follows:

the

by the

as calculated

The mean ratio

tests

present

calculation

deflections
latter

the

in

given

beams were

results.

methods

are

130 kN load.

at
the

all

5,

beams,

the

all

of

of
the

its
at

the

curve.

concrete

these

length

under

hardening

strain

beam is
its

The

stages
in

are

the
are

the

z
w
M:
0
::E

CURVATURE

(a)

MOMENT

CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP

LOAD
j,

BENDING
MOMENT

CURVATURE

(b)

MOMENT

FIGURE 6.37

AND

CURVATURE DISTRIBUTION

MOMENT

CURVATURE
-142-

RELATIONSHIP
'

same, thus

the

As a result

of

of

the

the

increases

The curvature
while

it

over

the

remains

very

length

the

of

the

measuring

the

6.3.4.2

Moment Rotation

four

beams.

test

the

beam.

reduced

the

plates

rotations

(3 mm plate)

69-73%

These

results

6.3.4.3

difference

between

under
strength

estimated
of

concrete

section,

The total

rotation

can be obtained

beam or by

the

of

them together.

discussed

experimental
first

their

curves

to between

are

load,

the

50 and 92% of
1.5

with

mm plate

beams value.

(6 mm plate).
69-75%

mm plate);

of

service

It

the
were

3 mm and 6 mm
At

130 kN load

nm plate);
rotations

and 51-70%

were
(6 mm plate).

6.48.

Rotations
between

can be seen that


and theory
load.

was 1 N/mm2 gave


-143-

rotations

(1.5

of

for

the
for

60 kN

rotations

value

81-947.

(3 mm plate)
Fig.

and

At

given.

the

190 kN the

At

in

comparison

6.

to

twenty

load-strain

total

Similarly

a similar

manner

the

curves.

rotations

crack

of

under

in

experiment

above

length

the

curve.

critical

loading

of

65-70% and 50-58% respectively.

shows the

in Appendix

beam.

to

Prediction

calculated

the

moment-rotation

shown diagramatically

Theoretical
6.5

the

unplated

were

(1.5

are

Table

the

and 51-697

83-94%

to

reduced

the

reduced

were

near

stage

behaviour,

for

decreased

reductions

the

region

loading

the

near

moment curvature

moment-rotation

beams strengthened

For

80-92% of

to

shows the

above

slightly

beams were

plated

unplated

the

is

which

to Distribution

corresponds

of

characteristics

Curves

and 6.3

6.1

rest

and adding

was observed

In Tables

the

along

The same general

load-deflection,

load,

curvature

and 6.47

6.38

Figs.

the

the

side,

Z on the

over

moment distribution.

especially

any particular

rotations

support

This

to point

over

beam at

tension

non-linear,

rapidly

linear

nearly

by integrating

either

is

3 corresponds

Distribution

point.

beam.

the

along

vary

bending

the

the

along

cracks

The distribution

Y.

and point

of

spread

cross-section

follows

distribution

curvature

the

measured

as the

increases.

The calculated
slightly

better

load

increases,

The rotations
values
values

and those

rotations

are

greatly

the

assuming
than

the

for

tensile

3 N/mm2.


rN_

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2502402302202102o&
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60-
70-

60-
50-

60 kN
-40-i
30-i

20.
10
1.0
FIGURE

6.48

2.0

3.0
1.0
ADHESIVE THICKNESS
ROTATION

5,0
mm.

CHARACTERISTICS

-149-

6.0

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test

present

can be applied

crete

at

theoretical

is

where

k and c are

constants,

W=

load

ultimate

include

validity

a factor
in

strain

degree

the

upon

the

check

The compressive

as the

occurs

the
in

loading

of

con-

rela-

c
ultimate

consideration,
load.

ultimate
= log

(Ec - Ecorrected)

Then log

under

= theoretical

to

order

some

Then we have

Ec
_w,
-k`
-

stage

which

to Ec should

dependant

capacity.

Ecorrected

In

beams.

test

load

any particular
its

to

to other

behaviour,

rotational
Modulus

increases.
'correction'

the

results

in Young's

change

concrete

compressive

which

tion

the

of

prediction

k+c

(W

log

ultimate
The experimental
load

each

rotations
1 N/mm2 for

using

stage,

of EC - Ecorrected

value

W)

is

in Fig.

log

(W

the

ultimate
line
best fit

formula

used

the
found

then

6.49.

by linear

The resulting

are

find

to

tensile

strength

and the

log

The values

of

Ecorrected

the

of

values

required
The

concrete.
were

k and c were

plotted

found

at

against

by plotting

regression.
is:

Ecorrected

a EC - 1.37.10

1188

w)

(w

ultimate
6.5

Table
difference
values
plate

are

the

between

these

plotted

against

thicknesses

values

used,

from

results

all

formula

this

In Fig.

and experiment.

experimental
fell

points

the

and also

6.50

percentage

the

calculated

values

and for

the

range

within

12% of

the

experimental

of

glue

and
e

line.

theoretical
6.4

gives

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the

results

presented

in

this

Chapter

the

following

conclusions

can be drawn.
1.

As the
glue
bar

thickness

line

of

thickness,

and concrete

the

reinforcing

there

strains,

plate

was increased,

was a corresponding
central

-151-

deflection

reduction
and total

for
in:
rotation

a constant
plate,

x
X
X

X
X

-1.5

log w

FIGURE 6.49

vV lAir e

-1 u-

u"o

EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR THEORETICAL ROTATIONS

50

FIGURE 6.50

200
250
300
150
100
EXPERIMENTALROTATION 10-4 radians

350

EXPERIMENTAL V THEORETICAL ROTATIONS

400

450

2.

As the

thickness

lesser
3.

4.

was increased,

line

glue

in

was a reduction

these

for

a constant

plate

but

same properties

to a

degree.

Beams with
with

of

there

thickness,

the

layers

multiple

a single

lapped

Beams with

plates

increased

slightly

lever

This

same thickness.
the

than

stiffer

slightly

arm of

identically

almost

to beams

thickness.

same total

were

the

of

plates

continuous

of plate

the

of

plate

behaved

lapping

beams with
due to

was probably
the

at

plate

the

critical

section.
5.

6.

The beams with

notched

identically

the

to

The preloaded
general,

than

bonding

on the

further

and variable

beam with

corresponding

beams had smaller

testing

should

be performed

a constant

does not

in

and rotations,
prior

seem logical

investigate

to

almost

thickness.

glue

been cracked

had not

behaviour

This

behaved

thickness

deflections

strains,

beams which

corresponding
plates.

line

glue

and

findings

these

to

more

fully.
7.

The deflections
CP110 and A. C. I.
gave the
values

8.

The ductility

of

figure

The rotations
following

having

results

beam.

beam this

recommended

slightly

were

underestimated
The method

calculations.
a mean ratio

of

using
by CEB

given
to

experimental

theoretical

1.05.

of

unplated

9.

best

loads

service

at

the

However,

as there

can only

be approximate.

could

formula
Ecorrected

plated

beams was approximately

be predicted
for

the Young's

= EC - 1937.10

was only

to within
Modulus
(W

ultimate

12% less

one result

12% of
of

the
,"

1"88

the

for

than

an unplated

experiment

concrete.

the

using

the

CHAPTER 7
CRACKING PROPERTIES
7.1

INTRODUCTION

The tensile
compressive
of

strength,

100 microstrain.
it

which

the

concrete

structures,

possible

for

main

In

the

large.

Recently

are

increased.

the

f actors

should

wide

cracks

are

corrosive
the

of

in

used

cause

design

of

little

the

that
in

are

to

steel

stress

to

know,

with

proportional

become necessary
and to be able

cracking

to predict

in

since

increase

widths

to

the

plated

bonding

adhesive

cracks

as

unpleasant,

addition,

concern

ensured

as small

can penetrate

In

one of

reinforced

aesthetically

structure.

degradation

cause

is

of

be kept

elements

steel

even in well

design

state

the

of

the

would

permissible
the
greater

and control

relatively
be

not

stresses
crack

widths

certainty
crack

and spacings.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

experimental

(89)

and Lutz

Gergely

factors

govern

which

cracks

cracks

has therefore

It

the

limit

order

cracking

has been a considerable

crack

and since

steel,

7.2

there

that

could

stresses

steel

in

the

of

cracks,

Since

its

of

strain

of

unavoidable.

Secondly,

flexural

ultimate

formation

the

is

cracks

satisfy

to weakening

past,

the

one tenth

of

it

which

the

Firstly,

reasons.

order

of

is

necessary

can lead

permissible

widths

is

concern.

public

mechanism.

in

has to

such penetration

structures,

low

it

at

therefore,

structures,

a design

two main

which

steel

a fraction

concrete

which

and can cause

is

Obviously,

reinforced

criteria

strain

only

the

of

and the tensile


This

surrounds.

designed

of

strength

is

concrete

investigations.

affecting

crack

The major

is

The steel

stress

2.

The cover

thickness

3.

The bar

4.

The size
the

5.

diameter
of

compression

The bottom
the

the

section

crack
in

conclusions

which

important

variable.

were

from
drawn,

six
regarding

were:

widths

1.

information

statistically,

analysed,

the
is

is

not

most

an important
a major

side

crack

zone

in

width
flexural

width

flexural
increases
members.

-155-

variable.

variable.
is

reduced

by the

proximity

of

members.
with

concrete

strain

gradient

across

reinforced

concrete

the

spacings

the

surface

of

beams through

flexural

crack

investigated

(90)

and Stevens

Illston

The Cement and Concrete


(91).

by Base et al
distribution

of

beams.

Their
in

cracks

1.

The magnitude

2.

The cover

3.

No evidence

4.

shall

service

the

exceed

was proposed

0.85

exceed

0.004

of

by Beeby (92).

em

el

determining

r.-cr

that

of

variation

concrete

crack

percentage

the

concrete

width
within

on the
to

that

aggressive

to

the

surface

the

environment,

or

reinforcement
A of

crack

3. acr"

Em

width,

acr'Cmin/
L_

h-x

earlier.

-156-

Wcr,

is

and

should
the

is

given

by:

then

given

by:

x). 10-3
(h - x)

design

crack

the

environments,

main

strain

surface
exposure

in Appendix

The formula

concrete

strength

on cracking.

recommends

nearest

cover.

'
as defined

(86)

As. fy.

the

effect

When exposed

1+

symbols

and the

at points

widths

nominal

times

on the

was any effect

depending

a member.

7___

All

reinforced

and

were:

reinforcement,

CP110,

limits

certain

crack

there

had a significant

the

for

width

2.29%.

was produced

Em
The formula

to

of

Code of Practice

surface

the

stress.

that

type

conditions

requirements

assessed
not

not

steel

was found

No evidence

The British
width

the

widths

and

investigation

influenced

moment in

crack

affecting

cover

stresses.

an extensive

which

bending

concrete

loads,

thickness.

range

curing

factors

of uniform

factors
of

when varying
the

zones

conducted

gave

At working
of

and steel

spacing

of

in

cracking

technique.

be a function

to

Association

report

important

The most

found

was a function

width

injection

a resin
were

cracks

and internal

surface

code

crack

width

level

the

at

and that

1+

0.0913

width
R(fs

t.b

t=
s
tb

bottom

fs

tension

- 5).

10-3

distance

from

neutral

distance

from

neutral

depth

overall

the

that

stated

so that

be proportioned

widths

0.4

The Comite
characteristic

UNITS)

(inches)

bar,

reinforcing

(kips/in2)

section,

cracked

(inches)

bar,

axis

the

tension

steel

(inches)

axis

to

the

tension

face,

(inches)

the

maximum bending

for

exceed

1.7

does not
exterior

of

times

the

the

moment should
interior

for

These values

correspond

to

mm, respectively.

mean crack

recommend

the

that

reinforcement

the
level

Wm.

width,

Srm . csm

the final

e8m

the mean elongation

mean crack

Srm

Wk, at

width,

crack

of

(85)

du Beton

Srm

contribution

170 kips/inch

exceed

exposure.

Euro-International

value

at

section

fs. 3IA

and 0.3

(inches)

(inches)

W
m

and:

by:

to

beam,

cross

and 145 kips/inch


of

of

depth,

effective

also

where:

UNITS)

(inches)

of beam,

width

v=

d=

not

maximum

2b (h - d)
bars
of
number

h=

crack

the

reinforcing

longitudinal

of

given

(IMPERIAL

on an elastic

hl

exposure

based

h2/hl

A=

It

centre

R=

h2

is

cover

is

face

longitudinal

of

centre
to

stress

steel

to

cover

side

(IMPERIAL

the

where:

that

by:

given

10-3

5).

at

recommends

is

reinforcement

(fs is/h1

the maximum crack


max

the

of

W=0.0913
max

Code (89)

Institute

Concrete

The American

the

of

the
=

at the reinforcement

spacing

reinforcement
in

concrete
2c

-157-

kO
P

tension.

allowing

level
for

the

should

where,
to

c=

cover

0=

diameter

reinforcement
of

As
F+

is

As

nt h _a\
Z. L) V.ll-u/

bars.

largest

depends

which

a coefficient

bars.

steel

of

area

on the

type

of

and

steel

the mode of loading.


also:
Qs1-0os

=
sm
where,
as

=
=

asr

steel

stress

based

steel

stress

calculated

in
is

tension

Previous

the

concrete

strength.

on bond characteristics;
for

and zero

The stress

2.

The cover

3.

The proximity

the

and also

of

the

bars.

smooth

cracking
constant

and the

At

level

224,

on crack

glue

and plate

the

internal

the

bar

described,
cover
the

at

should

effectively

shown in
are

strains
the

zone.

level

of

the

reduced

section

on

considerably,

reinforcement.

were used

to

investigate

the

to

the

reinforcement

were kept

level

of

reinforcement

would

then

parameters.

widths,

were

to

closer

already

width

plate

As has been

and bottom

effect

steel

internal

brought

The side

stage

being

these

of

have

variables

compression

concrete
bonded

beams the

moment region
of

the

requirements.

axis

each load

constant
the

the

important

certain

steel

of

is

that

reinforcement

beams 201 to

behaviour.

to

these

plated

neutral

The test

be related

to

the

of an externally

three
for

strains;

in

1.

all

has revealed
The most

on cracking.

The addition
satisfy

(89-93)

research

influence

strong

at

that

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

7.3

the

section.

assumption

maximum tensile

depends

which
bond bars

high

for

0.7

on the

its

cracked

on an elastic

reaches

a coefficient

Qsr

heights

noted.

reinforcement.

and spacings

The crack

widths

the

cracks

in

and spacings

were

read

of

all

7.4

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

7.4.1

General-statistical

analysis_

The assessment
widths
read

of

1% chance
manner

entire

and the

experimental
the

since

width,

cracks.

of

population

accepted

less

to

constant

values

of

Crack

former

are

Normal

distribution

width

measured

from

al

(91)

crack,

the

by Base et

have
in

values

in

this

on the

is

widths

of

measurements

crack

of

were

which

determined

widths

determined

The

moment region

crack

the

than

error

and has been proved

phenomenon,

the

within

appeared

were determined.

exceeded

subject

maximum crack

that

basis.

was made on a statistical

widths

reinforcement,

of

of being

are

crack

cracks

level

the

at

the

all

of

a generally

their

investi-

mean width

of

gations.
Instead
in

cracks

the

the

against

from

section.

As was stated

(i)

maximum crack

(ii)

mean crack

at

the

the

calculated

the
crack

by reading

and multiplying
linear
width

many other

range

of

in

the

local

in

height,

spacing

bar

6.1

strain
At

Tables

latter
the

at

reinforcing

strains.

given

was plotted

the

length

Figure

electrical

the

constant

being

centre
and the
this.

confirms

gauge readings,
load

each
7.1

as
the

stage

7.6.
-

steel

strain

is

elastic

the

not

modulus

of

(89-93).

-159-

the
in

directly

used

surface

steel.

concrete

strain

can be obtained.

relationship

concrete

stress

the

versus

the

behaviour,
to

width

linear

in

deviations

and standard
moment region.

of mean crack

reinforcement

by the

was proportional
authors.

the

equal.

A roughly

the

off

the

in

strain

and are

in

graphs

levels.

stress

same level,

the

all

width

cracks

of

at

of

level,

reinforcement

on a 200 mm gauge

than

width,

show the

reinforcement

Although

level

number
- 7.3

7.1

Figs.

concrete

instead

were measured

values

the

at

the

rather

strain

a single

approximately

are

were used,

gave average

(iii)

the

earlier,

strain

concrete

following

of

Demec gauge readings

The Demec readings


they

in

strain

average

width

moment region,

constant

determined

surface

the

of plotting

For

graphs

indicated

the

reinforcement,

it
at

may be
the

reinforcement

stresses
that

within
the

mean

as confirmed

by

r'

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slope lB

1060 2000 3000 4000 500


0 2000 3000 4 GO
STRAIN 1.10
MEAN CRACK WIDTH & STANDARD DEVIATION V. CONCRETE
STRAIN AT THE LEVEL OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT

1000 2000 3000 4000 500


FIGURE 7.1

slope 36

-163-

16211

210

14-i

212

12 -
'slope 32

10 1

slope38

8slope 54

slope 19

64-

slope 29

ryI Z.
o

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E
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c14

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214

213

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slope 54

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8
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slope 33

slope 27

2
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Z
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14

218

217

216

12-i
slope 45

lo-i
8
6
slope 60

slope 27

4.

slope 34

2"

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

1060 2000 30'0040'00 5000


5I HAIN

FIGURE 7.2

_6
1U

10 0 ZO 0 30504000

MEAN CRACK WIDTH & STANDARD DEVIATION


V.
CONCRETE
STRAIN AT THE LEVEL OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT

-164-

16-1
220

219

1L -

221
slope 37

slope 32

12 -1
108

slope 23

n
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1000 2000 3000 1000 5000

FIGURE 7.3

1000 2000 3000 4000 9)00


1000
3000
2000
4000
a
STRAIN 10

MEAN CRACK WIDTH & STANDARD DEVIATION V. CONCRETE


STRAIN AT THE LEVEL OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT

The method
graphs

of

surface
found

from

(See also
plotted

the

However,

it

is

The combined

the

values

glue

Fig.

7.6.

All

values

In Fig.
mean initial
precracked

then

were

thickness

from

7.7
crack

fell

is

cracking
For

width

S with

a random

each glue
expression

v.

concrete

strain,
7.4

shown on Fig.

equations
change

of

thickness,

glue

K4

and intercepts

of

The resulting

each

the

of

three

in Fig.

thickness

glue

against

1.55
tg) tP
this

for

relationship

7.5,

all

three

against

were

than

those

need to be added

the mean ultimate


heights,

for

the

the

over

'

1.10210

range

of

experimental

experimental

values

glue

as shown in

+13% and -5%.

within

greater

34.3 tg

expression,

by Ang (72)

found

results

scattered.

is:

were plotted

values

relatively

an experimental

three

of

K3tg

drawn.

then

were

[(47.2

consistently

More beam test

tp

plotted

thicknesses,

The results
are

were

form:

the

are

found

The slopes

in

then

7.4

on Fig.

the

variation

slopes

S=

and plate

is

are

in

To combine

the

thicknesses

and plate

cases

line

each glue

the mean crack

of

of K1 to K4,

lines

fit

best

and the

concrete

analysis.

be expected.

resulting

slope

(K1 + K2 tg)

given

relationships

all

7.3,

to

shown that

507 could

a linear

equation

S=
To find

is

there

results

has been

of

tp.

thickness,

plate

as it

the

the

that

was plotted

between

assumed that

tg.

line

relationship

S, and the

7.1

for

plate

in

the

of

average

regression

as shown on Figs.

7.4

Fig.

and a scatter
fit

a best

thickness

on a linear

of reinforcing

unexpected

not

(89,93),

phenomenon

the

against

slopes

7.4.

is

this

the

thickness

the

upon

The slopes

based

lines

The values,

can be seen from

It

deviation

of reinforcement.

fit"

9).

Appendix

as shown in Fig.

for

"best

computed

against

level

was based

results

and standard

width
the

at

strain,

of

analysis

of mean crack

the

all

and beams 210 and 218,

with

found

in

comparison.

formula.

proposed

those

reinforcing

These

investigation.

present

Su, were

spacings,

6 mm thick

the

the

beams except

-166-

for

plotted

to refine

crack
the

also

plotted

which

against

the

had been

plates,

which

failed

fit lines

Best

S=

1.5
FIGURE 7.4

SLOPE
PLATE

from linear

(46.7tp+250)106

regression:

( tg =1.5mm

S= (39-8tP"330). 16

( t9=

3 mm )

S= (3mtp"410), 106

( 9=

6mm )

3-0

4.5
PLATE THICKNESS mm

OF MEAN CRACK WIDTH u CONCRETE STRAIN


THICKNESS, FOR EACH GLUE THICKNESS

-167-

6.0

V.

W
W

Y
Z
O
U

47

=cn
24 6
z
Uc45
UWG4
z
Q

Lu43
M:

Ll->
oz42

aw.

N41
--

40

LU 39
0
J
(I)

38
4.5
3'0
6.0
tg - GLUE THICKNESS mm
LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR COEFFICIENTS K1 AND K2
1.5

w
wy
U

Z
O

vi 420
>CD

_- 400-1
N3
Z
UY

36
U340
wQ

320
LLy

Y =( 34 "3t9 . 210 ). 10

300-

a-

u) 280X

200
.

15
FIGURE 7.5

GLUE THICKNESS mm

45"

LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR COEFFICENTS


-168-

5' 0
K3 AND K4

30
30

32 34 36 3B 40 42
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF
STRAIN

FIGURE 7.6

44 46
48
50 52
54 56
58 60
SLOPE OF MEAN CRACK WIDTH V. CONCRETE

EXPERIMENTAL V. THEORETICAL
MEAN

VALUES

CRACK WIDTH V. CONCRETE

OF THE
STRAIN

SLOPE OF

E
E

Cr)
CL
fj)
X

x 1.5mmplde thickness
3mmplate thickness
"
6mm plcte thickness

10

FIGURE7.7

20

ULTIMATE MEAN

30

Su = 0"32h " 38

tp=l. 5mm

j = 0"26h "37

t= 3mm

SU =0 "23h . 36

tP= 6mm

70
50
60
40
h- MEAN CRACK HEIGHT AT 60kN

CRACK

SPACING

V. MEAN

80
LOAD

CRACK HEIGHT

AT

mm
60 kN

before

their

spacings

60 KN, just

that

at

each

plate

the

ultimate

above

thickness

three

found

in Fig.
However,

cover,

which

neutral
in

that

is

extend

the

less

way.

In

ing

since

the

tensile

the

tension

7.4.2

face

would

in

the

dition.

For

The beams with

crack

width

beams with

of

in

of

the

from

to

tests

would

Broms

concrete
to be done

need

which

could

almost

to

in

be

very

be a certain

certain

which

value,

cracks

the

of

in

zone near
in

while

to an infinite

spacing

nearly

be no crack-

would
In

out

this

explained

small.

the

pointed

secondary

there

axis

neutral
is

load

(91)

al

(93)

first

formed

cracks
increase

the

reach

level.

concrete

this

that

cracks

Base et

below

spacing

show the

and the

130 kN load,

mm at

1.5

beams with

mm lapped

beams with
of

1.5

3 mm thick

times
plate.

the

applied

load.

between
spacing.

or one layer
the

crack

width

The precracked

-171-

the

of

3 mm plate
of

similar

beams with

con-

width

was

was 58 to

reduction

plate.

beam

load

this

100 and 1.33


of

width,

The unplated

plates

plates

layer

maximum crack

the service

reinforcing

had between

a continuous

mm plate,

and 1.33

6 mm thick

plates

between

approximately

1.5 mm and 3 mm thick


For

1.0

relationship

moment region,

0.12

two layers

layer

- theoretical

relating

spacings

experi-

Widths

similar

had between

continuous

zone just

beams with

63%.

joints

these.

by 33 to 50%.

reduced

from

results

Further

crack

reinforcement

between

crack

of

width

of

with

bending

constant

number

a further

7.18

to

for

axis;

strain

Maximum Crack

had a crack

for

when combining

experimental

a term

contain

concrete

the

the

7.9

the

formation.

crack

the

against

5% of

within

member primary

be a transition

Figs.

the

at

formed

are

different

there

drawn

were

+ 35.5

tp

plotted

a formula

show the

than

neutral

length

shorter

is

beam.

a reinforced
to

in

factor

to 5.8

5.2

axis

lines

was found

+ 0.43

does not

to produce

covers

Plates

formula

above

were

fell

Al values

to any plated

applied

fit

Best

relationship

tp + 0'2)h60
formula

this

a major

different

with

from

the

is

(0.02

7.8.

line.

load.

crack

following

and the

Su

ments

first

height

crack

thicknesses:

plate

The values

the

The initial

had been reached.

times

the

Similarly,
with

the
lapped

beams with
1.5

mm thick

40

50

60

70

EXPERIMENTAL ULTIMATE CRACK SPACING mm

FIGURE 7-8

THEORETICAL V. EXPERIMENTAL ULTIMATECRACK SPACINGS

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had maximum crack

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the

The variation
in

for

a decrease

the

7.4.3

Crack

Width'

The crack
with

theoretical

evidence
that

the

at

plate

increase

of

the
the

which

In Fig.
each

test

being

similar

general,

is

thickness
in

crack

width
the

thickness,

glue

shown

in

the

crack

achieved
is

8,

Appendix

for

beams

all

The experimental

and

The CP 110 and ACI methods

7.7.

for

surface

beams.

plated

This

considerably.

widths
and that

having

the

presence

a restraining

is

further

It

is

of

the

apparent
bonded

on the

effect

is

dependent

7.20,
in

plate

C1, by which

coefficient,
to

order

produce

the

thickness.

line

fit

The best

crack

produces

to

addition

acr. em must

experimental

in

equations
the

beams.

concrete

reinforced

to

equations

produces
in

thickness,

plate

the

This

results.

on the

to normally

the

by factoring

two methods

the

experimental

with

applicable

beam,
the

against

is

were made to

width

variables

other

for

than

been precracked.

Table

reduce

plates

agreement

crack

In

width.

crack

Modifications
produce

in

increase
an

had not

widths

tensile

concrete

best

beam.

an increase

as outlined

in
shown

crack

action

good composite
the

which

are

widths

the bonded

that

is

there

general,

calculated,

of plate

overestimated

greatly

precracked

Formulae

were

widths

crack

the

effect.

Prediction

layer

a single

unplated

and plate

glue

with

and for

thickness

lesser

having

the

of

beams was greater

width

In

7.19.

Fig.

plate

latter

beam while

unplated

width

crack

precracked

of mean crack

in

the

of

been precracked.

had not

diagrammatically

the

the

of

width

maximum crack

beams which

widths

had 58% of

3 mm plate

beam with

83-1007.

width,
the

for

be multiplied
was plotted
CP 110

modified

formula:
Wcr
As shown in

of

gave ratios

results,
0.90

Table

to

7.7

(2.0
this

theoretical

+ 0. l

tp)

formula,
to

acr. cm
is

which

derived
crack

experimental

from
widths

experimental
varying

from

1.09.
The ACI formula

required

to produce

the

was treated
experimental

in

a similar
crack
-178-

manner.

width
%

is

plotted

The coefficient
against

plate

C2,
thickness

1.5mm
10

plate thickness

3mm

plate

thickness

6 mm

plate

thickness

-190 0

7-1

F5

Z
w
'3

>- 60kN

2-i

1.5
GLUE
FIGURE 7.19

3.0
THICKNESS mm

45

MEAN CRACKWIDTH V PLATE & GLUE THICKNESS


-179-

s.o

TABLE

7.7

CRACKWIDTHS AT 130kN LOAD


I

BEAM
A.C1.
EXPERIMENT
CP 110
CP 110
A.C.I.
NUMBER WIDTH
THEORY THEORY ORREC CO
2
2
2
2
2
mm 10
mm b
mm 10 mm. 10
mm 16

GLUE
PLATE
THICKNESSTHICIcN S'
'
mm
mm

201

12.0

10.0

10.5

203

6 -5

8.8

9.3

6-3

6.4

0.97

0-98

1-5

1.5

204

6.0

7.4

7-6

5-7

5.9

0.95

0.98

1.5

3.0

205

5-0

5.6

5.4

4.9

5.0

0.98

1.00

1.5

6.0

207

6-0

8.8

9-3

6.3

6.4

1-05

1.07

3.0

1.5

208

6.0

7.4

7.6

5-7

5.9

0.95

0-98

3.0

3-0

209

4'5

5-6

5.4

4.9

5-0

1.09

1.11

3-0

6.0

210

5-0

5-6

5-4

4.9

5.0

0.98

1.00

3-0

6.0

216

7.0.

8.8

9.3

6.3

6-4

0.90

0.91

6-0

1.5

217

6-0

7-4

7-6

5-7

5.9

0.95

0.98

6-0

3-0

218

5.0

5.6

5-4

4.9

5.0

0.98

1.00

6-0

6 -0

219

5.0

5.6

5.4

4.9

5-0

0.98

1.00

6-0

6-0

220

6-0

8.8

9.3

6-3

6.4

1.05

1.07

30-8.0

1.5

221

6.0

8.8

9-3

6.3

6-4

1.05

1.07

3-0

1.5

TABLE 7.8

RA110 OF MAXIMUMTO MEAN CRACKWIDTH

Hognestad. Broms.

(94)
RATIO

1.50

(93)

(91)

2.00

1.66

RANGE 1.03- 210 1.20- 2.40


*

Baseet at. Borges.

Clark
piston.
Present investigations
(90)
(95)
(96)
772or
.1
2.00
1.64
1.78
2.25'4
or
1
1.50
1.18
1.50
2.20
-2.88
-2.77
-

PROBABILISTIC

VALUES

1.5
FIGURE7.20 MODIFICATION OF

4.5
3.0
tp= PLATE
THICKNESS mm
CP 110 CRACK WIDTH FORMULA

6.0

1.5

PLATE
tp

FIGURE 7.21

5mm
THICKNESS

MODIFICATIONOF ACI CRACK WIDTH FORMULA


-181-

6.0

as shown in Fig.

(0.056

WAX

As shown in Table

7.7

of

7.4.4

Relationship

the

of

values

mean crack

deviations

standard

forced

the

strain

is

the

a one percent

maximum crack
W
max
It

Wmean
to 7.6 (108 results)

of

effects
for

account

is

widths

(95)

as given
with

the

=W

(Figs.

7.1

crack

width

the

the

slopes

slopes

7.3).

to

have been

width

7.22

Fig.
against

plotted

level
in

being

the

of

their

of

fit

The best

is

exceeded

(Appendix

chosen,

at

than
that

of

load

stage

each

the

random

techniques

variation
from

the

from

by Base et
of

7.1

Tables

value

nature

crack

of

between

relationship

with
found

those

the

9)

coefficient

good agreement

thought
in

Tables

ratio

al

(91)

cracking

measurement

and

may

maximum and average

crack

found

to

from
7.6.

by others

(0.5. W
mean)

mean

of maximum crack

ranging
7.1

+ 2.5

mean
2'25

max

was 1.78,

values

crack

by:

The average

in

In

average

higher

is

It

The resulting

or

tests

the

is

a little

error

W
max

the

that

which

40%.

1'11.

to

Width

Deviation)

reinforcement

are

experimental

this.
given

a certain

here

was 0.46

These values

42% and by Borges


the

the

at

Crack

0.91

by:

given

be mentioned

from

varying

gives

Wmean + 2.5. (Standard

should

7.22.

is

width

calculated

Fig.

of

chance

results,

by:

given

a=0.5
ee
If

10-3

experimental

7.8.

are

strain

concrete

origin

- 5).

widths

Table

ACI formula:

modified

of maximum. to average

ratio

concrete

against

through

crack

as shown in

against

width

from

Maximum and Average

by many authors,

suggested

line,

to experimental
between

Different

A (fs

derived

formula,

the

produces

tp) 3ts.
1 +tshl

+ 0.0046

this

theoretical

ratios

line

fit

The best

7.23.

1.5
Both

to
the

to

width
2.2.

These

range

as shown in

average
are

and the

Table

7.8.

crack

from

width

108 sets

mean are

in

found
of

in

readings

good agreement

40

X/X
X

35

J
W

F.
z

o
LtJ
U

cr
0
LL

/X

l1!

m
5

xx
ct
t. -N

Xxx

w
w20
xx

Z
0
v

Z
X

015
w

Q_450W
0
zi0
LLC)
w
a
0
5
-J
N

w
b

30
40
50
60
10
20
70
80
W/e SLOPEOF MEAN CRACK WIDTH V. CONCRETE STRAIN AT REINFORCEMENT
LEVEL

FIGURE 7.22

SLOPE OF STANDARD DEVIATION V CONCRETE


V.

SLOPE OF MEAN CRACKWIDTH


-183-

STRAIN

V.CONCRETE STRAIN

From Figs.
W
mean
Using
has

the

the
the

these

are

of

the

ity
7.4.5

be emphasised
test

other

plated

been
value

in

em

concrete

value

When calculating

must be used.

Table

7.9

the

beams,
(a)

the

concrete

strain

shows the
from

three

in

strength
to
for

in

for

the

In Fig.

In

7.23
did

no case

has only

theory

plated

the

a 17.

is

only

valid

be required

would

to

limitation,

the

within

check

its

valid-

1.2

is

the

the

less

for

than

tension

the

value

Various

the

to

member contributes

concrete.

account

bt h (al
As h-x

stiffening

the

of

effect

its

calculated

of

on

have

expressions

reduction

calculated

the

tensile

(92)

Beeby

As

strain
on basis
cm the

of

values

The values
average

- x) .
fy

CP 110 (86)

10-3

b (h - x) 10-6

calculated

of

strain,

of

area

steel
at

zero

tensile

combined

the

sources:

experimental

a flexural

below:

surface

these

plate

tests

zone of

el - 4.5.

em =

el

given
C1 -

this

tension

by allowing

Two are

em

formula

by many authors,

strain,

concrete.

that

the

tensile

zero

proposed,
of

value,

8)

formula.

widths.

which

predicted

Appendix

Strain

Therefore,
of

+ 210]. 161

above

maximum crack

which

from:

tg

the

width

beams.

Surface

Concrete

basis

from

calculated

and further

series

The concrete

the

+ 34.3

maximum crack

exceeded.

should

stiffness.

Wmean the

Cm, (CP 110 assumptions,

of

the

exceed

2'25

tg) tp

the measured

against

present

for

1.55

of Wmax were

being

It

[(47.2

+ 210]. r-m. 10-1

tg

can be computed

exceeded

values

value

of

of being

values

plotted

34.3

tg)t p+

was found:

relationship.

of Wmax =

calculated

experimental
chance

- 1.55

2-25. c

following

the

value

a 1% chance
max

beams,

[(47.2

probabilistic

only

Using

and 7.5

7.4

values

-184-

are

level

strength

centroid
for
of

both
intonal

position
steel

in

concrete.
for

bars

and

and plate.

reinforcement

for

004
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.06
0,07
EXPERIMENTALMAXIMUMCRACKWIDTH mm.
THEORETICAL V. EXPERIMENTALMAXIMUM CRACK WIDTH
FIGURE 7.23
0.01

o.oa

TABLE 7.9

BEAM

COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND CALCULATED VALUES OF


CONCRETE SURFACE STRAIN AT THE LEVEL OF THE INTERAL
REINFORCING BARS.
203,207,211,212,
216,220,221.

NUMBERS

PLATE THICKNESS
MEASURED

6
STRAINS 10

MEAN
RANGE

204,206,213,214,
215,217.

205,20$

210,218,
219

1.5

3.0

6.0

1170

841

624

960 -

1260

670 -

1000

580

- 780

6
VALUES FROM CP1IOEOUATICN 10

1130

946

725

6
VALUES FROM BEEBY EQUATION 1

1130

960

751

1.04
1.04

0.89
0.87

0.86
0.83

EXPERIMENTAL
RATIO
THEORETICAL

TABLE 7.10

CP110
BEEBY

MEASURED AND CALCULATED VALUES OF THE DIFFERENCE


BETWEEN THE INTERNAL BAR STRAIN AND THE CONCRETE
SURFACE STRAIN AT THE SAME LEVEL.
203.20Z 211.212,
216,220,221

204,206,213,214,
215,217,

205,209,210,218,
219

1.5

3.0

6.0

96

134

148

85

120

140

bh (d-x ).103
110_1.2
AS fy (h-x)

86

80

69

b (h-x). 10'6

80

65

43

100

129

149

BEAM NUMBERS
PLATE THICKNESS
DIFFERENCE '10
MEAN MEASURED

MEANDIFFERENCEFROMFIGURES

Bl_4.5

PRESENT
(2 3.222 $) b (h-x)x) 10"6
INVESTIGATION

(b)

CP 110 equation

(c)

Beeby's

For

plate

the

mean experimental

to

thicknesses

for

range

theory

7.25

thickness

and 7.26

concrete

strain

stress

load,

have

the

at

level

of

were also
the

of

points

the

fit

fell

within

for
-30%

for

both

the

These
The ratio

prediction

calculated

steel

of

experimental

experiment
Figs.

equations

measured

were

value

of

level.
load

service

beams with

105 mm plate

of

have

3 mm and 6 mm plates,

beams with

value

at

Calculations
These values
for

strain,

concrete

by linear

plotted

beams strengthened

3 mm thick

a
service
for

are

each beam,

then
at

the

l'5

with

mm thick

and +35 and -19% for

plate

the

and all

regression

experimental
+28 and

plate,

beams with

6 mm thick

plates.
Since

same stress,

the

from

differences

and the

7.24

the
to
to

steel's
that

7.26

two theoretical

(a)

1.2

(b)

4"5'b

strain

measured

similar

Figs.

checked

usually

actual
from

calculated

A comparison

found.

are

widths

between

difference

readings

crack

in
are

methods

at working
and the

elastic
Table

given

10-6

-187-

load

7.9

is
with

below.

shown in
the

the

conditions
in

strain

stress/strain

compared

6+h (al - x). 10-3


As (h - x) fy
(h - x).
As

7.2'

basis

on the

stress,

the

against

plotted

and the

values

between

agreement

the

find

to

CP 110 and Beeby's

60 kN and 190 kN loads.

made at

15% for

beams with

beams used

reinforcement.

lines

Best

of

195 and 150 N/mm2 respectively.

experimental

internal

7.9.

show the

concrete,

at

Table

improve

to

Similarly,
of

stresses

steel

in

thicknesses

reinforcement
8,

number

and 5 respectively.

mm plate)

order

the

230 N/mm2.

against

plotted

given

These
in

strength

stresses

steel

are

In

so good.

As shown in Appendix
steel

7,6

(1.5

was 1.04

were plotted.

zero

were

3 mm and 6 mm plate

was not

tensile

of

readings

values
For

equation.

1.5 mm, 3 mm and 6 mm the

of

each plate

theoretical

and

equation.

the

steel

at

the

relationship

was

Table

The

values

7.10.

from

measured

a)
-C
II

aj

C
I

c
cc
o as
a
v--tA
."v
I

E
in 0-

0
W

W
T
...
y

in
w

QN
lt7

..
N"
n

lL

00000
Ul
Cl)

LO
C14

Zww/N

C)
O

SS381S 1331S

031b1f13-ld3

a,

C
.

.r

2
U

E
Iow

Nfit
.
z
w
m

IIo9
L809

^fz
LL

J
W

E3

w
>
$Q

^Z
Q
cr_
IN
W
hW

U
=
0

U)
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W

II',
J
W
W
F-

0
W

o
w
crD
N
w

C)
J
V

Ln
n

0
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Cl)

0.
C,,

OO

OOO

ww/ N "SS32i1S
a

C-L
.

-T-

1331S a3lblflclbo

LO

CL
s

0"
N

-c
v_

.c
3
C
t

I-

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dw

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1 Q
tA

..
a;

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2
v
E

0
0

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z
W

lL
--"
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pm

\-

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92
cl
-

hW

U
Z
O
U

tn

0
aWc
N

WJ
>W
W
J

w
-

cn

V)

E
E

NW
W

(0

HN

w
cx:
-.

_w

U
ti

Ln0

U.

W
J

a
co
N

0
I-L
00NOO

`'

`''

SS3a1S
=ww/N

'1331S

031vir1z-iv:

)"

The

measured
6.2

Table
Tables

(c)

7.1

are

values

and the mean concrete

to 7.6.

6 mm plates

give

formula:

as

depth

the

the

was found

b(h

expression

7.4.6

Stresses
is

first
to
for

the
the
In

subjected

to pure
at

constant
bars

were

1.0

about

of

by Stevens

deflection

for

the

average

(80),

with

Cr 110 recommends

that

the

stress

the

However,
the

of
that

loading

derivation

of

to multiply

plate
taken
of

Beeby's

against

plate

regression.

or

contribution
did

they

in

flexural

member adds
(76)

Yu and Winter

zone.

deformed

for

h is

method

was plotted

the

of
not

give

to be used

concrete

with

both

of
of

a tension

stresses

the

He found

that

the

in

concrete

for

this
for

remain

con-

members

approximately

reinforced

specimens

were

any numerical

concrete,

bars,

the

distribution

in

fret

curvature
in

factors

there

with

plain

the

the

affecting

and that

in

strength

of

any section

-191-

is

development

difference

varying

after

concrete

the

the

An expression

either.
concrete

beams was de-

concrete

was no consistent

bars;

difference
T,

frm

on reinforced

major

or deformed

force,
h.

tests

in which

round

tensile
b.

that

account

found

centroid

Zone

tension

The results

sustained

3/16

T=

in

concrete

stress

the

value

Tension

the

into

50 mm gave no consistent

25 mm to

was found

lower.

were varied.

beams reinforced

in

and reinforced

N/mm2.

considerably

A series
scribed

tension

b(h's
x). 10-6
As

The value

by linear

plotted

the

(97)

1972 Beeby

tribution.

3 mm and

C3, required

through

tensile

effective

7.27

In Fig.

a member.

of

but

Em, the

position.

the measured

that

who took

stiffness

for

axis

was then

stiffness

researchers

tension
value

its

to

considerably

from

7.10.

neutral

accepted

generally

level

good agreement

+ 2.30)

tp

calculations

by Concrete

Carried

from

strain,

reinforcement

gave

(2.22

Table

255 mm.

line

mean steel

agreement.
Cl -

to produce

fit

The best

It

the

x). 10-6

the

at

The coefficient,

shown.

As

thickness.

the

and then

is

formula

above

in

that

the beam i. e.

of

as shown in

be noted

should

bars

and

em

the

1.5 mm plate

worse

gave progressively

good agreement
It

strain

for

The values

The modified
to

between

difference

the

of

between

cover

from

was proposed

cracking.

bending.
may be calculated

triangular,

having

by assuming
a value

of

1.5

FIGURE

7.27

PLATE

MODIFICATION

3.0
THICKNESS mm

TO

QEEBY'S
-192-

4.5

FORMULA

6.0

zero

the

at

neutral

Fig.
load.

and 1.0 N/mm2 at

axis

7.28

shows the
is

The concrete

the

in

distribution

stress

assumed to be elastic

level.

reinforcement
the

up to

beams at

plated

a compression

service

1000 micro-

of

strain.
Taking
block:

MTS

combined

fs.

of bars

posed

the

moments of

(d 3),

As.

tribution

MTS

the

of
But

where

(fb"

of

7.28,

the

Fig.

from

distance

the

the

the

compression
is

steel
face

compression

comto

their

in

concrete

of.

of

3Mc
b. h. (h - x)

incrementally,

three

values

and the

load

strains

given

neutral

axis

Tables

stress

for

stress

in

average

(b)

concrete

for

allowing

equation,

was given

of
The values
7.12.

from

concrete

at

7.11.

Since

the

the

found

for

are

(c)

against
fit

the

In

Figs.

lines

were

tensile

6.2
the

7.12.
thickness

plotted

concrete

both

Table

values

Table

plate

of

con-

steel

change

The average

shown in

plotted

in

loaded

100 KN, plus

at

are

change

beams were
range

from

obtained

(130 &N).

Best

face.

each beam.

thickness

7.29.

elastic

tension

the

show any significant

demec readings

was then

a linear

the

not

and plates

and plate

as shown in Fig.

thickness,

did

(60 kN) and 6.2

each glue
the

are

in

Table

were

the

h.

each beam in

for

values

the bars

positions

6.1

in

given

thefefore

Mc.

zone,

stress

These values

given.

for

tensile

are

ing

b.

Qf

values

are

tension

x).

(h

The calculated

concrete

the

moment Ma and MTS is

applied

the

the

(d - x)
3

Ab +fpAp

between

Mc
or

Table

as shown in

centroid

centroid.

The difference

ness

the

about

steel

but,

and d is

and plates

Hence

in

tension

values
of

and the
given

tensile

The mean tensile


for

and the

stress

the

6.21

to

increas-

with

7.11,

and

each

glue

combined
glue

thick-

comparison

with

with

by:

(0.81 - 0.058 tg)

found

from

this

tp + 0.59 tg + 0.36.

expression

are

given

in

Table

7.13

for

.C

.
x
t_
N'c+7

I
.c

of
FORCES
tx_
compressive
2
tensile
Tc= 9. b(h)
2

c=h

Ts= ( fW

fr A.)

force in the

concrete

neutral

axis.

below

=_=

tensile

above the

steel

plate

and bars.

SYMBOLS
d

combined centroid
subscript

p denotes
r=

neutral axis depth


in the concrete.

overall

FIGURE 7.28

of steel

bars

and plate.

plate
bars
found

from the

measured

strain

distribution

beam depth.

STRESS DISTRIBUTION
SERVICE LOAD.

IN

PLATED

BEAMS

AT

TABLE 7.11

60kN
m
Z
Z

Z
w
a6
10-

&N

130kN

100IN
Z

TENSILE STRESS IN THE CONCRETE

w
6
10-

u'

10

60 100 130 w
N
0r)
cn
_

I_
= cn
u
o
1- -:z
1:
`n
w
w

W W
w
'O
Uzi z
z
mm

60 100 130 60 100 130


MOMENT
OF TH TENSILESTRESS
TENSION
STEEL IN THE
ABOUT THE
CONCRETEAT
CENTROIDOF THE EXTR
EME
- COMPRESSION FIBRE

mrr mm2 KNm KNm KNm NhrnNAnA Nh"m

mm mm mm

201 550

1030

0 1350 0

220 100 96

88

943

19"4 36"5 48"5 1.8

0.9

0.8

550

960

220

96

85

943

19-1 34-0 44.7 2-0 21

10

943

202

1320

108

203 440 500 780

900 1100 1280 226

108 102

95

204 260 400

830 770 1200 231

118 114
123 119

115

205 180

500

185 500 450

530 650 238

187 19"3 34"7 490 2"0

1"7

0"6

110 943

375 151 302

45"7 4"4

4"4

2"3

943

750 122 321

39"4 6"2 3"5 5"7

206 260 185 400 450 740 700 231 123 119 115 943

375 12"0 28"3 37"0 6"3

207 440

187 19"2 35"2 490 2"0 1.6 0.6

500 800 900 100 1280 226 112 106 100 943

208 320 370 560

750 740 1080 231 118 114 110 943

5"6 71

375 168 31"2 42"9 4"2 3'8

209 180 220 330 480 500 700 238 118 114 110 943 750 13"3 26-9 401 6"1

3"7

6"1

5'2

210 180 200 370 480 490 680 238 123 119 115 943

750 12"6 28"1 38"8 6-0 5"7

61

211 430 465 750 850 1000 1250226

187 18"4 32"7 45"0 3"3 30

2"5

118 111 105 943

212 430 600 750 1050 1020 1550 226 114 108 102 943

187 19"5 34"3 48"1 2.4

2.1 1.0

213 280 300 520 600 750 930 231 130 120 115 943

375 14"1 266 40-7 6.7

6"6 5"0

214 280 250 520 530 760 800 231 118 114 110 943

375 13"7 26.6 395 6"2 6"3 5"5

215 230 250 460 550 700 900 231 123 121 120 943

375 13.6 24"4 38"1 5'4

719 6"7

216 350 350 600 700 950 1100 226 123 119 115 943

187 14"6 26-0 41"3 4-8

6'9 4-7

217 280 350 470 650 670 1000 231 114 110 106 943

375 15.3 26.7 39.4 5"0

61

218 150 230 330 460 500 660 238 123 121 120 943

750 12-4 259 38"3 61

7.0 6'6

219 150 265 300 520 460 750 238 128 124 120 943

750 13"3 26"5 39"4 5-8

6"8 6"0

95

943 187 16"7 31"2 45"2 31

3-4 2"3

221

380 400 700 780 1000 1250 226 108 103 98

943 187 16"5 30-9 45"5 4"2

3"7 2"2

222

350 350 600

943

187 15"0 26"4 37"0 4"1

6 '0

7"4

223

350 270 650 560 950 750 226 100 100 100 943

187 14.7 27"7 40-04-1

5"2

49

375112-1 22"8 34'8 6'3

8'5 8.0

220 380 400 700 780 1000 1180 226 99

660 830

950 226

224 230 270 430 500 650 750 231

97

108 104 100

123 116 110 943


-195-

5.4

TABLE 7.12

MEAN VALUES OF TENSILE STRESS IN


FROM TABLE 7.11

la e
'

glue

1-5

3.0

6-0

1"5

1"4

3.7

5.1

3"0

2"4

5.7

5.9

6 -0

4"2

5-5

6"4

TABLE 7.13

THE CONCRETE

TENSILE STRESS IN THE CONCRETE FROM THE


DERIVED EQUATION Qf -{0; 81 - 0.058tg)tp+O. 59tg
a

idcress
glue
hicness

15

3-0

6-0

1-5

2"3

3"4

5"6

3"0

3"1

4.4

6"0

6"0

4"6

5.3

6"7

0.36
+

tg = glue thickness
x 1.5 mm
03

mm

mm

best fit lines


0-46 tp +3-75

xaf=
"
X

of = 0"68
P
= 0-77 tP

2'30
.
" 0"70

1.5
PLATE
FIGURE 7.29

3.0
THICKNESS

F4.5

6.0

mm

STRESS IN THE CONCRETE


TENSILE
FOR EACH GLUE THICKNESS

V.

PLATE

THICKNESS

experimentd =thecret i cat

v-

1234

567
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF THE TENSILE STRESS IN THE
CONCRETE
N/ mm'

FIGURE 7.30

EXPERIMENTAL V. THEORETICAL VALUES


TENSILE STRESS IN THE CONCRETE

OF THE

In Fig.
against

the

7.30

the

values

calculated

determined

experimentally

from

of

of

All

values.

this

formula

points,

except

one,

the

following

were plotted
lie

within

25%.
7.5

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the

conclusions
1.

those

widths
which

would

internal

increasing

in ordinary

bar

crack

for

stress
state

of

[(47.2

just

from
steel

crack

were

plates

beams.

concrete

bar,

a reinforcing

This

less

allows

to be developed,

width

than

therefore

cracking.

plate

to be proportional
between

the

slope

tp + 34.3 tg + 210].
were

the

of

the mean crack

steel

stress

and
width

to

related

10-6
the

plate

The mean ultimate

crack.

to

thicknesses.

and glue

spacings
first

after

bonded

reinforced

was derived

crack

distance

externally

a particular

- 1.55 tg)

The ultimate
height

investigation

this

a certain

was found

width

and the

strain

S-

and at

result

relationship

concrete

3.

stress

beams with

the-limit

following

the

in

out

concrete

The mean crack

2.

v.

steel

in

higher

carried

drawn:

are

At a given

crack

tests

thickness

and the

spacing

was given

crack

by:
Su

4.

(0.02

The application
for

Practice,
widths
plates

effectively

the plated

reinforced
beams.

reduces

in crack width

increase

load,

particular

relative

to satisfactorily

modified
equations

h+0.43

tp + 35.5

of crack width

normally

for

and

tp + 0.2).

beams, highly

concrete

This

formulae

prediction

shows that

the crack widths,

and by reducing

agree with

overestimated

the presence

beam.

restraining

in the internal

results.

The resulting

were:
(0.1

WX

3
056
0"
0046
tp)
t
= -(0 "
"+

tp

+ 2"0).

acr.

1+

(CP 110)

em
5)
10-3
s
-(f
"- " .

ts/hl

the

bars at any

The CP 110 and ACI formulae

the experimental

Wcr

the crack

of the bonded steel

both by physically

the strain

to an unplated

recommended by Codes of

(ACI)

were

5.

The relationship

statistically

for

This

compared

1178'

Wmax m
Both
for

the range

6.

of

the

el

the

concrete

plated

beams was more than

that

found

8.

The number of

and three

quarters
crack

average
cracks
plated

beam.

9.

It

spacing

only

such as concrete

refine

those
at

at
fully

service

was generally

the

cover

thicknesses
the

the

within

proposed

should
formulae.

X).
in

in

the

surface

strain

3 mm and 6 mm

with

experimental

results:

10-6

the

the

tension

case

tensile

'service

the

of

zone to
normally
in

stress

load'

developed
load

is

more in

at

the

the

stiffness

reinforced

of
concrete

concrete:

of

case

strength,

be investigated

the

of

at

present

order

between

in this

and a wider
prove

the

The number

beams than

tests.

to

two thirds

means that

failure.

plated

derived

beam size
in

This

than

greater
the

130 kN is

of

failure.

the formulae

limitations

and cube

authors

tp + 0.59 tg + 0.36

should be emphasised that

applicable

and glue

cracks

of

failure

at

for

(0.81 - 0.058 tg)

by other

concrete

predicting

from

A
As

of

cf

found

beams strengthened

b(h

tp + 2.3).

was derived

those

with

for

was derived

The contribution

A formula

2.2)

to

agreement

for

strains

7.

beams.

1.5

formulae

formula

(2.22

of:

beams.

accepted

A modified

in

were

concrete

to overestimate

Em -

(range

and mean values

plates.

was derived

widths

as follows:

mean value

W
mean

The application

was found
thick

experimental

reinforced

normally

crack

mean

the

with

maximum and average

beams,

the plated
2-25

max

between

for

section

Other

the

are

variables

range
the

of

of

validity

plate
and

tin-

'CHAPTER

'LONG TERM TESTING


8.1

INTRODUCTION

Concrete
to creep

deformations

may be critical
If

the

of

the

resin

bond

there

for

lives

bridges

designed

are

the

of

materials
because

has indicated

that

under

unfavourable

may be reduced

In

some loss

reports

between
this

due

these

materials

load.

These

to

safety

the

cohesive

of

to

results

externally

conditions

are

the

plated

long

this

over

and/

the

periods

as short
the

of

is

necessary
The

period.

in

the

conditions

over

and it

experience

of bond and corrosion

the

aerospace
bonded

strength

of

as six

years.

bonding

surface

over

bonds.

metal/concrete

chapter

unloaded

drastically

120 years,

of

construction
checking

(62)

by a loss

be serious

could

needs

joints

sustained

and sometimes

accompanied

were

deformations

composed of

under

serviceability,

resins

two years

term performance

reinforced

and durability
beams,

concrete

under

loaded

of
external

and

weathering

reported.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

8.2

The same concrete,


were adopted for

testing
reported
Prisms,
All

deformations

of epoxy

performance

Calder

elements

term

to

the

of

behaviour

to have stable

metal

concrete

dependent

structure.

Highway

industry

to time

such deformations

strength

or adhesive

subject

are

long

to

subject

a structure.

safety

resins
Reinforced

and shrinkage.

therefore,

are,

of

and epoxy

in Chapter

glue and steel


the long

term test

3 and the manufacture

100 x 100 x 500 mm, were cast

specimens were demoulded after


conditions

uncontrolled

types which were used in the short

their

test

8.3

SHRINKAGETESTS

until

for

The'material

series.

of beams was described


shrinkage

24 hours

they were either

properties

in

plated,

specimens.

the laboratory
tested

under

or transported

sites.

Three prisms
demec points,

were used as shrinkage

on a 200 mm gauge length

specimens,

on opposite

these were fitted

faces.

were

in Chapter 5.

and durability

and kept

term

Strains

with

were read

to

24 hours

within

18 months
8.4

the

demoulding

after

increasing

at

intervals

At

time.

with

was 320 microstrain.

shrinkage

SUSTAINED LOADING/LONG TERM TESTS

8.4.1

Introduction
The details
8.1.

Table

in
Fig.
as shown

two beams.

the

the

bars

tie

base.

All

were

taken

before

steel

plate

graph

of

the

also

After

the

that

works

to

(Plates
exposure

three

eight

of

18 months

beams for

for

of

faces

increasing
in

the

exposed

to

the

shows a typical
tensile

and steel

across

beam depth
the

the

beams it
It

period

beams were

unloaded

loading

rig,

exposure.

a longer

the

short

is

elements

at

term

tests

internal

was found

that

was decided,
before

-202-

testing.

brought

in

Chapter

reinforcement.

there

was no loss
to

etc.

5, with

bar

therefore,

for

back

instrumentation

procedure,

on the

gauges

no strain

the eight

8.2

Fig.

the

of

and 8.2).

The test

were

left

that

300 mm

of

The strains

compressive

beams were

to

extensions

at

length.

distribution

same

and compression

side

section.

concrete

strain

8.1

described

that

there

in

and unloaded

laboratory.

bond due to their


five

centre

The change

18 months

testing

the

at

time.

identical

remaining

measured

the

and thereafter

200 mm gauge

of maximum observed

After

exception

a demec of

change

sewage treatment

in

after

the

gauge attached

extensometer

mechanical

the

twenty

to ensure

on a pressure

and by checking

loading

in

was designed

carefully

on the beams tension,

strain

using

The loaded

shown.

testing

of

jack,

a demountable

and immediately

were

with

strains

by means of

time,

with

loading

rigs,

the

of
under

frame

was performed
both

in

placed

one third

Each loading

was checked

two unloaded

were kept

and prisms

testing.

and

the maximum stress


to

equal

5.2

with

beams were

such a way that

cubes

This

loading,

The loaded

and loading

the

operated

measurements

intervals

were

in

The control

was applied.

pump which

Macalloy

also

8.1,

in Fig.

given

sustained

was approximately

The assembly

load

correct

beams are

beam.

as the beams throughout

conditions
take

to

load

day cube strength.

eight

subjected

and Plate

sustained

under

test

loaded

to each
8.1,

four

twenty

beams were

Eight

concrete

the

of

beams corresponding

to

and then

leave

the

of
the

rnp
CC)

(D

O
(D

n
n

O
(D

aD

N
Ln

r.

.(OD

"
tT

ZIM
v
(

"L[)

tD

:-

r)

.-

! Y)

th

LL
0

C
4j

N
Co

(OD

O
(D

LM
Co

O
(0

(O
CD

U)
n

'

M
n

J
Z)

(D

co

Co
N.

D
(O

Lf)

cn
t\
LO

t+)

Lc)
^

LO
_
Ln

.-

1O

.-N

(D
O

('

CO
N.

(b
Co
O

QN
(D

Co

oo
tD

Co,

(D
j:

(0

L
(D

O
L

(n

OLC)
Co

Z)

w0
t
.
a,

Ln
^

"

cD

LC)

w
0

Ln
--

tU

(b
n

tn
LO

L!
.tn

CO

J.

CP

a)
. --

-J

Co

cD

Co

aD

"--'

F-

U'
Z
O

1N

Ln

19

(D

Co

"-

2
m
ZE
cr_
W
F-

r-

^.

F-

r"

IT
Z=

CD

'-

L?

(f)
W

"-

"-

r-

ul

1S

tD

tD

en

.-

'

tb
(0

cb
n

cD
(0

1M

cD
(D

tn
LU

QQ

-E
J
25

m
"

ro

'a

0
O
M

ON
rn

Q)

Co

tn

Co

Co

rn

-"

a
t
. -a

(D

a
LC

vi
r

tYQ
1
~ O U-

(njr
F= F-

(n?0
Qp
tI

CO

CD

.r

:D

Ln LA
a) E

Ln

-C
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-"E E
E
U)
z In z
z
0
z
,
- 2b
09

E
w

NcD

W
mQ
m
N CO :D
Utl

NO

tnw

QJ

W N m

N
vv

>

Ut-

-203-

2
s

f)

cD
Z_
O

0
J
M:
crW
f--

cD
Z
O
J

'7
CD
W
m
:D
C7
I.t.

-204-

1200 -i

11001000--l
900-

soot
BEAM No. 120

700 -4,

1234567S9
AGE

OF BEAM

concrete in compression

steel plate in tension

13

12
11
10
MONTHS

14

15

1,6

STRESS STRAINCURVES FOR STEEL AND CONCRETE

Age under load


(days)

28

3,40
520

EI
E
in

`
i
E

1500

1000

500

0
500
,=
Tensile
Compressive
Strain IT 6

CONCRETESTRAIN DISTRIBUTION

FIGURE

8.2

VARIATION

OF STRAIN

WITH TIME

-205-

1000

1500

17

18

PLATE

Si

PLATE 82

LONG

TERM

TESTS

LOADED

LONG

TERM

TESTS

UNLOADED BEAMS

BEAMS

8.4.2

Discussion

8.4.2.1

Strength

Characteristics
loads

The ultimate

in Appendix

as detailed

For

after

by strain

compatibility

testing

three

plating,

it

was thought

the

due to

the

failure

ageing

bond between
beams after

glue

failure

small

amount

areas

of

of

was no sign

of

corrosion
paint

beam was cut

through

(Plate

with

Plate

8.3.

the

(less

hardener

steel

chipped

during

this

at

stage,
resisting

be expected

5% of

than

5% of

from

its

area)

and

there

area),

edges where

some of

The concrete

transportation.
element

a small

the

of

the

the

the

of

was evidence

along

saw to produce

a circular

18 months

stripped

were

than

except

plate,
off

for

as would

there

(less

line

glue

cracked.

not

was no degradation

there

the

assuming

is

glue

28 days

Although

for

The beams were

The plates

concrete.

theoretical

the

of

beam

8.3).
The amount

depends

on the

cement

and their

so that

the

steel

concrete

of

of

of

there

must

must be acidic.
the

free

lime

to

the

In

concrete

time

of

carbonate

react

dioxide

acidic

thus

gain

11,

in

vapours

reducing

in

the

the
the

with

access
other

into
pH,

the

acidic

dioxide,

Corrosion

reduced.

than

paste

and sulphur

and oxygen

pH less
of

phases

alkalies

progressively

when moisture

The diffusion
calcium

the

cement

silicate

carbon

is

be a value

a hardened

calcium

particularly

occurs

reinforcement

and also

environment

the

in

available
of

hydratipn.

atmosphere,

alkalinity

bar

and composition

degree
the

hydroxide

calcium

amount

in

constituents

converts

or

28 days.

to

to be gained,

at

that

assuming

the

beams.

eight

at

28 days)

at

had been exposed

beams tested

the

the

of

of

experi-

The same ratios

(1.01

was nothing

calculated

the

experimental

assuming

which

set

resin

had been

protective

the

within

mixed

1.03

there

and plate

insufficiently

were

at

concrete,

pockets

28 days.

that

as shown in

air

at

28 days)

with

beams tested

similar

1.05

beams,

of

together

of

to

were

months

the mean ratio

the

than

the

of

the

of

five

remaining

moments at

greater

the

(1.00

After

by testing

the

calculation,

and 1.02

for

at'18

8.2

Table

loads

as compared

to be cracked,

in

given

moment was 1.05,

calculations

glue

4 and are

of

beams tested

three

the

of

corresponding

CP110 method

the

ultimate
the

and the

values

mental

Results

of

of

into

words

the
the

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BE_A'4

beam

pockets
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mixinq

not

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turn

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boundary

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It

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to

has prevented

a period

this

is

It
only

interesting

at

8.4.2.2

deflection
tested
increase
thickness

to note,

8.3,8.4

28 days
in

on both

to pink)

face

the

clearly

at

top

the

had the

which

ends

the

of

was measured

in

surface

epoxy

of

the

of

the beam.

surface

in

glue

the

with

comparison

of

by the

affected

The presence

short

strength

ultimate

adversely

and plate

design

beams must be studied

plated

glue

also

the

reduces
corrosion

of

technique

plating

crack

and

widths
interval

the

of

not

Characteristics
show the

or plate
than

that

and,

of
of

glue

the

respectively,

was an increase

There

thickness

curves

between

comparison

characteristics,

and 18 months.

The load-strain

but

the

be reduced.

therefore

and 8.5

was greater

that

nevertheless,

The possibility

and moment rotation


at

been

term behaviour

beam soffit.

the

Deformation
Figs.

very

the beams satisfactorily

should

reinforcement

original

periods.

strengthens

carbonation

long

and the

the

to be 2 mm at

the bottom

at

is

period

than

indicator

increase

the

months.

proceeding

test

a structure

much longer

eighteen

will

corrosion

whatever.

has not

plate

of

carbonation

However,
of

steel

then

carbonation

concrete

that

results

assists

indicated

was estimated

On the bottom

these

further

(colourless

of

was no carbonation

from

clear

over

weathering

for

there

by the bonded

provided

life

faces.

side

depth

average

which

volume

and 9.8

8.2

The depth

carbonation.

complete

cracks.

phenolphthalein
colour

between

the pH range

of

in

off.

with
in

the
This

bars

steel

a greater

and spalls

The change

carbonation.

points

resin

cracks

the

occupy

products

development

and chemicals

reaches

of beam was treated

phenolphthalein

several

carbonation

to increase

tends

also

the

promotes

the penetration

concrete

for

Carbonation

concrete.

and thus

concrete

The piece
to test

of

value
the

the

in

28 days,

as at

the

load-

load-strain,
of

the beams
for

stiffness
effect

of

both

plate

thickness.

the beams tested

-210-

"

at

18 months

generally

indicated

(290 KN) 12

1
86K'

207 216

101

214

11

f/

rTJ'

/ //%/

`i

Q 101(207)3mm glue, 1.5 mm plate.


&102(216) 6mm glue,

0108(214) 3mm glue, 2x1.5 mm plctes.

AGE OF BEAM

18 months.

28 days.

1
1000
FIGURE

8.3

Ti

3-000
5000
4000
2000
STRAIN " ff t>
LOAD STRAINCURVES
-EXTERNALSTEEL PLATE-CENTRESECTION

(290 FN)

102

(286KN)108
101

207 216

J;

1'Ir

%%'

0101(207) 3mm glue, 1-5mm plate.


s 102(216) 6mm glue,

V 108(214) 3mm glue, 2d 5mm plates.

AGE OF BEAM 18months.


days.

5
FRGLPE8.4

10,1'5
CENTRAL DEFLECTIONmm

20

LOAD-DEFLECTION CHARACTERISTICS

250

102
108

110
FAILURE
MOMENTS

l4]

100-1

207,216

214

90-1

80-i

70-I

E
z
z

60-I

O
W_

50-I

J
0-

CL
a

3mm glue. 1-5mm plate.

a 101 (207)

40-'

102(216)

6mmglue,

108 (214)

3mm glue, 2x1.5mm pictes.

AGE OF BEAM 1months.


30-

28 days.

20-.

10-1

200
100
TOTAL ROTATION radians

FIGURE 8.5

1-

10

300

MOMENT- ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS

400

an increase

of

of beam 108 were greater

strains

its

throughout
of

rigidity

loading.

slipping

up 'to

strains

This

its

between

plate

but

beam tested

corresponding

of

the

8.3

together

beams tested

three

28 days,

beams at

the Youngs

with
at

Modulus

18 months).

were
1.23

(ACI)

of

1.12

and 1.05

38.9

between

theory

formula

derived

in

values,

and the

percentage

are

also

in

given

18 months
formula

Table

measured

The moment-rotation
behaviour,

difference

between

For

all

the

the

the

closely

stiffer

than

the

series

The empirical

rotations.

predictions
with
the

28 days.

of

three
of

was

difference

the

tests,

as

and

them and the measured

reflect
at

concrete

experimental

predict

was 11%, compared

curves

the

values

increases.

load

limited

the

between

values

beams being

to

of

28 day

as the
used

8.3.

theoretical

with

the

6 was also

the maximum difference

and the

case of

increases

and experiment
Chapter

the

(CP110),

28 days.

at

shows both

5,

deflections

1.23

with

compared

compared

8.3

with

tests

experimental

theoretical

to

Youngs Modulus

the

Table
As in

rotations.

(CEB),

were

Again

18 months.

KN/mm2, at

theoretical

rotations
6.

I<N/mm2 (from

beams tested

the

all

corresponding

in Appendix

as described

experimental

and 0.95

the

than

given

ductility

gave good agreement

were

= 38.9
of

The
lower

was slightly

indicated

all

130 kN are

at

deflections.

predictions

concrete

(CEB) for

in Appendix

calculated

the

28 days.

at

deflections

deflections

of

(ACI)

The experimental

plate

than

18 months

at

the behaviour

with

theoretical

The mean ratios

(CP110),

1.12

of

experimental

The calculation

experiment.

amount

higher

lower

were

the beams tested

18 months

at

and the

strains

and theoretical
the

with

the

this

when compared

of ductility

The values
in Table

curves

stiffness

beam 214 had a certain

that

Beam 102 showed slightly

above

28 days,

at

28 days.

at

The load-deflection
an increased

could

The plate

28 days.

at

beam (214)

comparable

indicate

layers.

load,

service

the

than

behaviour

the

with

when compared

the

127 at

These
rotations

beams tested
empirical
28 days.

load-deflection

at

TABLE 8.3

COMPARISONOF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL


DEFLECTIONS AND ROTATIONS

18MONTHS

AGE AT TESTING

28 DAYS

BEAM NUMBER

101

102

108

207

216

214

GLUE THICKNESSmm

3.0

6.0

3.0

3.0

6.0

3.0

PLATE THICKNESSmm

1.5

1.5

2x1.5

1.5

1.5

2x1"5

1.60

1.40

1.80

1.60

1.35

FIRSTCRW-ALOAD 1.80

ZZ
W0
E H- E

130,kN LOAD

5"50

5.40

4.70

6"00

5.70

4-60

220kN LOAD

14"00

12.50

11.00

16"00

14.00

12"00

CP 110

4"90

4.90

4.10

5.00

5.00

4"20

w,, E
C110

WW
?o

ACI

4-90

4.76

4.20

5.00

4.89

4-30

CEB

5"70

5.70

4.88

5.81

5.83

5.00

Z
T

CP110

1-12

1.10

1.14

1"20

1.14

1"14

ACI

1-12

1.13

1.12

1.21

1.17

1"12

CEB

0"96

0.94

0.96

1"03

0.9B

0"96

2.34

2"67

2.46

2"50

ly
wE
a. LU
wo

J tJ)

w
_
aw

DUCTILJTYDEFLN.220 k
2"54
2.31
DEFLN.130 kIv^
60 KNLOAD
55
52
EXPERIMENTAL130
145
125
ROTATIONS
245
210
l9n
radians 10_,. 250
380
380
60
56 (50) 52 (46)
THEORETICAL130
125 (118 121 (113)
ROTATIONS 190
181 (175) 183 (175)
_4
radians -10 250
235 (220) 242 (236)
60
56
52
FROM
ROTATIONS
130
130
125
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
190
217
215
_4
radians 10
355
250
383
60 kNLG D
"2
DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
THE 130 KNLOAD -3
MEASURED
VAWES AND 190 k NLQAD -11
EMPIRICAL
FORMULA
220 k'NLOAD
-9

52
55
46
145
133
110
250
180
235
430
300
430
46 (50) 61 (53) 56
(50)
116 (102) 135 (126) 131 (124)
155 (152) 195 (186) 199 (190)
194 (192) 247 (237) 263 (257)
46
61
56
109
150
146
180
255
253
308
413
418

-1

,2

+1

"3

46
111
193
360
50
(44)
115 (110)
169 (165)
212 (209)
50
123
220
350

+11

+6

,g

.3

.g

"11

+2.

.a

+11

-4

-3

-3

Figures in brackets
in
tensile
concrete =3 N/mm?
assuming
stress

Otherwise

1 N/mrrF

8.4.2.3

Cracking
The crack

Characteristics
analysis

Table

8.4

shows the

test

Plate

8.6

shows the

beams after

The mean crack


surface
were

from

derived

against

beams the values

deviation

is

are very

as shown in

used

to
to

close

for

crack

37

was then

from

used

to

compute

108
between

The agreement
8.7

fit

the

lines

The limited
agreement

the

for

the

with

tests

three

to
at

the

for

18 month

old

55

52

50

beams tested
only

against

width

deviation
at

both

at

concrete

gives

is

strain.

and 18 months

18 months

good.

strain

concrete

against

28 days

3 tests

is

and experiment

prediction

mean crack

beams.

Specing

Crack

55

standard

from

the

61

CP110 and ACI crack


were

at

used

18 months,

experimental

28 days

the

finding

are

given.

close

28 day tests.

28 days,

beams tested

theory
0.91

at

of

the

formula
(mm)

formula's
the

of

obtained

The modified
the

slope

slope

accuracy

the

for

values

53

experimental
spacing
(mm)

for

28 day tests,

the

strain

37

formula
value

44

derived

test

old

concrete

44

102

The best

v.

width

108
formula

width

values.

47

Beam No. 101

against

18 month

the

of mean crack

Ultimate

plotted

empirical

52

spacing

In Fig.

the

102

The empirical
ultimate

The slopes

the mean crack

for

experimental

experimental
value

If

of

slope

values

compute
the

8.6.

the

against

reinforcement.

Fig.

the

Slope
Beam No. 101

28 day tests.

the

were plotted

internal

the

of

28 day tests,

strain,

concrete

level

the

regression
the

28 days.

at

failure.

and standard

at

by linear

computed

formula

width

beams tested

the

them with

and compared

results

strain

concrete

as for

was performed

values
the

three

to

width

calculate

the maximum crack

in
Table
as shown

was 0.85
comparable

(ACI)

formulae,

prediction

8.5.

or 0.84

beams.

derived

widths

The average

(CP110),

for
ratio

as compared

from
the
of
with

CRACKING CHARACTERISTICS

TABLE 8-4

U- "

2:

60

&

w .

0L'

467

405

MEAN

STANDARDCOEFF OF
MEAN
STANDARD
'
MEAN
2

DEVIATION
VARIATION
CRL K 10
CRACK
DEVIATIONCRACK
WIDTH
2
SPACING
10
HEGHT
E
10
pE
x
mm
mm
cs
mm
mm
mm
2.42
0.93
38
92
62
4.0
54

STANDARD
DEVIATION

mm
18

2.28

0.76

33

3.0

94

21

80

21

8 820
9 840
11 1200
10 1190

2.72
3.00
3.95
4.30

" 0.87
1.40
0.83
2.16

32
47
28
50

5.0
5.0
6.0
.
7.0

79
90
68
80

32
22
25
27

82
105
92
112

24
24
33
26

160

14
12

1565
1590

4.39
5.20

2.33
3.46

53
66

10.0
10.0

54
66

25
32

94
118

40
44

210

15 2800
13 2655

7.53
7.46

3.22
4.92

43
66

12.0
16.0

53
60

25
27

97
123

48
40

3700

14.18

8.17

58

30.0

48

21

54

2-10

66

32-0

53

25

108
1'

100
130

250

16

15

3750 1 15-20

(a) beams 207

Upper figures - 28 day test.


Laver figures - 18 month test.

60

5
7

390
375

9
100
B
10
130
8

700
790
980
1080

160

12

220

130
160
220
250

3"75
4-30

Wmax/ Wei

2"07

35
.21

4"0

1.80

3"0

109
116

72
33

48
83

21
24

45
31
48
26

5.0
6.0
7"0
8.0

88
100
71
100

24
13
29
13

87
107
97
110

26
24
28
27

1.55

1280

6"58

46

11.0

60

22

105

37

1400

37

32

116

37

2120

4"07

41

53

21

105

44

5.87
9"07

53
61

12"0
16-0
18.0
30"0

88

14

7"67
9"93

3"04
2"87

64
53

31
21

41
50

9.10

126
112

55

30-0

61

31

130

44,

13

100

2"57
3"00

Wmax/ Wmean1.98

101

0.90
0"53
1-35
1-16

41

5"87

12
14
250

60

2",58

6
6
10
10
12
10
12
11
14
13
1
14

2220
3310
3125

350
250
660
500
1000
770
1240
1030
1850
1730
2500
2400

11-16

1486
16"46

2"20

2"81
310
3-00
4-50
4"10

6"00
4"90
7"85
8"46
1410

t10-55

0"82
0"50
1-30
1-15
2-30
1-37
2-50
2"20

4"80
3"60
7"80
S-11;

37
28
42
38
50
34
41
44
61

(b) beams 216

/ %mn =1.70
rxix

102

VJmean=1-52

3-0
3"0
6-0
5.0
8.0

129
124
79
76
68
7"0
76
10.0
63
9.0
68
17"0
58
L2
15"0
56
55
28.0
55
24-0
49
?
--- 1
(c) beams 214W

48
38
24
25
18
25
13
24
10
22
12

.
406

I f;

/Wn
max
108 %=/W

-217-

71
51
83
77
101
98.
108
101
111
105
121
= 1-82
n-

1.81

12
22
29
25
30
27
32
27
39
34
41
11

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w
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slope 30

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z
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BEAMS 102 (216)

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1000

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2000
STRAIN 10'

5000

54

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4000

12
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08
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BEAMS

02.

1000
STRAIN 1U-1-2000
FIGURE 8-6

3000

4000

108 (214)

5000

MEAN CRACK`NIDTH AND STANDARDDEVIATION V. THE CONCRETE


STRAINAT THE LEVEL OF INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT
-219- ,

Fo(D

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The formulae
and the

tensile

in

stress

beams as there
difference

derived

28 days

at
the

the

could

concrete

were no strain

between

to predict

internal

bar

test

programme

surface

in

concrete

strain

long

the

bars.

reinforcing
and the

strain

concrete

be checked

not

on the

gauges

the

term

Therefore
surface

the
was.

strain

not measured.
8.5

DURABILITY TESTS

8.5.1

Introduction
This

part

the

of

of various

sealing

Obviously,

to be effective,

moist

in

conditions

The following

and steel.
8.5.2

the
long

the

durability

on the

agents

was designed

sealing

agent

and have

term

products

the

of

must

investigate

to

the

effects
joints.

concrete/epoxy/steel
behaviour

show stable

good bonding

to

concrete,

under
resin

epoxy

were used:

Details

Coating

The coatings

used were

easily

applied

using

a spatula

shear

resistance

or paintbrush,

as indicated.
8.5.2.1

Polyurethane
This

was a two component

temperatures
8.5.2.2

of

70C.

are

SILITE

100 manufactured

8.5.2.3

Acrylonitrile

heat
dry

these

in

air

at

is

good up to

used was FLEXANE 30 manufactured

by DEVCON Ltd.

(Spatula)
the

same type
which

heat

resistance

as the

of resistance
in

cure

air

at

room temperature

260C.

up to

polyurethanes,

The product

to produce
used was

by DEVCON Ltd.
(Brush)

Phenolic
show the

same sort

to temperatures

resistance

whose

systems,

with

rubber

Again

have

these

one component

a resilient

liquid

The product

Rubber

Silicone
Generally

but

(Brush)

Rubber

room temperature.

of

of

as the

resistance

150C.

They

The product

used

are

polyurethanes

one component

and have
which

systems

was K7066 manufactured

by

SWIFT Ltd.
8.5.2.4

Paint
Two coats

(Brush)
of

primer

and two coats

used was MANDERLACmanufactured

of

finish

by MANDERS Ltd.

coat

were

applied.

The paint

Four
Two were
were

Specimens

Control

8.5.2.5

stored

the

with

a controlled

prisms

were also

steel

test

other

in

stored

unplated

were made with

prisms

17C,

at

no protective

described

specimens

atmosphere
cast

having

plates

and kept

in

concrete

prisms

the mist

and the

above

56% relative

coating.

humidity.
20C,

room at

two

other

Four

100% relative

humidity.
8.5.3

Experimental
The test
8.8.

Fig.
control
three

in

plates,

in

After

the

for

22C,

days before

seven

seven days afterwards.

The loading
central

the

arrangement

is

left

loading

point

The first

the

plates

8.5.4

Discussion

The average

of
are

failure

kN (FLEXANE);

beam which
Therefore

was kept
after

prisms

7 days before

for

plus

24 hours

after

and

removal

to bond on the

XD808 was used

Giegy

to

which

of

the

replaced

were

kept

8.8.

or

the

and the

ultimate

beams to

humidity.

56% relative

17C,

before

20 months

The loading

a further

room except

mist

The beams were

450 mm.

the

in

at

10 months

and for

coatings

then

room for

laboratory

in uncontrolled

cure

application

off

twentyfour

stripped

and the

coating

of

series.

left

concrete,

types

rate

load

tested

under

was 4 kN/minute.

were

investigate

testing.

After

noted.

corrosion

of

the

interface.
result
given

beam, with

control

plated

test

a span of

stripped

were
humidity

Ciba

shown in Fig.

the

were

The results

34'3

in

and plate/glue

plate,

mist

over

load

crack

failure

no coating

in

The beams were

therefore,

all,

The beams were

beams with

two control

In

specimens

beams were

four

the

100% relative

preliminary
the

plating,

conditions

All

100 x 100 x 500 mm as shown in

each of

and plating.

preparation

as used

above.

were cast.

room at

a mist

for

cast

as detailed

cubes

surface

were
were

prisms

specimens

placed
for

specimens

Four

control

procedure

loads
3215
at

8.6.

Table

no protective

(SILITE);

in

each)

35.3

56% relative
the

mist

After

coating,

(2 specimens

17C,

10 months

in

for

(SWIFT)
humidity

room there

10 months

in

had a failure
the

coated

and 34.1

room the

the mist
load

prisms
(PAINT).

had a failure
was no significant

3106 )N.

of
were

The uncoated
load

of

34 kN.

difference

500

lo

I.

:. _

C
0
r-

r
I

333

i'

glue thickness 3 mm
plate thickness 1.5 mm
bars
6 mm dia.
reinforcement
DETAILS OF DURABILITY SPECIMENS

All

dimensions

in

mm.

250

25

450

_I

LOADING ARRANGEMENT

FIGURE

8.8

DURABILITY

TEST

SPECIMENS

-223-,

80

50 mm c1c

DURABILITY

B"6

TABLE
BEAM
NUMBER

AGE AT
TESTING

MONTHS

TEST RESULTS.

TYPE OF CP 110
COATING THEORY
FIRST
CRACK
LOAD
N

CP 110
EXPERINEN1FERMEN
THEORY FIRST
FAILURE w

FAILURE CRACK
LOAD
LOAD
V

LOAD

U
RI

kN

k^1

301

10

NONE

12.6

32-8

18.0

31.6

1.50 0.96

302(1)

10

NONE

12.6

32.8

16.0

34.0

1.27 1.04

303

20

NONE

13-0

34-0

20.0

32.7

1.54 0.96

304(1)

20

NONE

13.0

34-0

18.0

361

138 1.06

305

10

FLEXANE

12.6

32-8

16-0

32-3

1.27 0-98

306

10

FLEXANE

12-6

32-8

17-0

36-2

1-35 1.10

307

20

FLEXANE

13-0

34-0

16.0

37.2

1-23 1.09

308

20

FLEXANE

13-0

34-0

16-0

38.7

1-23 1.14

309

10

SIUTE

12-6

32-8

18.0

31.4

1.43 0-96

310

10

SILITE.

12-6

32-8

20-0

33.6

1.59 1-02

311

20

SILITE

13-0

34-0

18.0

36.8

1-38 1.08

312

20

SILITE

13.0

34-0

20-0

38-3

1.54 1.13

313

10

SWIFT

12-6

32.8

18.0

36-2

1.35 1.10

314

10

SWIFT

12-6

32.8

17.0

34.4

1.46 1.05

315

20

SWIFT

13-0

34-0

19.0

35-4

1.46 1.04

316'

20

SWIFT

13-0

34-0

16-0

37.6

1.23 1-11

317

to

PAINT

12-6

32.8

18.0

34.4

1.43 1-05

318

10

PAINT

12.6

32.8

17-0

33.8

1.35 1.03

319

20

PAINT

13-0

34.0

21.0

38.2

1-61 1.12

320

20

PAINT

13.0

34-0

17-0

36-0

1.31 1.06

10

NONE

9.2

9-2

9.5

9.5

1-03

322(2)

10

NONE

9-2

9-2

9-2

9-2

1.00

323(2)

20

NONE

9-5

9.5

9.7

9-7

1.02

20

NONE

9.5

9.5

10.0

1.05

321

324

(2)

(2)

10.0

1) Uncoated plated beams kept at 17C 56/RH.


(2)Uncoated, unplated beams.
,
All beams other than those marked (1 )were kept at 20C, 1004 R. H.

-224-

control
specimen kept at 16C , 56! Rela'ive
a- no coatinghumidity
b-- no coating - kept at 22C 100/ Relative
,
phenolic
c- SWIFT K 7066 Acrylonitrile
Polyurethane.
d- FLEXANE 30
Paint
e- P/lANJERLAC
Silicone
f -- SLITE
100
PLATE

B4

DURABILITY

SPECIMENS

AFTER

TE`, TItH(')

humidity

DURABILITY
a-f

BEFORE TESTING

SPECIMENS
see

Plate

84

REINFORCING PLATES AFTER

P!. TF B5

D'JRl, 9! '..!TY

TESTING

I'PEC! AE'i

I-

..... 1..

HE;M

iP t

...

1.....

86

r.....

3 mm glue

6mm

(, h

glue

r.

1i
_A

n.

thickness,

_.
,
1
thickness,

15 mm

plate

1 5 mm plate

3mm glue thickness,


2 layers
lapped
plates above the load

PATTERNS-

'Iii

+f,,, ,

of 1
point,.

AGE OF BEAMS - 18months

""

between

the

protection

beam, without
lower

slightly

kept

a coating,

load

failure

different

by the

given

the

with

the

than

types

beams in

coated

room had a

the mist

beam which

uncoated

The control

coating.

of

was kept

dry

under

conditions.
20 months

After
had a failure
humidity

failure

(FLEXANE):

37.6
the

exceed

effectiveness

in

36.1

control

(2 specimens
36.5

glue

were

is

(PAINT).

applied.

38.0

were

prisms

coated

56% relative

at

These values

humidity

of

by CP110 methods

calculated

and steel

in

the

the

showing

ratio

of

safety

material

The tensile

as 16 N/mm2 and 275 N/mm2 respectively.

10 months

at

with

Chapters.

previous

taken

were

concrete

The average

respectively.

kept

to be some

appear

when no coating

the

and 37.1

56% relative

therefore

would

for

each)

17C,

at

to moisture

(SWIFT);

as described

to unity

The cube strengths

There

no coating

coatings.

loads

the

beam kept

exposure

specimen

the

M.

beam with

control

The similar

of

(SILITE);

of

equal

stresses

load

loads

The failure
factors

U.

the

room,

due to prolonged

strength

The average

all

the mist

32'7

of

had a failure

in

loss

load

in

and 20 months

75 and 90 N/mm2

were

to theoretical

experimental

values

was

1.05 at 10 months and 1.08 at 20 months.


The first

crack

As explained

loads.
behaviour

of

the

was there

Plates

specimens,

slightly

lower

rather
steel

because
plate.

of approximately

loads
of bond

the

of
This

of

except

failure

any loss

8.4

course

was

0.2 mm.

found

the

ingress

than

be expected.

epoxy

or

steel

no case

of moisture

and resulting
mm in

of

loss
places,

the
in

in

latter.

could

the
The

be explained,

adhesive,
thickness

with

failure
In no case

even

the

prisms
to

did

failure.

plate,

face

exposed

predicted

The composite

beams after

exposed

to be up to 0.3

the

and in

was good,

show the

on the

rusting

higher

all

the uncoated,

through

excessive

would

and 8.5
of

of

were

system

deterioration

any visual

due to

this

steel/epoxy/concrete

uncoated

not

visually

previously,

by debonding.

occur

obtained

but
of

the

a mean value

8.6

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the

results

in

presented

Chapter

this

following

the

conclusions

can be made.
1.
were
of

loads

The ultimate
compatible

epoxy bond and that

the

be predicted

could

be expected

what would

with

the

accurately

beams tested

by the

sustained

that

assuming

concrete

was ageing

by strain

compatibility

18 months

after

exposure

was no degradation

there

loads

The ultimate

normally.

the

assuming

was not

glue

cracked.
2.

Virtually
18 months

plate

the

the

tension

face

4.

of

5.

for

those

6.

as those

7.

For

the

were

8.
the

prisms
of

the

visual

which

best

found

(up to

28 days.

10% of

In

at

the

the

plate.
and hardener,
the

area),

beams

affected.
closely

properties

general

of

on the

all

resin

adversely

the

beams

older

in Appendix

outlined

methods

from

interface
whatever.

for

tests

at

close

showed the
the

the

with

5 were

experimental

coating

28 days

at

as

values.

(3 beams only)

agreement

with

effectiveness

there

20 months.

predicted

11%.

within

18 months

penetration

after

beams tested

18 months

at

to be in

had no protective

deterioration

edge of

Carbonation

of

and moment rotation

derived

tests

system

epoxy/steel

the

beams

results.

number of

The durability
epoxy/steel

at

bonded

mixing

were not

at

test

occurred

epoxy

28 days when compared

beams tested

limited

characteristics

glue

by the

at

formula

the

of

by the

line

beams tested

calculated

The empirical

and had not

properties

calculated

gave the

rotations

the

the

behaviour.

stiffer

The CEB method

in

of

occurred

in

transportation.

inadequate

load-deflection
similar

rusting

was protected

and deformation

strength

off

was evidence

had occurred

during

2-3 mm depth

to

pockets

The deflections

accurate

of

concrete

there
air

showed slightly

the

the

The load-strain,

followed

signs

was limited

where

inclusion
and
ultimate

The only

had been chipped

paint

Even though

3.

plates

of

exposure.

paste

cement

steel

no corrosion

after

where

the

of

the
the

the

cracking

28 day test
coatings

results.

in

protecting

moisture.

However,

even

was no visual

evidence

of

of

The coatings

themselves

in

the

corrosion
showed no

CHAPTER 9
OF PRESENT WORK, OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND

LIMITATIONS

RECOMMENDATIONSFOR FUTURE WORK


9.1

OF PRESENT WORK

LIMITATIONS

data

The test
systematically

a range

covering

the number of beams and the


it

Nevertheless,
ural

behaviour

steel

plates.

were

conducted

is
of

hoped

are

considered

to be the

glue

and plate

thicknesses.

here

presented

of

duration

that

this

reinforced

our

beams strengthened

concrete

The limitations

add to

work will

within

the main

which

set

this

on

range.

knowledge

flex-

the

of

bonded

externally

with

flexural

of

series

results

of

Limitations

has restricted

testing

of

first

testing

are:

1.

The concrete

2.

Only

one type

of

3.

Only

flexural

tests

4.

The amount

beams were under

strength
epoxy

internal

reinforced

prior

CXL 194,

adhesive,

were

of

members may be different

of

bar

All

in

the

bridge

actual

of

behave

beams often

constant.

constant.

The behaviour

to plating.

as prestressed

span was kept

was kept

reinforcement

N/mm2.

was used.

The shear

performed.

60-80

between

beams varied

the

all

an over

reinforced

manner.
5.
of

of

Due to

testing

only

testing

only

a limited

amount

of

replication

6.

The range

7.

All

8.

The long

of

adhesive

beams had the


term

and plate

was 1.5

thickness

to

6 mm.

same dimensions.

tests

were

performed

after

internal

bars

a relatively

short

period

18 months.
The concrete

to

cover

the

was not

varied.

OVERALL CONCLUSIONS

9.2

Although
end of

that

data

clusions

1.

of

was performed.

9.

test

duration

the

the

chapter,
presented

are

limited

derived

conclusions
the
in

general

by the

The maximum increase

conclusions

in

test

each

chapter

which

conditions

ultimate

flexural

-230-

are

summarised

can be extracted

be
summarised
may

thesis

this

from

as follows,

and procedures
capacity

from
(these

as outlined
on addition

at

the

the
con-

above):
of

bonded

plate

was only

reinforcement

dicted

by CP 110 or

flexural.
plate,

to a shear/bond

2.

The service

loads

were up to

90% higher

rotations,

steel

the

unplated

best

The rotations

plated

beam at

the

The measured

methods.

1.5 mm

beams with
thickness.
loads

as the

load

service

at which
attained,

were

from:

was chosen

deflections,

widths.
up to 407. less

beams were

plated

deflections

be predicted

could

The CEB recommendations

ing.

were up to 48"

Using

this,

The crack

5.

maximum crack

the Young's

the

rotations

widths

to natural

exposure
the

found

were

than

satis-

to

give

the

the

tin-

plate

Inspection
of

of

inadequate

one beam these

showed no loss
8.
available
ingress

behaviour

of

had been eliminated

be predicted

within

beams had not

the

a period

of

interface

pre-

were

values.

been adversely

by

affected

No deterioration
this

over

by the

The
width

crack

measured

was found

63%.

formulae

These

18 months.

beam soffit

on the

by the

overestimated

the

load-

12%.

beams by up to

satisfying

of

any stage

at

an

period.

presence

of

the

bonded

reinforcement.

7.
signs

formulae

over

concrete

to produce

used

were

CP 110 and ACI.

empirical

weathering

plated

the-plated

in

beams than

rotations

of

were

by both

the

the

in

loads

or adhesive/adhered

adhesive

Carbonation

could
reduced

recommended

The flexural

6.

were

Modulus.

at working

to produce

modified

in

% less

The measured

for

widths

formulae

diction

loads.

service

formula

empirical

In

in

was

correlation.

4.

of

its

criterion

on which

deflections

specimen.

by accepted

factorily

an unplated

failure

for

assessed

beam at

or maximum crack

strains

load

beams,

pre-

6 mm plate

beams with

plated

depending

bar

The service

the
in

deformations

corresponding

in

for

be accurately
mode of

flexural,

purely

for

failure,

could

when the

methods
from

mode changed
type

loads

The ultimate

compatibility

strain

The failure

3.

177.

of

plates

mixing

strength

coating

of

removed
the

covered

areas

The durability
for

the

the

the

up to

10% of

long

term

specimens

system

and inclusions

the

bonded

surface.

there

are

resin/hardener

during

specimens

from

This

showed
of

air.

beam

testing.
showed that

epoxy/plat

e element,

of moisture.

-231-

which

various
effectively

sealing

agents

prevent

the

9.

The preliminary

bonded

plates

in

than

9.3

the

prisms

strength
composite
the

of

strength

the

of

resin

epoxy

is

system

externally

with

considerably

epoxy.

SUGGESTIONSFOR FUTURE'WORK
endeavoured,

(a)

glue

(b)

degree

(c)

long

thinner

layers

of view

although

of

of

glue

the

glue

a durable

acceptable

thickness

of pouring

wet

on the

deformations

of

beams which
further

the

some of

precracked
cracked

were not

layer

thought
which

the

to

plated

minimum

a different

applied

point

technique

the

reinforcing

plates

onto

hardened

195 mm.

up to

to

a very

90% of

limited
failure

their

was achieved

found

This

load

than

behaviour

of

the

as the

to be less

aspect

extent.

with

seemed anomalous,

generally

to plating.

prior

using

were

results

beams were

layer

thinnest

mm and found

performance

the

is

It

and Smith (28) tested

was investigated

satisfactory

The

a bonding

from

when bonding

below

beams loaded

plate,

However,

added reinforcement.

they

employed

precracking

even with.

the

1.5

to

epoxy

be extended

of

0.25

an uncured

therefore,

in

Cusens

However,

thicknesses

glue

showed that

from

ranging

onto

The degree

bond.

strength

layers

6 mm.

more stiffness.

slightly
be applied

would

to be 1 mm.

of

to bonding

jointing

plate

plate,

1.5 mm to

thicker

as the

provide

layer

high

concrete

should,

of

was from

thickness

as well

did

thicknesses

The range

prior

the

beams

the

of

behaved

latter

glue

The tests

to assess

available

layers

multiple

and plate

the

beams with

concrete

time

exposure.

glue

in practice

plate;

precracking

term

of

produce

thickness,

and plate

The range

would

limited

the

within

following:

the

of

effects

in

the

needs

examination.
The mode of

increased,
avoided
this

tensile

concrete

tensile

the

that

steel/epoxy/concrete

unrestrained

The author

that

the

unreinforced

of

series

indicate

seemed to

when incorporated
higher

test

from
as there

type

of

failure

flexural

purely
is

failure

of

the

less
could

warning

beams changed,

plated

to a shear/bond
and it

be avoided

is

more brittle.

by modifying

-232-

type.

the

as the

plate

The latter
It

is

ends of

thickness

should
thought
the

plate.

be
that
The

thickness

plate

means of

or width
the

anchoring

investigation,

the

a slightly

produced

the

near

beams could

the

ends of

ends may be effective.

plate

thickness

of

the

higher

failure

load.

This

or

In one beam of

the

at

plate

be reduced,

an area

which

present

and, this

ends was reduced

is

the

some

further

requires

study.
The beams in
The effect

span.

the present

the

The behaviour
the

is

as it

siderably

must

epoxy

ultimate
tensile

higher

than

the

unrestrained

test

beams have been

of

a very

be carried

and bond

shear

the

should

composite

be

in

contribution

be studied

should

of

beams.

plated

tensile

data

test

system

further

could

be con-

after

18 months

value.
set

deterioration

period

in

comparison

on beams after

in

strength

or

out

its

the

Tests

in

stresses

a beam,

of

performance
short

an identical

values.

especially

strength

its

with

were made from

limiting

not

resin,

that

loss
no
showed
months

the

shear

thought

Long term

is

the

of

of

calculation

limiting

tested

be investigated.
stresses

These were

the

to assess

all

were

should

interfacial

of

investigation.

present

designed

this

of varying

Some assessments

series

up.

increasing

The tests
of

to

the

the

epoxy

life

lengths

performed

of
of

However,

resin.

Tests

a structure.

exposure

to

18

the

elements.

APPENDIX

(74)

(12)

The rapid
vocabulary.

growth

in

the

The following

fasten

ADHEREND

a body which

is

ADHESION

the

being

together

of

two

adhesives

of

two surfaces

action,

held

that

a material

binds

by means of
interfaces;

by interfacial

forces

sources.

an interlayer

the

attachment
of

consisting

forces,

bonding

of

various

body by an adhesive.

another

adherend

combinations

or

from

together

chemical

technical

an extensive

by adhesion.

to

attached

forces,

molecular

to

surfaces

between

of

led

a selection

present

pages

state

has

adhesives

use of

ADHERE

ADHESIVE

TECHNOLOGY

TO ADHESIVES

GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING

interlocking

these.

together

materials

other

by surface

attachment.

BATCH

a production

quantity

or

of

a mixture

from

derived

these

resulting

a manufacturing

from

the

process

same process

conditions.

BOND

the

CATALYST

a chemical

union

added in

substance
small

reactants:
or

COHESION

internal
bulk

to

which

adhesive

adhesion;

material.

which

amounts

material

accelerates

by adhesives.

two materials

of

the

accelerates
the

larger

promotes

adhesive
quantities
cross

when

curing
of

the

linking

in

rupture

within

a polymer

drying.

ability

to resist

the

CORROSION

CREEP

CROSS LINKING

the

chemical

and the

adherend

adhesive

leading

load.

the

of

union

adjacent

as long

existing

deterioration

to

or

reactive

components

of

of

molecules
chains)

polymer

adhesive

contamination
in

the

bond strength.

the

of

time

change with

sustained

the

due to

surfaces,

dimensional

the

between

reaction

a material

under

uncured

adhesives

by catalytic

or

(often

curing

agents.

CURE

to

the

alter

change,
heat,

DEGREASE

to

DELAMINATION

DURABILITY

physical

or

by the

about

agency

of

catalysts.

from

remove oil

and

the

separation

of

layers

the

resistance

to

reduction

grease

adherend

surfaces.

failure.

due to adhesive

in

heat,

to moisture,

adhesives

by chemical

an adhesive

brought

e. g. polymerisation,
pressure,

of

properties

joint

strength

chemicals

shown by

and biodeterioration

etc.

EXTENDER

extend

FAILURE,
ADHESIVE

joint
of

failure
the

joint

such

adherend,
tape

failure

substance

increase

life,

pot

sensitive

FAILURE,
COHESIVE

liquid

a non reactive

that

flexibility

the

compounds

and lower

the

to

cost.

at

the

in

adhesion

of

a pressure

when peeled

from

the

epoxy

occurs

failure

within

to

separation

the

e. g.

added

adhesive.

an adherend.

surface

FATIGUE

upon the

FILLER

of

a condition

from

stress

interface.

adhesive-adherend

an adhesive

intended

additive

flexing

repeated

impact

or

force

to

improve

with

epoxy

their

strength

and performance.

FLEXIBILISER

a substance

react

will

which

compounds

to

impart

flexibility.

GEL

a semi-solid

in which

aggregates

HARDENER

a catalytic

or
of

setting

cross

the

contact

area

JOINT

the

junction

of

PASTE

a high

PENETRATION

the passage

PH

a measure

PHASE

a homogenous

held.

linking

between

to promote

used

material

and adhesive

adherend

two adherends

viscosity

adhesive

of

are

which

held

surfaces.

together

by

of

acidity

into

or

other

a material

POLYMER

a compound formed

added

distinct

to an adhesive

containing
weight

part

by definite

parts

by the

an adherend.

alkalinity.

and physically

from

molecular

composition.

an adhesive

PLASTICISER

high

solid

layer.

an adhesive

molecules

of

adhesives.

INTERFACE

separated

is

liquid

a network

of

consisting

system

reaction

active
material.

of 'a system

bounding

increase

to

of

functional

identical
groups

its

surfaces.

flexibility.

simple
to produce

POROSITY

the

POT-LIFE

the

PRETREATMENT

those

treatments,

to

an adherend
improve

REACTIVE DILUTENT

the

the

an adhesive

chemical

or

adhesive

promote

an adhesive.

after

preparation.

physical

which

are

properties.

before

applied

coating

the

to

adhesive

the

ratio

the

of

RHEOLOGY

the

for

term

of

which

a given
the

at

and flow

of

volume

to

air

same temperature.

polymers

are

which

point.

melting

rate

chemical

proceeds.

and synthetic

the

deformation

of

study

it

saturate

natural

slows

in

water

and have no fixed

amorphous

an additive

to

required

general

RETARDER

weight

thermosetting

undergoes

curing

whilst

adhesive

free

solvent

The dilutent

viscosity.

with

for

dilutent

liquid

high

of

the weight

RESIN

absorb

bond performance.

reaction

RELATIVE HUMIDITY

to

surface

a low viscosity
resins

for

mechanical,

adherends

to

surface

time

working

effective

applied

PRIMER

an adherend

of

ability

a chemical

of

behaviour

of

reaction.

materials

under

stress.

SET

the

conversion

by chemical

of
or

an adhesive

physical

SHRINKAGE

the volume reduction

SLIPPAGE

the

movements

of

into

a permanently

cured

state

means.

occurring

adherends

during

adhesive
to

relative

curing.

each other

during

bonding.

STORAGE LIFE

the

time

stored

period

under

for

specified

which

an adhesive

temperature

remains

conditions.

usable

when

STRENGTH,

CLEAVAGE

the

load

tensile
to

required

cause

the maxmimum load


to repeated

of

STRENGTH, IMPACT

ability

STRENGTH, PEEL

the

resistance

per

unit

the

resistance

the

SUBSTRATE

width

per

width

a test

bond

of

of

specimen

SURFACE PREPARATION the

physical

adherend

an adhesive

of

bond at

of

an adhesive

of

the material
bonding

of

or

for

to

application.

force

the

stress,

joint

to
at

tensile

the

stress;

failure.

an adhesive

other

stress.

shearing

failure.

at

tension

or

material

is

applied

purposes.

employed

methods

to prepare

an

bonding.

to repeated

susceptible

of

to peel

joint

sheared

and chemical

surface

joint

to which

coating

conditions,

failure.

under

surface

specified

shock.

an adhesive

area

when subjected

frequency

mean value,

area

sustain

under

to resist

unit

unit

per

for

THERMO PLASTIC

unit
of

will

application

stress,

resistance

force

a joint

that

of material

The force

STRENGTH, TENSILE

per

separation

cleavage

stress

i. e. range

STRENGTH, SHEAR

force

length.

unit

STRENGTH, FATIGUE

as

expressed

by heating

softening

and hardening

by cooling.

THERMO SET

a material
being

VISCOSITY

which

formed

from

does not

soften

on heating,

an irreversible

initiated

by a catalyst.

a measure

of

resistance

to

flow

chemical

of

a liquid.

as a result
reaction

of

APPENDIX

THEORETICAL

(54)

IN

STRESS DISTRIBUTION

A BONDED LAP JOINT

UNDER COMPRESSION

Notation

deformation

axial

angular

of

adherends

deformation

shear

stress

in

the

adhesive

modulus

of

elasticity

modulus

of

rigidity

tl

semi-thickness

t2

thickness

of

steel

d'

thickness

of

adhesive

c=

G/d'

P=

applied

of

of

adherends
Eg
[1(2+)]
adhesive

of

concrete
plate

load

tT

t2
jP

concrete
cube. -

+dP

L I'"

arlD

2V 2

glue
steel
J

fP

qd - 2

'a

fiP

od=U

plate

P1

P2

=P
u2ul

,Y-

or

=T

d'

T=c

(u2

dT
dx

(dug
- dull
\dx
dx %

ul)

du2 = P2
E2t2
dx

dul = Pl
--x
Eltl

dT
dx

dT
dx

P2

1_
+ P2
Eit1

w2

putting

2t2

d2T
dx2

of

Binh wx

dT
dx

+B

Aw

P2

cP

(Elti
B=

is:

equation

-c

A=

p
Eltl

=P

1-1=

dx2

cosh wx

-cP
Eltl

x=1

when

differential

this

=0
_x,
dT
dx

and

=0

solution

=A

(P -P2)

dP2
dx

E2t2)

-w2T

The general

P1

cP
Elti

E2t2

(Elti

=c

but

(1+1
E,1t1
t1

=c

X2

when

_c

d2T

P1
Eltl)

P2
(E2t2

cP
Eiti

)
E2t2

cp1+
w sinh

(
wl

E2t2

-240-

c
w

Pw
Eiti

cosh wl )
Eltl

cosh wl

+ Bw sinh

wl

(x)

d P2
dx

But

dP2
dx2
d
P2

so

then

ws inh

=c

P2

E2t2)

differential

cosh wx +B

=A

Pc
Eltl

Pc
E 1t 1

this

of

w2(A cosh wx +B

sinh

+C

wx

sinh

-B

wx)

is:

equation

sinh

w2 (A cosh wx

.d_
dx2

Then

("E-1

w2P 2

solution

2t 2)

d)
dx

d2P2
.

(1)

l)

2-u

cP 2

dx2

The general

(u

cosh wx

E lt lE

wl

c( dx

d2

cosh w(1-x)

cP

=.

wx)

w2-(A

cosh wx +B

Binh

wx)

w2C-Pc
Eltl
Pc

w2E, it 1

when

P2

x=0

=0

Pc

0=A+

Pc

AQ-

..

w2E lt 1

when

w2E1t1

x=1P2=P
P=

-Pc
w2Elt

B=

cosh wl

sinh

w2E lt 1
cosh wl

w2E1t1

Pc

i-

)1+p
Pc
Binh
w2E1t1

theoretical

wl

sinh

wl

1+P
(cosh
1)
wl cosh wx +
sinh wx
sinh

w2E1t1

These

wl

(Pc

P2

+B

Pc

distributions

are

plotted

wl

in

Fig.

3.7.

sinhwl

sinh wx

(2)

"APPENDIX

PRELIMINARY TEST SERIES


LOADING SYSTEM - Series

A,

Odd numbered

beams.

X
E
E
0

F=EW/2
tW/2

w2

610mm

Bending

moment at

u=0.5

support.

X:

W. 0.15.

W. 0.61
4-2

Assuming

No roller
F= W/2

for

u=

coeff.

of

friction.

on steel:

concrete

MX = 0.152

LOADING SYSTEM - Series

u.

W-0.0375

A, Even numbered

W=0.1145

W.

beams.

1
Roller
oocrjp

M=W.

0.61
4

= 0.152

support.

CALCULATION OF FIRST CRACK LOAD IN CONCRETE - BEAM Al

mm.

E
E

r-

Neutral
Axis

0"16.400

-N,

I
Modulus

of

of

Transformed

100

steel

of

elasticity

if

= 200

plate

"
of

as

v 5.56

0%

6 IIN/mm2

glue

age

0.167

Axis:

Neutral

x(152.152

kN/mm2

Section

36 kN/mm2

concrete

of

Location

56.100
-5

+ 16.4

+ 556.1)

_ (152.1522
2

+ 16.4.154

+ 1.556.156-5)

x=7809mm

O)
O
cb
ni

rn
Lf)

rTaking

moments about

152.78.093+

I=

v
cb
r-

the Neutral

152.78-09(78-09

Axis:

2+ 152.73.913+

2)

12
+ 16.4.75.912

+ 555.78.412

(Glue,

(Steel,

15223091)2.73'91

C2

12
its

neglecting
11

inertia

11

(Concrete)

about

11

its

11

own axis)

11

11

11

I=4"84.107mm4.
Modulus

M=I

of

rupture

First

aa4.37

y
Crack

Moment = 4.84.107.4.37
73.91

m 3.06

kNm.

N/nn2

73-91 mm

CALCULATION FOR FIRST CRACK LOAD IN THE GLUE - BEAM Al

Neutral
Axis

G16.400
I

1 5-56.100

L100

Transformed

Section

as before.

Moduli

of Netral

Location

x(152x

Axis:

+ 16.4

_ (152x2
2

+ 556.1)

152x2 + 619x

+ 556.1.156.5)

+ 16.4.154

= 76x2 + 96714

x2

+ 8.14x - 1273 m 0.

Hence

x=

31.8

mm.

Inertia,

Moment of

taking

moments about

Axis:

the Neutral

2
(Concrete)
152.3198
31.8
152.31083 +

Im

12
C-.

(Glue,

+ 16.4.122.22

N
"--

about

+ 555.1.124072

neglecting
its

(Steel,
sertia

ICR

Tensile

QI
Y

strength

of

1"12.107

60
N/mm2
-

glue

y-

First

Crack

Moment

5'59

kNm.

mm4.

120'2 mm

insertia

own axis)

neglecting

in-

about its own axis)

CALCULATIONS FOR ULTIMATE LOAD.


(c)

Based on yield

TABLES 4.3

of plate,

stress

plus

F.
C

LO

FG

(glue

in

= 64"6

fcu.

fg

= 60 N/mm2

fy

= 125 N/mm2.

x=6.20
Hence
Then taking
24000

M=

(d)

(c)

the

moments about
(154 - 3.1)

in

compression

0.6.64.6.152
N.
- 24000 N.
- 12500 N.

+ 12500

stress

the

centroidof

of

(156.5

311)
-

plus

tensile

plate,

5.539

force:
I<Nm.

strength

of

glue.

mm.

24000 (154 - 3.155)


Based on ultimate

+ 13-2 (156-5 - 3-155)

stress

of plate,

X=2'24mm.

13! 2 (156"5

compressive

FS = 13200 N.

except

Hence x=6.31

M=

4 mm).

mm.

Based on ultimate

As for

glue.

thickness

b.

FS m 125.1.100

N/mm2

of

concrete

FG 60.4.100

FS

fcu

M=

Beam Al

FC-5891x.

-4 ----1

(e)

strength

0.6.

-T
Lr)
r

tensile

Force

LO

CD

4.6.
-

1112)

2"051 'kNm.

plus

no tensile

51644 VNm.

strength

in

glue.

(CP110)

" APPENDIX
CALCULATION

OF ' ULTIMATE'LOADS.

Three
of

the

(a)

are

methods

Limit'State

The following
1.
the

used for

-224

the

calculating

theoretical

ultimate

capacities

beams.

test
Ultimate

from

BEAMS 201

'

assumptions

are

that

made:
in

distribution

The strain
assumption

to'CP110

plane

the

is

compression

loading

before

sections

in

concrete

remain

derived

up to

plane

failure.

plate

2.

The resistance

3.

The relationships
are

and glue

assumed to be equal

as shown in

of

centroid
5.

the

stress

For

the

beams the material


and plate

are

their

Figs.

of

at

block

half

factors

are

equal

0.2% proof

fcu

over

taken

depth

of

the

1.0

stresses,

steel in tension
Ast"fP

compression

as taken

concrete in
compression

compression

as 0.35% and the

and the

0"6 fcu

may be

entire

capacity

ultimate

and 3.9.

z= d-x/2

the

is

to

failure

at

face

the

bar,

the, reinforcing

respectively.

concrete

0.6

the

calculating

respective

the

compression
at

in

and 3.4

of

of

purpose
safety

the
is

in

ignored.

and strain

3.8,3.9

stress

is

tension

stress

stress

to a uniform

The maximum strain

in

concrete
between

The distribution

4.

zone.

of

of

stresses
from

zone.
the
in
Figs.

test
the
3.8

bar

force

Tensile

Compressive
Hence

z=d-

Therefore

But

Ast.

'Ast.
bd

also

Mu

d(1

x/2

the ultimate

Mu

0.6

fp
fcu. x. b

where

fp,

0'29.

proof

where

width

of

stress
beam

fp
Ast.
0.6. b. fcu

x=

Also

force

Ast.

fp)
Ast.
b. d. fcu

- 0.83

moment capacity

Mu is

equal

to:

fp)
- 0.83 Ast.
b. d. fcu

fp d(1

P.

fp.

EXAMPLE

(1
bd2
p.
- 0"83 p.
fcu

fp)

BEAM 207
155 mm

,
a

Plate

0
N
CV

U')
LO
04

Glue

thickness
thickness

1'5

mm

mm

U")
(V

000

A,

Bar

Plate
fp

275 N/mm2

470 N/mm2
0.0277

p=0.0047
d=

fcu

258.75

mm

220 mm

70'2

N/mm2

Then the
Mu

is
moment

ultimate

by

given

275.0.0047.155.258.752

(1 - 0'83(0"0047.275
70"2

+ '0277.470)

470.0.0277.155.2202

(1 - 0.83(0.0047.275

+ 0.0277.470)
70.2

Plate

Bars

(11.14

106 Nnma

81.10).

92.24 kNm
(b)

Strain

Compatibility

The basic
including

the

compression

principle

force

from

the

the

equals

strain

total

that

assumption

are

a given

can be found

force;

the

and hence

in

concrete

before

sections

plane

depth

for

section,

so that

the

the

ultimate

total

moment.

made:
in

distribution

The strain

axis

tension

assumptions

is that

compatibility

a neutral

reinforcement,

The following
1.

of

loading

is

compression
remain

plane

derived

up to

failure.

are

2.

The resistance

3.

The relationship

in
Figs.
as shown
4.

the

3.8

stress

5.

3.4
All

found

material

the
found

between
with

stress

The relationship

shown in Fig.
6.

and 3.9,

block

and a compressive

in

concrete
between

The relationship

rectangular

0.0035,

of

the

stress

is

of

by experimental
stress

0.60.

fcu.

the

stress

by experimental
factors,

ignored.

and strain

in

in

and strain

equal

reinforcements

the

concrete

compression

in

tests.
Y m, are

the

tests.

and strain

a maximum concrete

between

safety

tension

to unity.

strain

the

glue

is

of

is

as

tcu
e. g.

Beam

207

plate

thickness

glue

thickness

fcu

105 mm
3 mm

70 .2 N/mm2

Co

Ln N'I
N

(1)

First

Abars

= 943 mm2

Aplate

= 187 "5 mrrt2

is

it

assumed that

Guess (plate

glue

425 N/mm2

force
fcu. 155 x

0.6

By strain

compatibility:
=

220 - 75'74.
75.74

Eplate

258"75 - 75'74.00035
75-74

the

guess,

Try

fplate

Then

300.187.5

300

and

+ 490.943

79"39

experimental

bar

steel

and plate,

stresses

fbars

0.6 fcu.

'0035

stress

strain

to

490 N/mm2

fplate

325 N/mm2

155 x.

"0085

curves
rigs.

these

fbars'

490

"0067

as shown in

corresponding

was incorrect.

therefore,

Ebars

From the

x=

made by the

75"74 mm
0"0035

The initial

is

contribution

(bars

Compressive

+ 425.943

250.187.5

x=

250 N/mm2

force

Tensile

no tensile'

3.8
strains

for

the

and 3.9,
are

Hence

220-'79.39.
79.39

Ebars

Eplate
From the

stress

experimental
fbars

- 79.39.

258.75

"0035

00062

"0035

"0079

graphs:

strain

490 N/mm2 c

O. K.
fplate

moment is

The resistance
concrete

297 N/mm2

(z

block.

stress

then

found

by taking

=d-x.

moments

the

about

centroid

of

the

79.39)

=d22

Mu
(ii)

Assume

95.5

Assuming*the
is

(258.75

187.5.300.

Mu

fglue

300.187"5

in

remains

+ 943.490(220

fplate

+ 490.943

+ 15.375

LO
(V

300 N/mm2

187.5.300

fcu.

220 - 80"25.60035
80.25

Eglue

256'S - 80"25.
80"25

The calculated
mental

failure

imparts

490 N/mm2

"0061

"0035

"0077

"0078

CD
V)
N

258"5 - 80"25.00035
80"25

Eplate

(258.75 - 80.25)

stress/strain

graphs: -

f,

490 N/mm2

fglue

N/mm2

fplate

+ 943.490

22

96.6

it

force

155 x.

Ebars

the

frebar

0"6

rebar

Mu =

failure

from experimental

Then

- 79039)

component

15 N/mm2

up to

uncracked

tensile

the

8025 mm
0.0035

x=

79.39)
22

kNm
glue

included

15.375

"14

297 N/mm2

(220 - 80.25)
(256.5

- 80025)
2

KNm

ultimate

loads

are

shown in

loads.

-250-

Table

5.4

together

with

the

experi-

(c)

Compatibility

Strain

An alternative,
use the

stress

below.

(k1,

in

distribution

the

of

(b)

by iiognestad,

and Prestressed

Reinforced

in

than

calculation

as suggested

concrete

4.4-1,

cc from Fig.

k2,

method

and more refined

is

to

as shown

Concrete

Kong and Evans. )


`

155

,,

*---l

0
N

cb

Ln
N

Beam 207
eb

ki.

fcu.

Assume

Then
.

'0

With

f=

295 N/mm2

fb

=
=

cc

- x

fb
have:

295.187"5

258*75

cc

sp

fcu

70"2

kl

0"48

k2

0"41

N/mm2

+ 943. fb

462 N/mm2
0.0028,

to

3.9,295

eb

0.0028

this

strain

N/mm2.

is

220 (

94

94

curve,

stress/strain

experimental

Fig.

+ Ab*

we also

155.94

0"48.70"2.,

fp

Ap.

x=

x=

corresponding

given

b.

and

94 mm

From the

from

ec (

220X

)-

Fig.

'00375.,
3.8,

464 N/mm2, and for


assumptions

were

the
the

OK.

ep

steel

plate

stress
the

stress

The ultimate

by:
464.943

M=
u
=

91.6KNM

(220 - 0.41.94)

+ 295.187.5

(258.75

"00491

- 0.41.94)

in

the
is

moment is

bars

found
then

Similar

calculations

values

100.6

of

2 to 4% only.

for

beams 208 (3 mm plate)

N/mm2 and 120.1

N/mm2.

These

and 209
differ

from

(6 mm plate)
method

(b)

give
(i)

by

APPENDIX

CALCULATION ' OF' DEFLECTIONS


(a)

CP 110 Recommendations

is

This
in

dealt

it

general

of

limit

reinforced

which

are

difficult

members are

the

of

support

conditions

(b)

precise

loading

(c)

extent
used

moments and then


procedure

cracking.

is

to assess

the

clause

test

forward

straight
(1)
loading

remain

is

(iii)

(iv)

taken

Stresses

axis

and a value

stress

To obtain
diagram

of

is

in

on the

The recommended

deflection.

For

or

that

assumption

calculating
set
The

uneracked.

The assumptions
in

the

along

an appropriate

cracked

diagrammatically

appropriate

sections

employs

is

the

under

successive
the

section

to be elastic

assumed

in

of
the

for

Fig.

this

are

A. 5.1.

plane

before

sections

and its

modulus

of

in

concrete
is

and the

the

bending

may be calculated

on the

having

centroid

between

Under

of

-253-

the

bending

moments

short

used.

tension

triangular
the

to be elastic.

assumed

Ec is

elasticity

1 N/mm2 at

drawn

is

compression

a relationship
is

on the

effect

as 200 kN/mm2.

distribution

the

factors

loading.

the modulus

that

deflections

of

curvatures.

which

load.

service

the

compute

the

illustrated

after

The concrete

loading,

at

term

sections

at

a procedure

calculated

are

plane

at

of

curvatures

on whether

cracked

long

from

to

gives

The reinforcement

elasticity

force

the

A. 2.2

and are

Strains

(ii)

term

all

curvatures

integration

depending

beams were

a number

a considerable

especially

deflections

calculating

numerical

assumptions

the

the

calculate

beam and using

of

have

which

When the

are

that

states

moments and forces

analysis.
there

A. 1 it

clause
the

assess

calculated

conditions,

of

involves

curvatures

to

an elastic

but

In

code.

result:

(a)

The approach

for

to allow

the

accurate

by using

states

concrete

reliability

A of

be sufficiently

will

serviceability

in Appendix

with

a value
tension

of

zero

the

neutral

steel.

moment and the

taken.

at

assumption

curvature

The equation

for

a
the

fc = Ec'

ec

1/r =/x
s
I

73

fs

0-

00
11,

STRAIN

SECTION

force

Compressive
bxEc

2
but

STRESS

Te n sil e

Es es As

E5 / E = ae

_ cc(d-x)
x

cnd

force

As/ bd= 9

bx Eoc= ES c()
AS
2
2aepd(d-x)
or x2 =
z+
2aep dx - 2ae 9 d2
then

therefore

solving this quadratic equation gives:


or .d= -%? s ae9(2 "e9)
z=d

also

le =

and

or b;

FIGURE A5.1

-x.
3

2x
b.
=3

ELASTIC

X=-%9d'-dae9ae9'

= d(1-x
3d
bx(2Z
+

d)3+91

(d-x)2
",
-d):.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR CALCULATING

CURVATURES

Ec

to

of

the

when calculating
resistance
In
area

the

the

neutral

the
in

concrete
depth.

axis

and a further

complicated

assumed that

the neutral

underestimate

the

in

stress

zero

is

It

this.

simplify

basis

becomes rather

depth

axis

neutral

tension

Thus,

the

but

depth

axis

the

depth,

axis

neutral

is

concrete

in

into

account

made
on the

calculated

This

zone.

taken

is

assumption

will

slightly
is

tension

ignored

when calculating

moment.
the

case of

and the

plated

plate

area

to

their

combined

is

depth

effective

beams the
taken

has been added

to

bar

the

centroid.

EXAMPLE Beam 207


Glue

mm

E,

36 kN/mm2

1.5

mm

ES

200 kN/mtn2

ae

200 -5.56
36

thickness

Plate

thickness

Ln

LO
LO
(V

(V
N

Co
LD
N

187
943
155.226

p-

Ab 943mrr?

000
12 5I
155

1
From Fig.

--

x=
d

Next
the
is

the

resistance

given

by

moment is

experimental

Fig.

0.179(2.179)

+ 0.179

(1 - 0.445)2

allowing

calculated
A. 5.2

Hence x"

the

for

Hence

the

moment due to

mm

I-1.51.108

tension

the

100.6

mm4

stiffening
in

concrete

of

tension

b(h - x) 3
(d - x)

fct.
3

The deflections
with

(0.445)3
3

As shown in

concrete.

-0.179

1=
bd3

0.179

187rrrr2

A. 5.1

and

000

ae. p

3.23.102

of

the
values.

test

beams were
The applied

calculated
moment

is 49"8 KNm.
-255-

at
(W. L)
6

130 KN load
corresponding

for
to

comparison
130 KN load

W/2

L/3

L/31

L/3

LOADING

TYPICAL MODE OF

L/6

L/3

wi2
I.

lB

wl
6

WL Met
6

-)4
-x

Fully

Partially

cracked
BENDING MOMENT

cracked

DIAGRAM

TENSILE CONCRETE

Neutral -t
Axis

.Z

ict
stress at reinforcement level
(h-x
stressof extreme fibre =f
ct (d-x)
force in tensile concrete = Fct

. .

X
i
.D

lhg)
iC
'
.bh -x
ct
moment of tensile concrete about
neutratcxis= Ft, 2/3 (h- x)

=X

. dilb

ct

= f., b.(h-x)
3(d-x)

Ct

FIGUREA5.2

BENDING MOMENT DUE TO THE CONCRETE


IN THE TENSION ZONE
-256-

The resistance

moment.

is

The curvature

from

the

Where K is

for

the

KNm

from

be found

given

by the

radians.

simplified

depends

which

approach

by the

formula

in

test

beams the

In

conditions.
Kl

a=

loading

on the

The Code Handbook,

and support

M"E
It

theory.

in

recommended

1.
R

k12

a=

span.

effective

8.9.10-6

equation

bending

simple

KNm

W13, but
EI

and support

Table

A3 gives
the

general
the

also

conditions,

values

deflection

bending

of
of

moment,

K2. W. 1.

M=

For
of

48"3

a constant

loadings

various

beam is

can then

A. 2.3

and 1 is

- 1.155'(255'_'100.7)3.10-6
3
(226 - 10017)

48.3.106
36.10 . 1.51.10

The deflection
clause

49.8

found

then

1=
R

Therefore

the

the

Fig.

the

Combining

symmetrically

1 or 0.167.
6
(81) method
of K1 Macaulay's

value

and is

A. 5.3

are

the

23
1296

to

equal

placed

equations

can be used

the

1 points
3

K1 and K2:

containing

as shown in

= 0.1065

as shown in

0001775.

K1.12.

a-

K2
or K=0.01775

at

is
K2
of

span and the value


For

loadings

Table

A3 of

the

Pi

EI

code.

0.1666
Then

the

beam 207 is

for

deflection

given

by:

5.0

a=0.1065.23002.0189.10-5
(b)

ACI Recommendations
From the work

given

mm.

by Ie

(Mcrl

3 Il

.M/LM
The deflection

is

(i)

plane

(ii)

reinforcement

sections

(IMcrr l3

C1
-

then

The same assumptions

(77)

by Branson

performed

as for

apply
remain

plane

elastic

-257-

effective

er
11
J"

by

given

is

//

the

23
W13
. EI
1296
ce
CP 110,

i. e.:

moment of

inertia

is

W/2
.

L/3

W/2

L/3

L/3

tw

fW/2

/2

Convention

(a)qucntities within curly brackets are taken as zero if


their value is negative.
( h)terms within curly brackets are integrated with respect
to the terms within the brackets.

General expression for bending moment at distance


M=EI

d
dXz

JM= EI da
dx
! JM = E'_a

-Wx
2

. W/x-i1
2l
3

4X
-

`4 {x-1`s
3 '
"V1IJx-L
12 l3

_ -W)
12

(x
.2W

-T
i

"2CJx-3)

4"

from the end.

'x-2'3

"A

Ax

.g

Boundcry

conditions
&L
a=0
x=O,

when

Therefore

B=0

and

l_'
-AL= -W +2(.

or

A=

2J-)
3

iZ

2WL1
36

Then:

Ela = -Wz

12

The

deflection

central

when

(x-1.
+W{
+W
-l-2
12
31

x-2L}
3

2W Lx
36

x_L
2
EI

or

FIGURE A5.3

a=

96

12216

324

23 W
1296 EI

CENTRAL DEFLECTION BY MACAULAYS

METHOD

(iii)

in

concrete

compression

the

theoretical

uncracked

section

by experiment

- 5.56

N/mm2.

Thus

Mcr

A. 5.4)

M, the moment under


of

the

Hence the

(49"8
13.2

Ie

5'0

rupture

of

which

was determined

load).

The value

I(Nm.

49.8

inertia

kNm (130 IN
1.54.108

mm4 (Fig.

A. 5.5).

+1-[

3 1'S4.108

(49"8)
13"2

mm4

mm4

mm

CEB Recommendations

The deflections
is

of

inertia

moment of

130.103.23003
23
.
1296 36.103.1.561.108

Then a=

(c)

on the

inertia

32"694.108

1"561.108

13.2

moment of

moment of

effective

modulus

consideration,

transformed

cracked,

and the

2.694.108.5.56
113.83

depends

moment,

cracking

(Fig.

the

elastic.

Beam 207

EXAMPLE

Mcr,

is

short

parts,

Es. A. z(d

state

cracking

on the
the

and the

cracking

the

considerations

supported

Thus

- x).

before

one applying
Before

simply

may be calculated

loading

term

cracked

In

or uncracked.

cracked

from

calculated

are

curvature,

the

assumption

cracking

The deflection,

is

a,

curvature,

then

given

by

a-

other

K
X

the
is

Mcr
u
EcI

if

in
as

it

11

1+1
r2

11

It

11

tt

of

11

13"2 kNm
2.694.108
0"1065

CP 110 method

section
under
the

stiffness'in
split

into

, notation

(M-Mcr )
e4
3'EsABZ d-x)
k12

the

deflections

Beam 207

Mcr as in ACI method


Iiu

whether

two

after.

ri
EXAMPLE

that

deflection

total

1
r2

the

structures

rl
After

of

100"6 mm

192"5 mm

mm4

as before

155

TRANSFORMED SECTION

0
CV

Ul)
LO

Lf)
130

CO

LO
N

130

0
LP

00
1

H-7

125

61"
KN/mm`" '
Econcrete 36 KN/m mt
Esteel
200 KN/. mm=

Eglue 2'0

BEAM 207
crew of bcrs' 943mm2
area of plate 187 mmt

Neutral axis position -x


7.3
1(155.255.260.20
"695.1.5)
.
Hence

d155.255i"260,20.220
2
7=

"7.3.256'5

"695.15.258.75

141.17mm.

s
- ---"jo--2r-

90
.
CO

(943 x 5.56)
i
i

j
!:
-

(1 87 x 5.56 )
Moment of Inertia
I

L4117
12

3.155
3

83.155
113
"
12

taking

moments about

155.141-17. (141-12)2

the

1.46.1dmm`

155.11383. (11323 )2 = 0-76.1d

"943.5.56.78.83

= 0.33.10

Neutrcd Axis
(concrete

above

(concrete

below RA. )

N. A, )

(steel bars, neglecting inertia about their own axis )

(steel
0.14.106
187.556.117.56=
plate,
=
+

=i

" glue negligible.


TOTAL

FIGUREA5.4

Iu

= 2.69.10s mm

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF UNCRACKEDTRANSFORMED SECTION

155

I U)

0
N

l Ln
N

NI

fIf

000-

260

tli
tt)

r-*--

____

125
BEAM207
area of bars 943 mm'
area of plate 187 mm

I.

62 5
glue 2"0 KN/rr. m'
Econcrete 6 KN / mms"
Esteel 200 KN/ mm`

Neutral axis position -z


2
(155
R0557 " 260.20 " 73 "695.1-5) _
"260.20.220.7.3.256.5
Hence

155

1'
i--

Co

101. 15 mm

taking
N
Go

(187x5.56)

Moment of inertia:

i
Lo

(943x5"56)
O

"695.1-5.258.75

(D

-7`'

moments

about the Neutral Axis:

I=155101.15'.155.101.15(1.
QiJ. )2.0.54.10nmm'`
(concrete)
2
12
0.74.10(steel
bcrs,
neglecting Inertic about
=
"943.5.56.11885
their own axis. )

0.26J0(steel
plate
+187.5-56.157-601=
. glue negligible
TOTAL 1c = 1.54.10 mm

FIGUREA5.5

MOMENTOF INERTIA OF CRACKED TRANSFORMED SECTION

As
Hence

943 (bars)
0"1065.2300

a=

5'81

mm

+ 187 (plate)
r
'13.2.106
L 36.103.2.694.108

1130 mm2

.a
+4

(4918 - 1302).
106
3 2.105.1130.1925.125i4

APPENDIX 6
OF ROTATIONS

CALCULATION

bending

From basic
where

I=

moment of

E=

Young's

is

EI,

Area

the

and

section

section

under

at

section

of

bending
the

cases

Before

a beam produces

along
beam also

considered,

the

occurs

cracking

As

before

one

rotation.

divided

beam.

the

of

the

gives

moment diagram

length

be

must

consideration

the

along

the

along

'

each

EI

under

two

by
in

the

cracking

rotation

"

Diagram

Moment

Bending

under

area

after.

other

the

curvatures

deflections

of

calculation

at

stiffness

a constant

the

of

Modulus

integral

the

to

equivalent

assuming

occurs

the

of

moment

inertia

curvature

Hence the

rotation.

This

bending

applied

The integral
the

theory

M=

1=

m=R

Eu

where

Ec

and

Vu

In

the

compression
concrete

in

Young, 's Modulus

=
=

second

the

bending

and the

tension

steel,

tension

between

the

Met

concrete,

is

term
inertia.

moment,

resisted

by the

reduced

by the

cracks.

6 (h-x)3
3 (d-x)

ct

short

moment of

transformed

uncracked,
case

of

This

is

Fig.

A5.2

by the

moment resisted

taken

in

concrete

Met,

as,

. W.
The bending
failure,
axis

moments were

allowing
positions

The second

moment of

section.
fcr

the
from

was taken

positions.

cracked
Firstly,

found

depth

effective

axis

for

=1

area

at

calculated
tensile

the

stages

of
at

was calculated
then

The rotations

were

Two values

of tensile

N/mm2 as recommended

the

cracking,

were

the

steel

bar

each

stage

using

calculated
stress

in

used

and plate
the

as described
the

up to
The neutral

concrete.

distributions

strain

centroid

after

of

contribution

the measured
to

four

concrete

by CP110 and secondly,

and the
areas,

snore neutral
above
were

for

assumed,

3 N/mm2.

The

latter
average

value
value

was not

thought

5.6

N/mm2.

of

to be unreasonable
A value

as the

modulus
half

approximately

of

of

this

had an

rupture
did

not

seem too

high.
EXAMPLE Beam 207
(i)
Load

section
fct=1

Mct

(Nmm)
60.2300.1000
6

60

_f

-f

63\

Moment of
is

The section

ct

to the

60

N.A.

C14
CV

axis

below

Ln
r7
N

130
190

(943x5.56
I
I
I

250

(187x556)
neglecting

13
J

neutral

inertia,

and

Moment

II=

the

inertia

I=
I=

of

to

N/mm2

(10. x)

(106)

21.7

19.0

48.3

4" 3

71"1

67 "7

93"9

9001

some degree

positions

the

00
U')

assumed to be cracked

Load
(cN)

9;

226-80

moment of

Section

fct-3

Inertia

and concrete

contribution

(255-901
155
3 \226-90

The neutral

shown above.

calculations,

155(255-80

250.2300.1000

(ii)

ct

N/mm2

13

155(255-100
3
26-100
ct'

-f

190.2300.1000
6

190

L55_(255-11213
V2-26-112)
3
ct'

-f

130.2300.1000
6

130

stages

6>

Moment

(kN)

250

by the

Moments to be resisted

are
axis

is

at

all

as shown in
assumed

load

the
the

to have

moment
no

(ae a 5.56).

of Inertia
(mm4)

155.1123

21.52

12+155.112\122)+5243.1082+1040.146.75
155.3
+155.100
1100
1512903
1512803

the

steel

108)

120+5243.1202+1040.158.75

21.53

(92 )2+5243.1302+1040.168.75
21.56

+155.90
()22
+155.80
bar

and plates

+1040.17"752-1"62

about

their

own axes.

(iii)

Rotations

Load

Rotation

(1 N)

(radians

60

as
the

EI.
-21fct=1

N/mn2

fct"3

N/mm2

104)

2300.2. M : 36000.1.52.108
3

61

53

130

2300.2. M
3

36000.1.53.108

135

126

190

2300.2. M : 36000.1.56.108
3

195

186

250

2300.2. M = 36000.1.62.108
3

247

237

These rotations
the

B. M. diagram

- Area under

predicted
cracking
value

rotations

are
are

in

given
greatly

becomes more widespread


assumed for

Ec is

not

Table

6.5.

exceeded.
and the

realistic.

It

is

clear

The main
concrete

that

reason

compressive

higher

at
for

this

strain

is

loads
that

increases

APPENDIX

STRESSES

INTERFACIAL
In

this

adhesive

and

appendix
plate

that

emphasised

investigate

to

such

For

ultimate

be

of

within

stresses
treated

the

bond

the

adhesive.

but

to

rather

It

tests

in

they

were

no

designed

not

flexural

the

study

the

be

must

that

and

beam

The

between

stresses

qualitatively

stresses.

conditions

between

least

at

behaviour.

Wherever

element

reinforcing

the

bond

change,

the

steel

tensile

or

stresses

can be used
is

and concrete,

compressive
act

must

stresses

that

necessary
'bond'

The term

between

slip,

is

a beam it

two materials.

the

minimised.

in

to work

and steel

the means by which

describe

prevented
in

stresses
their

along

to

the
to

surface

produce

change.

this

Research
is

beam

found

exist

stresses
how to

of
in

changes
force
moment

is
is

in members at

point.
to

adjacent

loads.

Thus there
such

to

Very
is

use two approximate

Rather,

it

cracks,
bond

much smaller
problem

stress
low loads

methods

in

a practical

a fluctuating
relatively

stresses

condition,
without

to measure

as
and"
.

signs

bond

of

stress,

Bond Stress

These
movement

low

bond

the

point

exist

even- at

evaluate

or

can exist

stresses

same bar.

by on the

Codes of Practice
Local

bond

large

measure

stresses_

distress.
(a)

close

describe,

bond

very

bond stresses,

ultimate

essentially

large

that

from

varying

gradually

nor

uniform

beams. has shown that

reinforced

on normal

neither

been

has

to

or
stress

concrete

transferred

or

should

made

Stresses

Bond

be

shear

values

limiting

represent

way

the

and

the

is

an assessment

are

bar

the
the

tensile

produced
the

the

shear
in

the

stresses

force

force.

over
in

bar

the
Local

concrete.

by a change

shear

at

a short
bending

surface

bond

length

which

failures
of

bar.

moment and the

rate

prevent

longitudinal
by

are

produced

large

This

change

in

tensile

of

change

of

bending

is

interface

a horizontal

bond

local

beams the

For plated

shear

at

stress

plate/glue

or concrete/glue

by

given

stress

the

V. A. y.
1. bp
where

A=

area

by =

width

of plate,

V=

shear

force,

y=

distance

I=

second moment of

was 1.46

N/mm2.

N/mm2 (grade

2.7

from

are

failure

or area

of plate

The results

(plate

the

the

of

in Table

given

the

the

and above).

section

under

consideration,

transformed

section.

The mean local

bond

cracked

A. 7.1.

CP110 limits

40 concrete

to

axis

neutral
area

+ glue),

local

bond

These

stresses

in

stress
are

stress
bars

plain

for

near

the

to

glue/plate

interface.
Bond Stresses

Anchorage

(b)

This

is

of

a bar

removal

the

from

the

are

values

by shearing

resisted

to be uniform

Tensile,

Force

in

bar

The

between

stresses,
the

along

bar..

of

length

of

the
bar.

the

diameter

CP110 fu

of the forces
02. fu

for

the

steel

=
is

bond stresses.

anchorage
are

length

a particular

ultimate

assumed

over

__

In

is

the equilibrium

Considering

stress

concrete

which

and steel,

concrete

bond

average

tabulated

for

different

limit

at the ultimate

state:

0.
7r. fbs. R,
f
limited

to

Certain

m
experimentally

to

and concrete

steel

produce

the

allowable

determined

properties

limiting

in'Table

22

(CP110).
For
and

glue,

evaluating
in

the

test

the

actual

beams,

average:

a similar

anchorage

expression

bond
is

stress

used:

between

the

plate

PLATED BEAMS

LOCAL BOND STRESSES IN

TABLE A 7.1

E
Ew
w
co

SHEAR
EN
Ew FORCEAT
w ji SERVICE
L' LOAD
kN

COMBINEDLOCAL
CENTROIDBOND
STRESS
AT
SERVICE
N/mm-2
LOAD mm

SHEAR COMBINEDLOCAL.
FORCEAT CENTROIDBOND
ULTIMATE
AT
STRESS
LOAD
ULTIMATE
kN
LOADmm N/mm=

203

1.5 1.5

65

226-1, '

0`"55r .

125

226

1.05

204

1.5 3.0

65

231-

0 "89

125 -"

231

1.70

y
'1.23

95

238

1.80

0.55

125

226

1.05

205

1.5 6.0

65

238

207

3.0

1.5

65

226.

208

3.0

3.0

65

231

0.90

125

231

1.72

209

3.0

6.0

65

238

1.24

95

238

1.81

210 3.0

6.0

65

238

1.24

95

238

1.61

216 6.0

1.5

65

226

0.57

125

226

1 "09

217

60

3.0

65

231

0190

125

231

1.74

216

6.0

6.0

65

238

1.24
-V
.;:
.

95

238

1" Bl

219

6.0

6.0

65

238

1-24

95

238

1 "61

220 3 -8

1.5

65

226

0.55

125

226

1.05

221

1.5

3.61)

65

226

0.55

125

226

1.05

222 3.91 1.5

65

226

V 0; 55

125

226

1.05

1.5

65

226-"

",
0.55
;- 125

," 226

1.05

65

231 V

231

1.74

223
224

3.9
3.0
3.91

_...

0*'90 =

'" 125"

(1) notched beam.


(2) precracked beams.

PLATE'MEANSERVICE
AN ULTIMATE
THICKNESS
mm STRESS N/mn STRESS N/mrrr
0.55
1-05

3.0

(0.55)

0.90
(0.90)
`'
-

6 .0.
Figures in brackets

-268-

1.24
-

(1 "05)
1.72
,, (1.74)
1" i

precracked beams.

fbs

is

the

stress

Ap is

the

cross

is

the

fp

where

Ac

eP, EP,

the

between

area

the

steel

the, plate

of

area

tp and by are
the

(= c-. E
p)

plate

section

contact

of

respectively,

in

P
Ac

Young's

strain,

is
k
and

plate,

the
tp

thickness

bp

width

R=

in

the

to the

the

load

the

N/mm2,

and at
stages,
(for

Shear

the

N/IIan2

taken

loading

point

fbs

269 eP tp

distance

as the

from, the

= 742 nmi.

in

load

by experiment

bond stresses
The results

plate.

bond stress
load

service
given

in

concrete

Stresses

Considering
change

;r

125 mm

is

anchorage

continuous

respectively,

(c)

6 mm

varies

plate

obtained

strains

The mean anchorage

these

end of the

we have:

Using

load

and width,

length.

anchorage

- 1.5 mm to
-

200,000

length

anchorage

Substituting

2,12

varies

constant

Modulus

plate

1 ayers

bs

of plate

strain

.=

of

eP EP

of plate

Young's

ultimate

the

thickness

beams:

test

EP

Modulus;

t_p bp

Then,

For

(= by R)

and plate

glue

in

the

it

at

f.

were

both4working

given

in

the

load

stage

plain

for

calculated

are

was 0.81

CP110 for

at

Table

and near

beams with

single

A7.2.

prior

N/mm2.

The limiting

bars

1.9

are

load

to

failure

was

values,

and 1.0

at

N/mm2

40 N/um2 and: above. )

Glue

longitudinal
corresponding
dcp. Ep. bp. tp

forces
to

length

on a short

a change

(Symbols

in

strain

as before)

of'steel
of

6e

plate
is

given

6R,
by:

ANCHORAGE BOND STRESSES IN THE PLATED BEAMS

TABLE A 7.2

E
Ez
co ?R

CHCP.
Xl ULTIMATE PLATE
A' CHOFVCE
DESIGN PLATE
E
Ez SERVICE STRAIN
BOND
LQAD
STRAIN BOND
ATCENTRESTRESS
c R- LOAD
ATCENTRESTRESS
kN
kN
n?
micrestrain N/mmz
microstrar N/mm=

203 1.5

1.5

130

1300

0.5

250

4900

2.0

204 1.5

3.0

130

1200

1.0

250

3700

2.9

205 1.5

6.0

130

650

1'0

190

1200

1.9

207 3.0

1.5

130

1300

0.5

250

4900

2-0

208 3.0

3.0

130

1100

0.8

250

3200

2.6

209 3.0

6.0

130

700

1.1

190

1350

2.2

210 3.0

6.0

130

650

1.0

190

1250

2.0

216 6.0 1.5

130

1100

0.4

250

4200

1.6

217 6.0

3.0

130

1000

0.8

250

2900

2'3

218' 6.0

6.0.

130

660

1'0

190

1200

1.9

219 6.0

6.0

130

750

1.2

190

1350

2.2

220 3-8

1'S

130

1200

0-5

250

4200

1'7

221

1.5

3.61)

130

1300

0.5

250

4500

1.8

222

1.5

130

950

0.4

250

2900

1-2

223

2
3"D 1.5

130

700

0.3

250

2300

0.9

224

b
3

130

750

0.6

250

2400

1'9

3.62)
3.0

(1) notched beam

(2) precrocked beams

PLATE
MEANSERVICEMEANWIMATE
THICKNESS
mm STRESSN/=m STRESSN/ mm`
0.49
1.19
1.5
(0.35)
(1.02)
0.87
2.59
3.0
(0.59)
(190)
6.0

1.07

2 00

Figures in brackets
beams.
precrncked
-270-

t. R . bp

where

t=

in

force

by a shear

must be balanced

This

resin

the

at

stress

shear

the

is

which

given

by:

interface.

plate/glue

Se
Hence T=E.

In

the

This

limit

the

strain

in

in

the

It

is

strain

the

strain
section,

in

the

to

the

Gauges

of

not

the

tests

layers

face

of

the

glue

that

evident

is

of

the

the

steel

is

gradient.

and therefore

glue
the

same as the

at

the

6 mm length
enough

gradients

are

were used
to determine

do give

some indication

stresses

in

plate.

are

given

the

end of

the measured
as they

strains

be subjected

will

Such gradients

The strain
However,

small

shear

strain

of

thickness

high.

example

concrete.

are

The

the

contact

the

di

the

for

local

aK

is

that

assumes
contact

surface

concrete.

beams.

test

where

has ignored.

gradient

in

deP

EP. tP.

T=

analysis

tp . Q
P,

occur

and in

Table

the

strain

order

A7.3,

for

at

values

such a region

an accurate

is

of

where

a sudden

change

a plate

or at

a crack

the

plate

ends for

the

be an approximation

over

a finite

rapidly

changing

of magnitude

length.
strain

Nevertheless,

gradient.

beams with

forces

in

can only

ofstrain

on average

shear

there

where

were measured

based

high

a joint

plate,

values

of

to

of

the

single

shear

stresses.

continuous

SEAR STRESS IN THE GLUE LAYER AT


THE PLATE.

TABLE A"7.3

EN Eu)
Ez Ew
w
Co
w Ua
5z
m`

THE END OF

SHEAR ULTIMATE STRAIN


DESIGN STRAIN
SHEAR
SERVICE GRADIENT STRESS LOAD
GRADIENT STRESS
LOAD
micrtrcin
micrmtroin
N/mm2
kN
per mm
N/mm'
kN
per mm

203 1.5 1.5

130

2.4

0.7

250

5.4

1.6

204 1.5 3.0

130

1.8

1.1

2 50

4.4

2.6

205 1.5 6.0

130

1.4

1-7'

190

3.0

4.1

207 3.0

1.5

130

2.6

0.8

250

6.6

2,0

208 3.0

3.0

130

2.0

1.2

250

5.5

3.3

209 3.0

6.0

130

1.3

1.6

190

3.8

4.6

210 3.0

6.0

130

1.8

2.2

190

3.6

4.3

216 6.0

1.5

130

2.7

0.8

250

8.5

2-6,

217 6.0

3.0

130

2.2

1.3

250

6.0

3.6

218 6.0 6.0

130

1 "5

1.8

190

4.0

4.8

219 6.0 6.0

130

2-0

2.4

190

4.2

5.0

220 3-8

1-5

130

3.7

1.1

250

8.2

2.5

221

1.5

130

2.7

0.8

250

7.7

2.3

1.5

130

2.0

0.6

250

6.5

2.0

223 3.62' 1.5

130

2.0

-. 0.6

250

6'7

2.0

224 3.02 3.0

130

1.2

250

4.4

2.6

3.8

222 30

2)

(1)
(2)

0.7

notched beam.
precracked beams.

PLATE
MEAN SERVICE MttN
THICKNESSmm SHEAR TRE1SSSH

3.0

0.85
(0.60)
1.43
(0.70)

6.0

1.72

1.5

Figures in brcckets
-272-

MAT
TRES
2'18

(2.00)
3.18
(2.60)
4.56
precr cked beams.

APPENDIX

OF CRACK WIDTHS

CALCULATION

The crack
a.

for

widths
Standard

As with

deflections
the

for

forces

the

of

of

the

for

be used

section

was used

the moments

and

cracking.
61 is'given

Equation

code,

concrete

to determine

Any calculations

can also

A. 3.2

Clause

analysis

an elastic

stiffness.

deflections

In

CP110.

Code of Practice

British

calculating

by two methods:

calculated

were

for

determining

the

width

crack

Wcr

3. acr.

Cin
acr-Cmin

1+2

h
At

level

the

of
Wcr

The

average

the

tension

zone,

code

states
is

reinforcement

crack

tested
it

is

of

formula

width

during

widths
in

the

the

in

brackets

formula

only

to 0.8

fy/Es,

the

a value
of

of

from

calculated
the

in

concrete

s1,
the

as shown by:

stiffening

and that

which

an age of

end of

the

in

strain

With

full
both
the

of

and sustained
values

28 days

and loaded

for

only

elastic

modulus

the

concrete.

values,

calculations

-273-

However,

To compute

time.

i. e.
are

of

Ec and 0.5
for

0.5

the

instantaneous

the

probability

repeated

tension

strains

as half

has a certain

of

the

when calculating

be taken

should

a period

using

if

applies

code or by experiment.

the

to use the

the

becomes:

fy

a structure.

over
at

concrete

gives

performed
at

effect

tensile

the

(h-x)

1 in

life

stiffening

for

Table

laboratory

were

the

is

em,

reinforcement,

A.

increase
can

more reasonable

Calculations
given

limited

from

obtained

exceeded
crack

the

formula

the

1.2. bt. h.

of elasticity

modulus
value

that

of

allowing

E1

level

ignoring

and then

Cmin hence

" Em %

the

at

calculated

The

3. acr

strain

strain

acr

reinforcement

E.

Ec for

the

proposed

being
loadings,
for

beams

a few hours

The values
comparison.

Beam 207

Glue
Plate

200,000
36,00

ae

d,

the

3 mm

thickness

1.5

thickness

mm

5.56

As

ET
is

depth,

effective

taken

to

the

combined

centroid

the

of

plate

and bars.

d. (943+187) = 220.943 + 187.158"75

-K m

d-

a
N

cl-

Co
LC)
N

000

--rc---

of
The

d-

Z=

49.8

ae. p

2i

192.5

are

mm

mm

calculated

all

100.5

x=

130 KN load

at

which

in

the

(at

reinforcement

the *combined

49.8.106

fs

=M

the

e1,

strain,
for

the

= 200230
000

tension

0.00115

em =

230 N/mm
00115.

=0

stiffening

of

the

concrete:

(226-100.5).
1.2.155.255.
187.250+943.410)(255-100.5

centroid)

192.5.1130

Z. As

Correcting

10-3

= 0"00107
The

crack

width

Wcr
For

all

corresponds

to

KNm.

stress

Hence

0.032

Hence

widths

crack

187 mm2

Aplate

0.44

The

943 mm`

Abars-

ae"P(2+aeP

and

(187 + 943)
155.226

Ths p=

226 mm

the

is

then

3. acr.

beams the

by:

given

e.m
cover

to

the

bars;

acr,

is

27.5

mm.

is

given

by:

a moment

Hence Wcr.

3.27.5

0.088 'mm

for

The formula

The depth

steel

hl,

distance

For

normally

For

the

plate
width

as the

as recommended

UNITS)

the

to

axis

the

centroid

of

the

tension

mm.
beams

concrete

beams it

that

mm

neutral

125.5

226 mm

is

assumed

that

each bar,

surrounding

2b(h-d)
number of bars

the

concrete

and that

the

surrounding

the

is

same

plate

the

beam.

000
f
Thus for

affect

A, but

hence

x and d,
As for

level,

(IMPERIAL

steel

100.5

reinforced

plated
to

of

centroid

In
0 LC)
CV
N
N
Ii

J,

mm (0.061).

reinforcement

10-3

b. c

0.056

by:

(fs-5)

from

226 - 100.5

equal

mm (0.079)

tS
'ff-i

depth

axis

is

the

at

given

ts. A

to the

Neutral

are

0.074

Ec assumed.

Value

the

are

7.7.

Table

width

is

1+

Beam 207

the values

crack

0"0913

Wmax =

values

Institute.

(89)

and Lutz

by Gergely

the

shown in

are

Concrete

American

(0! 093)

6 mm plate

beams with
The values

b.

3 mm plate

For beams with


and for

0.00107

[2(h-220)

-c].

(h-220)
2
h-220

C=
and A=b.

",

2712 mm2

b- 155
the

beams,

plated

does affect
which

in

CP110

fs

the
turn

the

positions
affect

zA s

hl

thickness
of

the

and the

230 N/mm2

of

plate

combined
steelstress,

is

assumed

centroid
fs.

of

not
steel

to
and

Converting

to

is

Imperial

Units

37'5

mm (to

A=

Then

2712 mm =

fs

230 N/mm

hi

125.5

max

4.2

33.3

Kips/in

mm =

4.94

in

0.091

The results

are

(33.3

1.4
1.48
-f-

W=0,093
max

given

4.94
mm

in Table

1.48

in

j
_

Hence

of bar)

centre

7.7.

- 5). 10-3

inches

APPENDIX 9
STATISTICS

STANDARDDEVIATION.

a.

When calculating

the

standard

N is

the number of

elements

R is

the mean

(xl

deviation

of

a set

of

numbers

_ X2

Q=
N

where

b.

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
is

This

taken

as

even though

each

other.

which

is

An accepted

designed

data

is

desirable

the variables

from

points

constructing

and drawing

the

the

is

a linear

It

can be shown that

of
line

in

equation

the

to

express

the

line

of

the

squares
best

variables,

which

uniformly

form

y=

the slope

of

the

deviation

In

of

called

a scatter

the

of

practice

the

we are
diagram,
The

points.

mx + b.

and y intercept

are

determined

as follows:

EXiEy1
-

in

=N

Exiyi

(Exi)2-

2
Ex.

N
and

b=y-

mR
EX1

I:yi
N
The degree
the

correlation,

of
r.

association

between

the

of

regression

fit.

divides

terms

functions

analytical

a least-squares

to perform

in

one variable

necessarily

sum of

straight

straight

not

is

the

a plot

best

are

practice

to minimise

essentially

result

mean

it

In many disciplines

actual

a
i

LINEAR REGRESSION

c.

another

deviation

standard

two variables

x and y is

called

CFX

r=m.

where

In most
is

that

of

when analysing

the

the

present

of

The experimental
this

gives

This

gives:

W=W+2.5.
max

mean
results

select

a population

of

numbers.

a factor

mean

based
are

width

standard

of

in

cracking

on the

called

'Z'

areas
values

to a specific

the mean value

from

a degree

to

tables

case of

deviation)

advisable

the maximum and mean crack


W=w+Z.
max

tables

range

is

tables

These

curve.

for

prediction

between

it

have constructed

normal

In

Q
Y

applications

desired

statisticians
the

(a = standard

the
is

test

beams,

of

certainty

To facilitate
under

this

different

and enable
degree
the

of

a
certainty.

relationship

required.

deviation.

24 test
2.5.

a.

-278-

beams are used

and from

portions

statistical

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