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Week 4

Telephony Services

Topics Overview

Brief History of Telephony


The Telephone
Phone Switching
The PSTN
ISDN
Telephone Numbering
QoS
VoIP

Question.
What is the largest network in the world?
PSTN (Public Switch Telephone Network)
Key Global Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector in 2014
(all figures are estimates)
Global

Developed Developing
Africa
nations
nations

Arab
States

Asia &
Pacific

CIS

Europe

The
Americas

Mobile cellular subscriptions


(millions)

6,915m

1,515m

5,400m

629m

410m

3,604m

397m

780m

1,059m

Per 100 people

95.5%

120.8%

90.2%

69.3%

109.9%

89.2%

140.6%

124.7%

108.5%

Fixed telephone lines


(millions)

1,147m

511m

636m

12m

33m

512m

70m

245m

256m

Per 100 people

15.8%

40.8%

10.6%

1.3%

8.7%

12.7%

24.9%

39.2%

26.3%

Active mobile broadband


subscriptions
(millions)

2,315m

1,050m

1,265m

172m

92m

920m

138m

399m

577m

Per 100 people

32.0%

83.7%

21.1%

19.0%

24.6%

22.8%

48.9%

63.8%

59.1%

Mobile broadband growth


2013-14

N/A

11.5%

26%

43%

19%

21%

15%

12%

16%

Fixed broadband subscriptions


(millions)

711m

345m

366m

3m

12m

313m

40m

173m

163m

per 100 people

9.8%

27.5%

6.1%

0.4%

3.1%

7.7%

14.3%

27.7%

16.7%

Source: International Telecommunication Union (May 2014)

via: mobiThCISinking

Time before Phones


1831 Professor Joseph Henry,
Albany, NY Ring a bell at a
distance by connecting and
disconnecting wires.
May 24, 1844 -- Samuel Morse
sends from Baltimore to
Washington, D.C. What hath
God wrought.
Numbers 22:23
Morse code

The Telephone

Transmission of signals over a distance for


the purpose of communication. The word
telecommunication is adapted from a
French word. It is a compound of the Greek
prefix tele, meaning 'far off', and
communication, meaning 'to transfer
information'.

Two patents were filed on same day


(February 14, 1876) by Alexander Bell, and
Elisha Gray (Bell beat him by two hours).

It would turn out to be the most valuable


patent ever issued.
5

Telephone was patented by A.G. Bell in 1876

Bell tried to sell the patent rights to Western Union in 1876 for $100,000. Western
Union said the patent was worthless; whod want voice when the telegraph still
worked?
6

Evolution of the Phone


Early phones used a hand generator to signal assistance by the
operator at the switch board
Now: Identification of each end device through numerical ID
composed of digits from decade system
dial plates (digits 1 9, 0) were added to the telephone device

The Switch Operator 1900-1975

pair of
copper wires
local loop

manual routing at local exchange office


(CO)

1975

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRRnA6YF4KU

PSTN Switch Room

A small portion of a Panel Switch, Chicago, 1938.

Telephony Terminology
Local loop connection of the end users device to the telephony
exchange
Device is without power when hook on cradle
Call information is signalled with 65V alternating current
When off-hook power supplied at around 60V by a current of 20
40mA
Dial plate cuts the local loop for well defined periods to indicate
dial information (~60ms cut, ~40ms closed in between try to dial
via cradle system is rather robust in detection

Telephone Company
Switch (1980s)

10

Telephony Terminology
Switch boards - routers in the telephony world
route of the call is fixed
every dialled digit switches the next relay in the switching
network
the (long distance) line was already occupied during call setup

Next step was introduction of indirectly operated switching


networks middle of the fifties
Before routing setup :the dial information was collected and then
processed

11

Rotary Dial
Produces 10 pulses/sec (pause longer than 1/10 sec is interpreted by
central office as inter-digit separator)
ingenious governor and clutch mechanism regulates the rotational
speed
Gears

Governor
Return Spring

Wings
Finger Plate Wheel

When finger
wheel is
released, wings rotate and
fly apart due to centrifugal
force, contact cup and
generate friction, limiting
the speed of rotation

Cup
Clutch (only engages the governor
when the finger wheel is recoiling)
12

13

Circuit Switching
System Components
Access Line
Circuit Switch

Circuit Switch

TERMINALS

TRUNK
GROUPS

CrossConnections

B
Circuit Switch

Circuit Switch

13

14

Circuit Switching
Background: Almon Strowger / Automatic Switching

14

15

Manual Switch
Basic Components

Input/Output
Channels

Channel
Terminations

Manually Operated
Cross-Connections
15

Strowger Switch
Human operators intelligent & flexible
But expensive and not always discreet
Strowger invented automated switch in 1888
Each current pulse advances wiper by 1 position
User dialing controls connection setup
Decimal telephone numbering system
Hierarchical network structure simplifies routing
Area code, exchange (CO), station number

1st digit 2nd digit . . .

0
0
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.

9
0

9
9
9

16

Strowger Switch (2)


Switch boards
first direct-dial switch boards
appeared around 1900 used in
local area nets first and from
around 1920 for long distance
calls dial plates (digits 1 9,
0) were added to the telephone
device
using special relay boards with
contacts for each dialled digit
system operated until around
1960s

17

A pair of wires per conversation

Pennsylvania, USA. circa 1925


Ballybrophy, Co Laois,
Ireland. 2007
18

PSTN Evolution

Full Mesh

Office Switched

Office Switched
W/ Hierarchy

Started out with 2 phones connected by a copper wire. Each new phone meant
another wire to every other telephone. This problem was solved by creating a
switching office whereas all the copper lines go to a central location and a live
operator made physical patches to connect the users.

As the number of switching offices grew it became desirable to connect them so


that users could make long distance calls, so switching offices were interconnected.
This eventually led to the same scaling problems as the full mesh topology had. 19

Telephony Equipment
Telephone set
PBX (Private Branch Exchange)
Advanced features and call routing
10s to 100s of telephone sets
Telephone Exchange = Local Exchange

Local Loop: line from exchange to handset

20

PSTN Topology
local loop
Local
Exchange
subscriber line

Local
Exchange
Long distance
network
trunk
circuit

Local
Exchange

21

The N2 Problem

For N users to be fully connected directly


Requires N(N 1)/2 connections
Requires too much space for cables
Inefficient & costly since connections not always on

N = 1000
N(N 1)/2 = 499500

22

Circuit Switching
The PSTN
has traditionally used
circuit switching.

A circuit is an end-to-end
connection between two subscribers.
Capacity is reserved on all
trunk lines and switches along the way.
Capacity must be paid for even if it is not used.
23

Circuit Switching
trunks
circuits
local loop
subscriber
line

automatic routing through universal telephone


network

Analog voltages used throughout, but extensive Frequency Division Multiplexing


Voice signal arrives at destination after amplification and filtering to 4 KHz
Line Established for duration of call

24

Public Circuit Switched Network

Subscribers: the devices that attach to the network.


Subscriber loop: the link between the subscriber and the network.
Exchanges: the switching centers in the network.

End office: the switching center that directly supports subscribers.


Trunks: the branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-frequency circuits using either
FDM or synchronous TDM.
25

Optimized Telephony Routing

Circuit switching (route is maintained for duration of call)


Route set-up is an expensive operation, just as it was for manual
switching
Today, complex least

cost routing algorithms are used

Call duration consists of set-up, voice and tear-down phases


26

Voice and Data Traffic


Full-Duplex (Two-Way) Circuit
Voice Traffic:
Fairly Constant Use;
Circuit Switching Is
Fairly Efficient
Full-Duplex (Two-Way) Circuit
Data Traffic:
Short Bursts,
Long Silences;
Circuit Switching Is
Inefficient
The reserved capacity of circuit switching
is OK for voice, but not for bursty data transmission.
27

The PSTN: Mostly Digital with Analog Local Loops


Today's Telephone Network: Predominantly Digital

Local
Loop
(Analog)
Residential
Telephone
(Analog)

Local
Loop
(Digital)

Switch
(Digital)
Switch
(Digital)

Trunk Line
(Digital)

Switch
(Digital)

PBX
(Digital)

Today, everything is digital except for the


local loop access line and residential telephones.
The actual local loop line can carry either analog or digital signals,
but the equipment at both ends is analog.
28

The Public Switch Telephone Network


(PSTN)
Composed of the following major network elements:
switches
trunks
lines
station equipment (e.g. telephone sets, MODEMs, FAX machines, )
transmission equipment (e.g. repeaters, multiplexers, DCS)
network signaling and control (e.g. SS7 and IN)

SS7 & IN

switch

switch
PBX

repeater

switch
MODEM

PC

29

Off-Hook Signaling / Supervisory Signaling


Loop Start
Seizure is detected when current flows through local loop,
due to off-hook

Switch

Switch

30

Loop Start
Station

PBX or Central Office


Loop
(Local or Station)

Switch

DC Current

Ringing

Switch

Switch

AC

31

Three Phases of a Connection


1.

2.

Telephone
network

Dial tone.
Telephone
network

Connection
set up

Dial number
3.

4.

Information
transfer

Connection
release

Pick up phone

Telephone
network

Telephone
network

5.

Telephone
network

6.

Telephone
network

Network selects route;


Sets up connection;
Called party alerted

Exchange voice
signals

Hang up.
32

Connection Setup (Detailed)

IAM: Initial Address


Message
ACM: Address Complete
Message
ANM: Answer Message

33

Connection release (Detailed)

REL: Release Message


RLC: Release Complete
Message

34

Call-flow (Setup + Release)


Switch1

Switch2
PSTN Phone

PSTN Phone

IAM

INVITE
100 TRYING

ACM
ANM

18X
200 OK
ACK

IAM
ACM
ANM

CONVERSATION

REL
RLC

BYE
200 OK

REL
RLC
35

Multiplexing in Telephony (Recap)


1900: 25% of telephony revenues went to copper mines

standard was 18 gauge, long distance even heavier


two wires per loop to combat cross-talk
needed method to place multiple conversations on a single trunk

1918: Carrier system (FDM)

5 conversations on single trunk


later extended to 12 (group)

1963: T-carrier system (TDM)

channels

f
timeslot
s

T1 = 24 conversations per trunk


later T3 = 28 T1s
later SDH rates allowed 1000s of conversations per trunk

t
36

DTMF signalling
Still in use on analogous lines and for signalling e.g. on voice menu
systems digital equipment uses out-of-band
Special codes for signalling other data (e.g. Pay card identification)
and for cost signalling between switching centres
Some people were able to produce the needed frequencies to switch
off payment or setup special connections (no cost, used by Telcos
for maintenance)
Hacking/Cracking started not with computer networks but with
automated telephony equipment challenge of the 70s was to setup
routes around the globe to call someone else in the same city (and
enjoy the delay because of the huge distances)
https://youtu.be/zb1r_uKOew4
The dial-up & cradle modem scene from
WarGames, wherein Matthew Broderick hacks
into what he thinks is a computer games
company. Note the size of the floppy disk he
loads! And the drive he puts it in!
37

Communication Systems
telephony protocol

Key dials were introduced to telephones special optimized


layout (in contradiction to keyboard layout used today)
So we have a well known protocol of analogous telephony
connection

38

Components of Speech (Reminder)


Frequency range (of hearing) 20Hz-20kHz
Speech 100Hz-7kHz

Easily converted into electromagnetic signal for transmission


Sound frequencies with varying volume converted into
electromagnetic frequencies with varying voltage
Limit frequency range for voice channel (300-3400Hz)

39

Communication Systems
DTMF
voice frequency band to the call switching center frequencies
selected in a way that no clash with normal voice
multifrequency shift keying (MFSK)

40

Touchtone Dial

ABC

DEF

GHI

JKL

MNO

770

PRS

TUV

WXY

852

OPER

941

*
1209

8
0

1336

697

Row Frequencies (Hz)

Pressing a button produces a Dual Tone, Multiple Frequency


(DTMF) signal - so you cant imitate it by whistling

1477

Column Frequencies (Hz)


41

Network Call Progress Tones


Tone

Frequency (Hz)

On Time

Off Time

Dial

350 + 440

Continuous

Busy

480 + 620

0.5

O.5

Ringback, Normal

440 + 480

Ringback, PBX

440 + 480

Congestion (Toll)

480 + 620

0.2

0.3

Reorder (local)

480 + 620

0.3

0.2

Receiver Off-hook

1400 + 2060 + 2450 +2600

0.1

0.1

No Such Number

200 to 400

Continuous, Freq. Mod 1Hz

42

Signaling and Addressing

Dial Pulse

DTMF

Analog Transmission
In-Band Signaling
09, *, # (12 Digits)

ISDN

Digital Transmission
Out-of-Band
Message-Based
Signaling

43

Digital Communication with ISDN

44

ISDN Access Options

4Khz BW for Voice, Sampled at twice max


(2B) frequency. Each Sample converted to
8 bit word = 64kbps per line
45

User Interface Structures


BRI: 2B+D
Basic Access

160 kbps =
2 B @ 64k each
D: 16 k
+ 16 k overhead

PRI: 23B+D
Primary Access

1.544 kbps =
23 B @ 64k each
D: 64k
+ 8 k framing

46

Digitizing Voice: PCM Waveform Encoding


Nyquist Theorem: sample at twice the
highest frequency
Voice frequency range: 300-3400 Hz (4Khz chosen)
Sampling frequency = 8000/sec (every 125us)
Bit rate: (2 x 4 Khz) x 8 bits per sample
= 64,000 bits per second (DS-0)

By far the most commonly used method


CODEC
PCM
= DS-0
64 Kbps

http://educypedia.karadimov.info/library/pulse_code_mod.swf

47

Pulse Code Modulation


Analog to Digital Conversion
ALaw (Europe)

Quantizing Noise

100100111011001

Stage 1

Law (USAJapan)

Quantizing Stage
48

Figure 6-12: Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Bandpass


Filtering and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Step 2: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Sampling


255 (maximum)
Analog
Signal

Duration
of Sample
(1/8000 sec.)

Box:
Codec Operation

Signal
Amplitude

0
Sample
Intensity of Sample
(125/255 or 01111101)

Time

Nyquist found that signals must be


sampled at twice their highest frequency.
For a top frequency of 4 kHz,
there must be 8,000 samples per second.
Each sample is 1/8000 second.

49

Figure 6-12: Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Bandpass


Filtering and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Step 2: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Sampling
Box:
255 (maximum) Codec Operation

Analog
Signal

Duration
of Sample
(1/8000 sec.)

Signal
Amplitude

In each sampling
period, the intensity
of the signal is
measured.

In pulse code
modulation, the
signal is measured
as one of 256
intensity levels.
One byte stores
one sample.

0
Sample

Time

Intensity of Sample
(125/255 or 01111101)
50

Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Bandpass Filtering and


Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Step 2: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Sampling
255 (maximum)
Analog
Signal

Box:
Codec Operation
Duration
of Sample
(1/8000 sec.)

Signal
Amplitude

Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM)
produces
8,000 one-byte
samples per second.
This is 64 kbps
of data.

0
Sample

Time

Intensity of Sample
(125/255 or 01111101)
51

ADC Recap

Box:
Codec Operation

First, Bandpass-Filter the Incoming Signal to 4 kHz


Really about 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz
To reduce transmission requirements

The Codec then Uses PCM for the Conversion


Samples at twice the highest frequency (4 kHz so 8,000 samples/second)
Loudness is recorded with 8 bits per sample (to give 256 loudness levels)
Generates 64 kbps of traffic (8 bits/sample times 8,000 samples per second)

http://www.howtodoit.org/conquest/swf/whatpcm.
swf
52

The PSTN Digitization


Voice frequency is 100 - 5000 Hz, with the main portion from
300 3400 Hz
Nyquist Theorem states that sampling must be done at twice
the highest frequency to recreate. 4000 Hz was chosen as the
maximum frequency, thus sampling at 8000 Hz
PCM = 8kHz * 8 bits per sample = 64 kbit/s

53

ISDN
Sample ISDN Topology

ISDN BRI

ISDN PRI

54

European Numbering Plan


Defines format for dialled numbers in Europe as of 1/95
00 + 353 + 71 - 91 - 55363
Station number
Exchange code
Area code (geographic region)
International Country Code
International preliminary code

International calls are initiated by dialling 00, followed by country and city code
(if any). Phone number shortage crisis Why?

55

e.g.
USA

56

National Numbering Plan (Ireland)

00 International
071 Regional area code
061 - 91 City area code!!
18 Free call and Low call
08 Mobile network
15 Premium rate service
112 or 999 Emergency service
11811 Directory enquiries (note similarity with 112 service)

Why wasnt a Similar numbering


system adopted for computer
networks ?
57

The PSTN Call Routing


International Numbering Plan E.164, uses prefix-based dialing
Inter-Exchange Carrier (IXC)
Local Exchange Carrier (LEC)

(LEC)

SS7

(IXC)

408

PSTN

1+212+555+5644

(IXC)

(LEC)

212

555

555+5644

5644
5644

The first LEC receives a call, seeing 1 as the first digit and then passing the call on to the
IXC switch. The IXC then routes the call to the remote IXC responsible for 212
The 212 IXC looks at the office code and passes it on to the 555 LEC switch
The 555 LEC switch then checks the station code and signals the appropriate phone
58

Problems with Phone Numbers


Unlike IP addresses a caller can input any combination of
numbers from a dial.
A wrong IP address can be dropped immediately but dialled
digits must be analysed.
There are a few possibilities for destinations;

59

Why use VOIP?


VoIP = Voice over IP
Transmission of telephony services via IP infrastructure
=> need history/concepts reg. both telephony (or voice) and IP

Cheaper telecommunications
Less phone line rental
Less wiring required
Free phone calls in some situations
Video conferencing possibilities
Branch offices may not need a PABX
Use WiFi bridges to connect phone system
60

What is VOIP?
Routing of voice conversations over the Internet or through
any other IP-based network.
VoIP is a WAN technology. IP Phones are a LAN
technology

61

VOIP Service
Voice-Over-IP (VOIP)
Technology that enables network managers to route phone calls
and fax transmissions over the same network they use for data.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4JHPAM0JPw

62

The VOIP World


The PSTN is used as the inter-VOIP network
Obvious implications of revenue protection for PSTN operators
More subtle implications for extended private VOIP networks

PSTN

Internet

63

64

VoIP Standards
1.

In 1995 we got the standard H.323. This is a Video Standard


from the Carrier world and is based on ISDN.
2. In June 2002 we got SIP from the Internet Standards body
(IETF). It uses all the other Internet standards. Is Video,
Presence, and Instant Messaging, plus more. Is extreamly
simple (read scary with potential).

VoIP needs WAN Section to work with Voice Section.


VoIP is NOT IP Telephony

65

VoIP Standards
H.323ITU-T
Session Initialization Protocol (SIP)IETF
Voice Coding Methods (ITU-T G
series, etc.)
Call Control/Session
Initialization (H.225, H.245, SIP)
Timing
(RTP)

Application Layer

Gateway/Gatekeeper
Control (GLP, MGCP)

Reliable/Unreliable
Transport services (TCP/UDP)
Internet Protocol (IP)
Packet Network Infrastructure

Transport Layer
Network Layer
Network interface Layer

66

What is H.323?
H.323 is a multimedia conferencing standard produced by the
ITU-T (Study Group 16 Questions 12-14)
Umbrella specification describing how to build systems using
other specifications (H.225, H.245, etc.)
Built around traditional telephony common-channel signaling
model
Currently the most widely-supported IP telephony signaling
protocol

67

H.323 Architecture
H.323 is actually a collection of standards. Each one is responsible for a
selected function or feature. For example, H.261, H.263 and H.264 are
video codecs. They are software algorithms that do the
compressing/encoding and the decompressing/decoding of the video

68

IP Telephony Protocols: SIP

Session Initiation Protocol - SIP


Contact office.com or SIP server asking for bob
Locate Bobs current phone and ring
Bob picks up the ringing phone

69

SIP

SIP: IETF standard


Derived from HTTP style signaling,
Simple and interfaces well with IP networks, instant messaging
(IM)
Services are not explicitly exposed to protocol
Well-defined methods can be used to design services: most
telephony services have analogs in the SIP world today

Cisco

SIP Phones

PingTel

70

SIP Addresses Food Chain

71

Why is SIP interesting?


SIP is IETFs equivalent for H.323 to provide a peer-based signaling protocol
for session setup, management and teardown
Simple, did not inherit the complexity of ISDN
Was designed with multimedia in mind
Just requires a MIME type. Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions (MIME)
Tremendous flexibility can add video, text etc. to a voice session, similar
to what HTTP did to Internet content
Like H.323, can use SIP end-to-end with no network infrastructure (MGC
etc.) peer-to-peer
Lightweight can be embedded in small devices like handhelds

72

(QoS) Quality of Service


Quality of Service (QoS) classifies
network traffic and then ensures that
some of it receives special handling.
May track each individual dataflow (sender:
receiver) separately. May include attempts to
provide better error rates, lower network
transit time (latency), and decreased latency
variation (jitter).

QoS Parameters

Bandwidth
Delay
Jitter (Delay Variation)
Information Loss
Reliability
Security

73

Buffering

Smoothing the output stream by buffering packets.


74

Traffic Shaping
The Leaky Bucket Algorithm

(a) A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.
75

The Token Bucket Algorithm


Uses the bucket
to organise the
flow of packets

5-34

(a) Before.

(b) After.

Token bucket allows some burstiness (up to the number of token the
bucket can hold)
76

Digital Telephony
Digital Trunking
Exchange

Exchange

POTS:
Plain Old
Telephone
System

Analog Loop
POTS
ISDN:
Integrated
Services Digital
Network

ISDN

Digital Network
Exchange

L.E.

Digital Loop Digital Network


Switch

77

Fiber to the curb


(FTTC)

Telephone networks

78

What is Convergence?

79

Summary of Evolution to VoIP


Circuit Switched Networks (Voice)
CO

PBX

PBX

CO
CO

Headquarters

Branch Offices

Router
Router
Router
Router
Router

Packet Switched Networks


(IP)

80

Circuit Switched Networks


(Voice)
PBX

CO

PBX

CO

Headquarters

CO

Branch Offices

Router

Router

Router
Router

Router

Packet Switched Networks


(IP)

81

Enterprise VoIP: Tomorrows networks


Unified/Converged Networks
CO

CO

Legacy PSTN
Router

Router

Router

Router

Router

Unified Networks (Voice over IP)


Headquarters

Branch Offices
82

Unified Communications (UC)


Enterprise network convergence focuses on the
consolidation of traditionally distinct voice, video, and
data communications networks into a common
infrastructure
Focuses on the integration of real-time communication
services
Systems are built on Internet Protocol
Key elements:
UC systems typically provide a unified user interface and consistent user
experience across multiple devices and media
UC merges real-time communications services with
non-real-time services and business process
applications
83

Vision of
Unified Communications and Collaboration
PC

Unified
Communications
& Real-time
Collaboration

PDA
Desk
Phone

Whatever
youre using

Blackberry

Mobile
Phone

Whatever
youre doing

Business
Applications
Integration

Wherever
you are
At your Desk

In the Air

Branch Office

On the Road
At Home

Head Office

84

Antenna Systems Overview

85

Antenna Systems Overview


The mobile unit and the base station in a cell communicate at a certain
frequency
The signal from the mobile unit arrives at the antenna of the base
station and is converted into an electrical signal

Base station
antenna (3 sector)

1/3rd of cell is
covered by
each sector of
antenna
86

Cellular Telephony
Mobile Telephone Switching Office

Cellsite
G

PSTN
D

Channel
47

B
A

K
H

E
C

L
I

In cellular technology, the region


F
is divided into smaller cells.
In each cell, a cellsite serves
cellphones in the cell.

N
P
O
M

Handoff

87

Typical SDH Site


Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (Optical Transmission)
GSM/UMTS Panel Antena

SDH Dish

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (Optical


Transmission)

PDH Dish

Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (Fibre Optic and


Microwave)

BSC/ATM/Optical Cabin
Base Station Controller

Power Cabin
Eth/BTS/PDH/SDH Cabin

Generator Enclosure

88

Typical SDH Cabin


Fiber Tray

SDH Radios
Dehumidifier
PDH Rack
SDH Mux

BTS/NodeB

Base Transceiver Station

89

Example of the Structure of the telephone


network

Look like any other network?


90

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