Introduction

Drives
Systems employed for motion control are called as drives. They may employ any
of the prime movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam
engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors for supplying mechanical energy.
An industrial drive system consists of a mechanical equipment or load to do the
job. Mechanical energy to the load is supplied by a prime mover through some energy
transmission equipment (belt, conveyors, gearings). Drive is a combination of prime
mover transmission equipment and mechanical load to do a particular job.

Energy Transmitting
Prime Mover

Equipment

Load

Transportation systems , rolling mills, paper mills, textile mills, machine tools,
fans, pumps, robots, washing machines are some of the motion control applications.
Electrical drive
Drives employing electric motors as prime mover is called as electrical drive.
General Classification
1. Group drive
One motor is used as a drive for two or more than two machines. The
motor is connected to along shaft. All the machines are connected to this shaft through
belt and pulleys
Advantages
1.Economical. Because rating of the machine is comparatively less than aggregate of
ratings of individual motor..
2. Initial cost is low
Disadvantage
1. Flexibility of plant layout is lost
2. If there is any fault in the driving motor all the machines will be stopped.
3. Level of noise produced at the site is high.
4. Since all the motors are connected through belt and pulleys, large amount of
energy is wasted in transmitting mechanisms. So power loss is high.
2.Individual drive
In this there will be separate driving motor for each process equipment. One motor is
used to transmit motion for various parts or mechanisms belonging to a single
equipment.

Eg. Lathe The motor in lathe machine rotates the spindle, moves the feed and also
with the help of gears imparts motion to the lubricating and cooling pumps.
Advantages
1. machine can be located at the convenient place
2. Continuity in the production is ensured.
Disadvantage
1. Initial cost is very high.
3. Multi-motor drive
In this separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of the driven
mechanism
Eg. Cranes. There are three motors: one for hoisting, another for long travel
motion, and the third for cross travel motion
Based on type of motor
1. AC drive
If Ac motor is used as a prime mover then it is called as AC drive
2. DC drive
3.
If DC motor is used as a prime mover then it is called as DC drive
Block diagram of an electrical drive is shown in the figure.

Power Modulator
Source

Electric

Load

Motor

Control Unit

Sensing Unit

Input Command

Block diagram of an electric drive

Components of electric drive
1. Electric motor and load
2. Power modulator
3. Source
4. Control unit
5. Sensing unit

Load
Load is a machinery designed to accomplished a given task eg. Fans, pumps,
robot, washing machines, machine tools, trains and drills. Load requirements can be
specified in terms of speed and torque demands.
Electrical Motor
Most commonly used electrical drives are;
DC motors Shunt, Series, Compound and permanent magnet DC motors.
Induction motors Squirrel cage, wound rotor and linear induction motor.
Synchronous motor Wound field and permanent magnet.
Special machines Brushless DC motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motor
A motor having speed torque characteristic and capabilities compatible to the load
requirements is chosen.
Power modulator
Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions:
1. Modulates flow of power from source to the motor in such a manner that motor is
imparted speed torque characteristics required by the load.
2. During transient operations such as starting braking and speed reversal it restricts
source and motor current within permissive value.
3. Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor.
4. Selects the mode of operation of the motor. ie. Motoring or braking
Types of power modulators
i. Converters (AC to DC)
ii. Inverters (DC to AC)
iii. AC voltage controllers (AC to AC)
iv. DC choppers (DC to DC)
v. Cycloconverters (Frequency conversion)
Electrical Sources
In India 1-, and 3- 50 Hz, AC supplies are readily available. Low power drives
are fed from single phase source. Rest of the drives of fed from three phase source.
Low and medium power motors are fed from 400 V supply for higher ratings
motors may be rated at 3.3kV, 6.6kV, 11kV. Some drives are powered from battery.
Battery voltage may be 24V, 48V and 110V DC.
Sensing Unit
For accurate speed or torque control by a closed loop system the motor
parameters has to be sensed. Speed can be sensed by tachogenerators. Current can be
sensed by Hall effect sensors or non inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with
isolation amplifier.
Control Unit
The controls for the converter are built in a control unit which operates at much
lower voltage and power levels the control unit consist of linear and digital integrated

circuit and transistors it may also consist of a micro processor or micro controller or
digital signal processor or fuzzy controller when sophisticated control is required. The
low voltage control unit is electrically isolated from the power circuit to avoid the mal
function due to the application of power circuit voltage to the control unit. In the absence
of isolation the harmonic generated by converters can enter the control unit and interfere
with its operation.
The complete drive system- consisting of the load, motor, converter, source,
control unit and sensing unit- must be treated as an integrated system. The operating
point of the motor may be disturbed due to a change in any of these elements of the drive.
Any such disturbance may produce changes which may affect the entire system. Choice
of various elements is also interrelated. For example, the source may be determined by
the necessity of using a particular motor, or the motor may have to be selected to suit the
source available. Usually the converter is selected to make the motor characteristics
suitable to the load.

Advantages of electric drives

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

They have flexible control characteristics.

They are available in wide range of torque speed and power.
Electric motor have high efficiency.
They have longer life lower noise, lower maintenance requirements.
Adaptable to any operating conditions.
Do not pollute the environment.
It can operate in all four quadrants of speed torque plane.
Regenerative braking is possible, which gives saving in energy.
There is no need for refuel or warm-up the motor.

Choice of electrical drives

Requirements Related to Starting, Stopping and Reversing
1. Nature and range of load torque
2. Inertia
3. Time for this operations
4. Frequency of these operations
5. Acceleration and deceleration
6. Accurate stopping
7. Manual or automatic
Requirements Related to Normal Running
1. Nature and range of load torque and power
2. Fixed speed or discrete speed
3. Speed regulation
Requirements Related to Location and Environment
1. Easy access for maintenance
2. Submerged in water or any other liquid
3. Environment consisting of dust, flammable gasses
Requirements Related to the Source

1. Type of source and its capacity

2. Magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor
3. Harmonics and their effects on other loads
4. Ability to accept regenerated power
Mechanical Consideration
1. Type of enclosures
2. Type of bearings
3. Transmission of drive and noise level

Selection of motor power rating

For a specific application motor must be chosen to achieve economy with
reliability.
If the selected motor has insufficient rating it may fail to drive the load at its
normal productive level or lowers the productivity and reliability due to frequent
damages. It may cause shutdowns due to overloading of the motor and power modulator.
If the selected motor power rating is more than the required value, initial cost of
the machine will be high. The motor will be operated below the rated power. It will result
in extra losses. Also synchronous motors and induction motors operate at a low power
factor when operating below the rated power. This results in uneconomical choice of
motor.
When a motor operates heat is produced due to losses. Hence temperature rises.
As the temperature increases beyond the ambient value portion of the heat produced is
dissipated in the surrounding medium. The amount of heat dissipation is a function of
temperature rise of the motor above the ambient value. As motor temperature rises
amount of heat dissipation increases. It reaches an equilibrium value when the heat
generated becomes equal to heat dissipated into the surrounding medium. Motor
temperature then reaches a steady state value. Steady state temperature depends on power
loss, which in turn depends on the output power of the machine. Since temperature rise
has a direct relationship with the output power, it is called as thermal loading on the
machine. The insulation temperature should not exceed the prescribed limit. It will result
in thermal breakdown.

Dynamics of motor load system

Acceleration
Rate of change of speed when the speed is increasing. dm/dt is positive
Deceleration
Rate of change of speed when the speed is decreasing. dm/dt is negative
Inertia
It is the ability of the bodys resistance to angular acceleration
Torque
The twisting moment about an axis that causes rotation.
Flywheel

A heavy rimmed rotating wheel used to minimize variations in angular velocity. It

is used as a storage device for kinetic energy. During acceleration period energy will be
stored. During deceleration energy is retrieved.

Equation governing motor load dynamics

A motor drives a load through transmission system. The motor always rotates.
The load may rotate or undergo a translational motion. If the load has many parts their
speed may be different. Some may rotate others may go through translational motion.
However the motor load system is represented by an equivalent rotational system.
Let
T Torque developed by the motor N-m
TL - Load torque referred to the motor shaft N-m
J Polar moment of inertia of the motor load system referred to the motor shaft kg-m2
m - Instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft N-m
J(dm/dt)- Dynamic torque (present only during transient operation
Any motor load system can be described by the following fundamental torque equation.
T = TL + J(dm/dt)

Motor

Load
T

T
wm
Equivalent motor load system

The drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than

Tl. During the acceleration period, the motor should supply the load torque and the
dynamic torque J(dm/dt) to overcome the inertia of the drive.
In applications having a load with large inertia (trains) the motor torque must
exceed the load torque by a large amount to get an adequate amount of acceleration.
Similarly, in applications requiring fast response, the motor torque should be maintained
at the highest value and the motor load system should be designed to have the lowest
possible inertia. When the speed increases, the kinetic energy of the drive given by
J m2 also increases. Therefore in addition to the energy supplied to the load, the motor
should also supply the kinetic energy.
During the deceleration period the dynamic torque J(dm/dt) changes its sign,
and thus assists the motor torque T in maintaining the motion of the drive by extracting
energy from the stored kinetic energy. When the load has a high inertia, the motor should
produce a large braking torque to get adequate deceleration. When fast response is

required, the braking torque should be maintained at the highest value and the motor load
system should be designed with lowest possible inertia.

Components of load torque

i)

Friction torque (TF)

The friction will be present at motor shaft and also in the various
parts of the load. The friction torque TF is the equivalent value of various
friction torques referred to motor shaft.

Components of Friction torque

Friction Torque Components

The variation of friction torque with speed is shown in the above Fig. Its
value at standstill is much higher than its value at slightly above zero speed.
a) Stiction (TS)
Friction at standstill condition is called as stiction. For the drive to start
the motor torque should at least exceed stiction. This is also called as breakaway
torque.
b) Viscous Friction (TV)
TV = Bm
B Viscous friction coefficient
The component that varies linearly with speed is called as viscous friction
c) Coulomb Friction (TC)
It is independent of speed
ii) Windage torque (TW) TW = C 2m

When a motor runs the wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This
is known as the windage torque.
iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work (TM)
The nature of this torque depends on the type of load. It may be constant
and independent of speed, it may be some function of speed, it may time invariant or time
variant, and its nature may also vary with the change in the loads mode of operation.
The load torque TL = TM + B m+ TC + C 2m

Classification of Load torques

1. Active load torque
Load torques that have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
condition is called as active load torque.
Active load torque retains its sign when the direction of the drive rotation is
changed
Eg. Torque due to the force of gravity in the case of hoists, lifts, elevators and
railway locomotives operating on gradients.
Torque due to tension, compression and torsion undergone by an elastic body.
2. Passive load torque
The torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of
motion are called passive load torques.
eg) Torque due to friction, cutting in fans, pumps and lathes.

Typical Speed - Torque Characteristics of loads

i) Fans, Centrifugal pumps, blowers

Windage torque dominates.
TL 2m

ii) Electric trains and road vehicles

Due to the heavy inertia stiction will be high at zero speed. So the motor should
produce greater torque than this. Then only motor can accelerate against the load torque.
When the motor speed increases the windage torque dominates.

iii) Diesel-electric locomotives

A Diesel electric locomotive employs a DC motor fed by a generator driven by a
diesel engine. since the speed torque curves of diesel engine are not compatible with the
traction requirements it can not be directly coupled to the driving wheels. By interposig
the dc generatorc motor set speed torque curves compatible with the traction
requirements are obtained. The generator motor system acts as torque converter. The
diesel engine runs with full speed developing constant power. When the fuel injection is
set at maximum, it develops full power. To make full use of diesel engine power, the DC
motor should develop constant power over the range of speesd. Care is also taken to
ensure that the diesel engine is not overloaded, otherwise it will simply stall. This is
achieved by the constant power characteristic BC. The part CD is obtained by imposing a
limit on the maximum motor torque. This is done to limit the motor generator current
within safe limit, to prevent too high motor torque and to prevent wheel slipage. The part
AB is required to limit the motor speed within the permissible value and also the terminal
voltage of motor and generator within rated value. For lower fuel ingection we get the
inner characteristics.

iv) Crane, Hoist

The torque is mainly due to gravity, which is constant and independent of speed. In high
speed hoist the viscous friction and windage also form an appreciable proportion of the
load torque.

v) Constant power drive

In constant power drive the power will be always constant. Both speed and torque
are inversely proportional. If speed is high torque will below and vice versa.

Ivi) Excavators
The purpose of excavator is to dig earth. While digging it may come
across a rock. The motor will then simply stop. In such a situation the motor torque must
be limited to prevent mechanical damage to the excavator, and motor current should also
be restricted within the converter rating.

Load torques that depend on the path or position taken by the

load during motion
Load torques not only depends on speed but also the on the nature of the path
traced out by the load during its motion, are present in hoisting mechanisms and transport
systems
The resistance to motion of a train traveling up gradient or taking a turn depends
on the magnitude of gradient or the radius of curvature of the track respectively.
The force resisting the motion of a train traveling up gradient is shown in the Fig.
below

Fg = (W G/1000) kg
W dead weight of the train or transport system
G gradient expressed as a rise in metres in atrack distance of 1000 metres

The tractive force overcome the curve resistance is given by the empirical formula
Fc = (700 W / R) kg
R radius of curvature in metres
In hoisting mechanism when tail ropes or balancing ropes are not used the
load torque is not only due to the unloaded or the loaded cage but also due to that of the
lifting ropes or cables.
The load torque depends on the position of the two cages. When cage 1 is at
bottom most position and is to be lifted upwards, the entire weight of the rope is also to
be moved up. when both cages remain at the same height, the weight of the rope to be
lifted up become zero, since the weight of the ropes on both sides balance each other.
When cage 1 is at a higher position than cage 2 a portion of the weight of the rope acts in
such way as to aid the upward motion of cage 1. When cage 1 occupies the topmost
position the whole weight of the rope aids the upward motion.

Hoisting mechanism

The force that resists the upward motion of the load Fr is given by
Fr = Wr(1- (2x/h)

kg

Wr total weight of the rope in kg,

x Height of the cage at any arbitrary position from bottom most position in m
h the desired maximum height to which the cage is to be moved upwards in m
For very high values of height the weight of the rope may be considerably greater
than that of the load to be lifted upwards. By using tail ropes, as shown by means of
dotted lines the weight of connecting ropes can be balanced. So smooth movement of the
cages can be ensured.

Load torque that vary with angle of displacement of shaft

IN all machines having crankshafts, for example, in reciprocating pumps
and compressors, frame saws weaving looms, rocking pumps used in petroleum industry
load torque is a function of position of the crank shaft ie. the angular displacement of the
shaft or rotor of the motor

Load Torque that vary with time

1. Continuous load
a) continuous constant load
A constant load torque will be present continuously
Eg. centrifugal pumps, fans
b) Continuous variable load
2. Short time load
Load toque will be present for short time duration. Afterwards the motor will run
for a long time without load torque.
Eg. cranes
3. Intermittent load
Each duty cycle has a period having constant load torque and arrest period.
Eg. Presses Shearing machines

Steady state stability

When T = TL equilibrium speed of motor load system is obtained.
Equilibrium speed is the speed at which the drive will operate in steady state
provided it is a speed of stable equilibrium.
Equilibrium speed is viewed as stable if the operation is restored to this speed
after any small departure from it due to any disturbance in the motor load system.
Mathematical condition for steady state stability

Fundamental torque equation of motor - load system is

T = TL + J(dm/dt )
Where T Torque developed by motor
TL Load torque
m Speed of operation
Let there be small variation of T & TL following a speed variation of m
Before the disturbance
T = TL + J(dm/dt )
. 1
After the disturbance
T + T = TL + TL + J (d / dt(m + m ))
..2
Subtracting equation 1 from 2
T = TL + J (d m / dt)
..3
Assume that the increments are so small. So that they can be expressed as
linear functions of speed.
T = (dT / d m ) m ,
TL = (d TL / d m ) m
Substituting above values in equation 3
(dT / d m ) m = (dTL / d m ) m + J (d m /dt)
solving this equation
m = ( o) e-1/J [(dTL /d m ) - (dT /d m )] t
The above equation gives the speed transient. The speed transient will die down to
zero if (dTL /dm) - (dT / dm ) > 0, making the exponential term decrease with time.
If this condition is satisfied the motor returns to its original operating point and
the machine is said to be stable.

Conclusion
1. For an increase in speed the load torque must exceed the motor torque. So that
deceleration takes place and the operation returns to the equilibrium speed.
2. For a decrease in speed the motor torque must exceed the load torque. So that
acceleration occurs and the operation returns to the equilibrium speed.

Note:
1. Motoring
During motoring in the first quadrant speed and torque are positive. Both motor
and load torques are positive. So the torque equation of motor load system is given by
T = TL + J(dm/dt )
From the above equation T - TL = J(dm/dt )
If there is any increase in speed the motor has to decelerate to get stable
equilibrium point. For deceleration J(dm/dt ) should be negative. To get negative value
for J(dm/dt ), TL should be greater than T.

If there is any decrease in speed the motor has to accelerate. For acceleration
J(dm/dt ) should be positive. To get positive value for J(dm/dt ), T should be greater
than TL.
2.Braking
During braking in the second quadrant speed is positive and torque is negative.
Both motor and load torques are negative. So the torque equation of motor load system is
given by
- T = - TL + J(dm/dt )
From the above equation TL T = J(dm/dt )
If there is any increase in speed the motor has to decelerate to get stable
equilibrium point. For deceleration J(dm/dt ) should be negative. To get negative value
for J(dm/dt ), T should be greater than TL .
If there is any decrease in speed the motor has to accelerate. For acceleration
J(dm/dt ) should be positive. To get positive value for J(dm/dt ), TL should be greater
than T.

Steady state stability of equilibrium point

Let us examine the equilibrium point A and B which are obtained when an
induction motor drives the load torque TL1 as shown in the Fig. above

At point A small increase in speed makes the load torque greater than the motor
torque. Deceleration occurs and the operation is restored to point A. Similarly, a small
decrease in speed causes the motor torque to exceed the load torque. Acceleration occurs
and the operation is restored to point A. Thus A is a stable equilibrium point.
At point B small increase in speed makes the motor torque greater than the load
torque. Acceleration occurs and the operating point moves away from B. Similarly, a
small decrease in speed causes the load torque to exceed the motor torque, causing
deceleration and the operating point to drift away from B. Thus B is an unstable
equilibrium point.
Point C is obtained when the motor drives the load torque TL2. The points B and C
lie on the same part of the speed torque curve of motor. However C provides the stable
operation but not B. This shows that stability of an equilibrium point depends not on the
motor characteristics alone or the load characteristic alone but on the relative nature of
the two.

Multi Quadrant Operation of Drives

m
Forward Regeneration
Forward Motoring

Reverse Motoring

II

III

IV

T
L
Reverse Regeneration

The motor has two modes of operation.

1. Motoring
2. Braking
Both operations can be obtained in forward and reverse directions. During
motoring it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which assists its motion.
During braking mode it operates as a generator converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy which opposes its motion.

In the first quadrant both speed and torque are positive. So the power flow is from
source to load. It is motoring in the forward direction.
In the second quadrant speed is positive and torque is negative. So the power is
negative, which flows from load to source. Hence it is generating mode in the forward
direction.
In the third quadrant both speed and torque are negative. So the power is positive,
and hence it flows from source to load. It is motoring in the reverse direction.
In the fourth quadrant speed is negative and torque is positive. So the power is
negative, which flows from load to source. Hence it is generating mode in the reverse
direction.

Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider the operation of a
hoist in four quadrants as shown in Fig. Directions of motor and load torques and
direction of speed are marked by arrows.
A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end
of the rope is tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to
another level. Other end of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is
chosen to be higher than the weight of an empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded
cage.
Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward direction of the
cage. Speed-Torque characteristics of the hoist load are also shown in the Fig.
Though the positive load torque is opposite in sign to the positive motor torque,
according to the equation, T =Tl + J (dm/dt), it is convenient to plot it on the same
axes. Load-torque curve drawn in this manner is, in fact, negative of the actual.
Load torque has been shown to be constant and independent of speed. This is
nearly true with a low speed hoist where forces due to friction and windage can be
considered to be negligible compared to those due to gravity. Gravitational torque does
not change its sign even when the direction of driving motor is reversed. Load torque line
Tl 1 in quadrants I and IV represents speed- torque characteristic for the loaded hoist. This
torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist. The load torque line T l 2 in
quadrants II and III is the speed- torque characteristic for an empty hoist. Its sign is
negative because the weight of a counter weight is always higher than that of an empty
cage.
Quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction equal to the
magnitude of the load torque Tl 1 .Since developed motor power is positive, this is
forward motoring operation.
Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the
weight of a loaded cage is higher than that of a counter weight, it is able to come down
due to gravity itself. In order to limit the speed of cage within a safe value motor must
produce a positive torque T equal to Tl 2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and
speed are negative drive is operating in reverse braking.
Quadrant II operation is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since the
counter weight is heavier than the empty cage it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the
speed within a safe value, motor must produce braking torque equal to T l 2 in clockwise
(negative) direction. Since speed is positive and developed power negative it is forward
braking operation.
Quadrant III operation is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an
empty cage has a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce torque in
clockwise direction. Since speed is negative and developed power positive it is reverse
motoring operation.

Braking of electric motors

Need for braking
1. If a motor running at some speed is disconnected from the supply the only
opposing torque will be the load torque Tl. The motor will stop only after the
kinetic energy stored in its inertia is dissipated. When either the load is mall or
the inertia is large, the motor takes a long time to stop. In applications
requiring frequent stops, the stopping time must be reduced by introducing
additional opposing torque by the use of electric braking.
2. In fraction rapid emergency stops are essential to prevent accidents.
3. In some applications accurate stops are required. Eg, lifts, machine tools.
4. In applications involving active loads the drive speed will reach dangerous
values if braking force is not provided by the motor. Eg, when a loaded hoist
is being lowered, the motor should provide a braking force to hold the speed
within safe limits.
When a train goes down a sleep gradient, a braking force is required to hold the
train speed within safe limits. When a train goes down a steep gradient, a braking
force is required to hold the train speed within safe limits.
Types of braking
1. Mechanical braking
The stored energy of rotating parts of the machine is dissipated in the form of heat by
a brake shoe or band rubbing on a wheel or a brake drum.
2.
Electric braking
The stored energy of rotating parts is converted into electrical energy and
dissipated in the resistance in the form of heat or returned to the supply
Types of Electric Braking
1. Dynamic braking
2. Plugging
3. Regenerative braking
Dynamic Braking
Dynamic braking of a DC motor is obtained by disconnecting it from the source and
closing the armature circuit through a suitable resistance the motor works as a generator,
producing the braking torque.
Dynamic braking is inefficient method of braking, because all the generated
energy is wasted as heat in resistances.
Plugging
Plugging occurs when motor windings are connected for reverse direction of
rotation when armature is still rotating in the forward direction. If the connections to the
armature terminals are reversed the motor tends to rotate in the opposite direction.
This braking is employed in the following cases
1. For quick stopping of the motor
2. For reversing drives requiring a short time for reversal

Regenerative braking
The motor operates as a generator and returns the braking energy to the supply.
Conditions to be satisfied for regenerative braking
1. Source should have the ability to accept the regenerated power
2. The source motor circuit should have the ability to carry current in either
direction.
3. The induced emf Eb should be made greater than the source voltage V either by
increasing Eb or decreasing V.
Eb can be increased by over exciting the machine. So the speed increase
above the rated or normal value.
V can be decreased by power modulators.
Circuit model of DC motors

Speed torque characteristics of DC motors

Sign of source voltage motor current and back emf in various quadrants of motor
operation

Multiquadrant drives employing semiconductor converters mostly employ

regenerative braking because of saving in energy. Figure shows the polarities of the
source voltage, back emf, and armature current for the operation in different quadrants.
These quantities V, E and Ia are taken positive for the forward motoring (quadrant I). The
torque and speed are also positive in this quadrant. When the operation takes place in the
forward braking quadrant (quadrant II), the back emf will continue to be positive because
the motor still runs in the forward direction. For the torque to become negative and the
direction of the energy flow to reverse the armature current have opposite direction and V
should be less than E. When reverse motoring (quadrant III), the back emf will reverse (ve) because of the reversal of speed. To keep the torque negative and the energy flow
from the source to the motor (a condition must be satisfied for the motoring operation),
the source voltage and current must have reverse (- ve) directions, and V E . When
in the reverse braking quadrant (quadrant IV), the back emf will be negative. For the
torque to be positive and the energy to flow from the motor to the source, I a and V must
have positive and negative directions respectively, and V E . The directions of the
source voltage and current for various quadrants are listed in table.
Quadrants

of Polarity

of

source Direction

of

source

operation
Forward motoring
(I quadrant)
Forward braking
(II quadrant)
Reverse motoring
(III quadrant)
Reverse braking
(IV quadrant)

voltage
+ ive

current
+ ive

+ ive

- ive

- ive

- ive

- ive

+ ive

These entries show that for an operation consisting of forward motoring and
regenerative braking (quadrants I and II) one needs a source with a positive voltage and
the ability to carry current in either direction. For an operation consisting of forward
motoring and reverse braking, the source should be able to provide voltage in either
direction; however, it need not have the ability to carry current in either direction. For
operation in all four quadrants, the source should be able to provide voltage in either
direction and should allow the current to flow in either direction.
The preceding discussion is helpful in discovering the quadrants in which a motor
can operate when fed by a given converter or chopper.

Regenerative braking of separately excited or shunt motor - For variation in

armature circuit resistance
m

Motoring

Regeneration
Ra

Natural characteristic

Ra+rR2

Ra+ R1

Regenerative braking - speed torque curve of separately exited DC motor for

armature voltage and flux variation

If by some method the induced emf E is made greater than the source
voltage V the current will reverse. The machine will work as a generator and the source
will act as a sink of energy, thus giving regenerative braking.
E can be made greater than V by the following ways.
1. During overhaul of load the motor will run beyond normal speed. Hence E
increases beyond V
2. If the current is increased E exceeds the line value V and start supplying the
source. The motor will slow down to a new speed corresponding to the field
current
Regenerative braking of DC series motor
The nature of speed torque curve of DC series motor is such that it does not
extend to the second quadrant. As no load is approached, the speed increases
asymptotically to the speed axis. This implies that an increase in speed of DC series
motor is followed by a decrease in armature current and hence the field flux. So
regeneration is not possible in a plain DC series motor, since the field current can not
be made greater than the armature current ie) The machine will not able to self excite
against supply voltage
Alternative way to obtain regeneration in DC series motor
i. Series motor is connected as shunt motor during regeneration period.
ii. DC chopper can be used as a power modulator so that source voltage is
reduced below the induced emf.

Dynamic braking of separately exited motor

Speed torque curves under dynamic braking

The connections for dynamic braking are shown in the Fig. The motor
operates at its rated voltage. when braking is required, armature is connected to an
external resistance Rb. The field remains connected to the supply with excitation, and
induced voltage in the armature has the same polarity. The armature current reverses and
flows in a direction opposite to the current during motoring, developing a braking torque.
If the field is separately exited the motor stops very fast. If the field is self
exited the field current falls with speed. In the case of self excitation, the torque becomes
zero at a finite speed.
Critical Speed
For a given value of resistance there is a critical value of speed mc below which
the machine fails to self excite.

Dynamic Braking of series motor

For dynamic braking the series motor is connected as a self excited series
generator. For self excitation, it is necessary that the current forced through the field
winding aids the residual flux. This requirement is satisfied either by reversing the
armature terminals or the field terminals.
At the instant of initiating the braking the current builds up. The torque developed
is proportional tom square of the armature current. At this instant the braking effect is
more and there may be a jump in torque developed, causing an objectionable shock to the
load. If this torque is objectionable dynamic braking is employed by separately exciting
the field.

Plugging operation of DC motors

If the armature terminals or supply polarity of a separately excited or shunt motor

when running are reversed, the supply voltage and the induced voltage will act in the
same direction and the motor current will reverse, producing braking torque.
If the machine is running at rated speed, at the initiation of braking the total
voltage in the armature circuit will be nearly equal to 2V. To limit the current within the
safe value, a resistance twice the starting resistance will be required.
The braking torque is not zero at zero speed. So an additional arrangement is
required to disconnect the motor from the supply at or near zero speed. Otherwise it will
speed up in the reverse direction.

Speed torque curves of an induction motor for speeds greater and less than
synchronous speed in either direction

Regenerative Braking
The operations for m greater than ms ( or s 0 ) and m 0 or ( s I ) produce
negative power and correspond to the braking operation. With positive sequence voltage
across the motor terminals, the operation above synchronous speed gives the regenerative
braking operation. similarly for the negative sequence voltages regenerative braking is
obtained for speeds above the synchronous speed in the reverse direction.
In regenerative braking the motor works as a induction generator converting
mechanical energy supplied by the load to electrical energy, which is fed to the source.
When the motor runs at a speed greater than the synchronous speed, the relative
speed between the rotating flux and the rotor is negative. The rotor induced voltage and
current have directions opposite to those under motoring operation. So the rotor current is
in the opposite direction. thus the power flows from the motor to the source and the
motor works as an induction generator
When the motor is fed by a fixed frequency source regenerative braking is
possible only for speeds greater than synchronous speed. When the motor is fed by a
variable frequency source, the source frequency can be adjusted to give a synchronous
speed less than the motor speed. So regenerative braking can be obtained up to nearly
zero speed.

For the same absolute value of slip the braking torque is higher than the motoring
torque. Since braking speeds are also higher the regenerated power is much higher than
the motoring power.
Plugging or counter current braking
By changing the phase sequence of the input to an induction meter, the direction
of stator field can be reversed. This is done by interchanging any to supply phase of
motor. A braking torque is developed and the motor comes to rest very fast. The motor
must be switched off from the mains when zero speed is approached. Else the torque
developed accelerates the motor in the reverse direction.
An induction motor operates in the plugging mode for slips greater than 1. For
positive sequence voltages slip greater than 1 is obtained when the motor rotates in the
reverse direction. Since the relative speed between the rotating field and the rotor remains
positive the motor torque is positive and the motor draws power from the source. Since
the motor runs in the reverse direction a positive torque providers the braking operation.
Dynamic braking of Induction motor
Stator connections for DC dynamic braking

Speed torque curves

Dynamic braking is employed to brake a non-reversing drive.

The motor is disconnected from the ac supply and connected to a dc
supply. The flow of dc current through the stator windings sets up a stationary
magnetic field. The relative speed between the stationary stator field and the
moving rotor is now negative. Consequently 3-phase voltages of reverse polarity
and phase sequence are induced in the rotor. The resultant three phase rotor
currents produce a rotating field, moving at the rotor speed in the direction
opposite to that of rotor. Thus giving a stationary rotor fields are stationary and
rotor currents flows in the reverse direction a steady braking torque is produced at
all speeds. It becomes zero at standstill due to zero rotor currents.

Starting
The purpose of starting equipment in an electric motor is to limit the starting
current and to provide a reasonably good starting torque; so that the motor accelerates in
the desired period to the rated speed.
Necessity of a starter in DC motors
When the motor is at rest the speed of the motor is zero, so the back emf Eb is
zero and if a DC motor is connected directly to the supply mains a heavy current will
flow through the armature conductors because from the emf equation for armature circuit
Eb = V-IaRa
Armature current Ia = (V-Eb) / Ra; and armature resistance Ra is very small. So Ia will be
very high if the motor is switched on with rated supply voltage. This would give rise to
heating effects and mechanical forces.
Methods to start electric motors
1. Full voltage starting
2. reduced voltage starting
3. Increased torque starting
4. Starting by means of smooth variation of voltage or frequency
Starter for DC shunt and compound motors
The simplest type of starter consists of an additional resistance inserted in series
with the armature alone. This starter is modified to include a few protective devices such
as no voltage release, overload release etc.
There are two standard types of motor starters for DC shunt and compound
motors.
1. Three point starter
2. Four point starter

Four point starter is employed when wide range of speed by shunt field control is
required. When no speed control is required either type of starter may be used.
While starting DC shunt and compound motors the field excitation is kept at its
maximum value. A large field current results in higher flux. This results in low
operating speed and higher motor torque for a particular value of starting current.
For DC series motor two point starter is used.
Necessity of starter for three phase induction motor
1. To reduce the starting current
2. To improve the starting torque
An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer with a short circuited
rotating secondary. If normal supply voltage is fed to the stationary motor then
induced emf and hence the rotor current is maximum as the slip is maximum.
I2r = SE2 / R22 +(SX2)2
When the rotor current is high the stator draws a very high current from the
supply. This current will be of the order of 5 to 8 times the full load current.
The rotor resistance of squirrel cage induction motor is fixed and small as
compared to its reactance. Which is very large at the start because at standstill, the
frequency of the rotor currents equal to the supply frequency(ie. S = 1). Hence the
starting current I2 of the rotor, though very large in magnitude lags by a very large
angle behind E2. So the rotor power factor is reduced. Hence starting torque is poor
and is 1.5 times the full load torque.
The very high starting current causes a large dip in the supply voltage. This will
affect the operation of other electrical equipments connected to the same lines. Hence
direct on line starting of motors of rating above 25 kw to 40 kw is not advisable.
The starting torque of an induction motor can be improved by increasing the
resistance of the rotor circuit for slip ring induction motor. This is not possible in
squirrel cage motor. However the starting current can be reduced by applying reduced
voltage to the stator during starting period.
Starting
Starting arrangement is chosen based on the load requirements and nature of
supply. It may be required to have following features.
1. Motor should develop enough starting torque to overcome friction, load torque
and inertia of motor load system, and thus complete the starting process within a
prescribed time limit.
2. Starting current magnitude should be such that it does not cause the overheating
of the machine and does not cause a dip in the source voltage beyond a
permissible value.
Relation between starting torque and full load torque
Tst Ist2 [since S = 1]
Tf If2 / Sf
Where Tst starting torque

Tf full load torque

Ist Starting current
If Full load current
Sf Slip at full load current
Starting methods for induction motor
1. Star delta starter
2. Primary resistor or stator resister starter
3. Auto transformer starter
4. Direct on line starter
5. AC voltage controller starter
6. Rotor resistance starter.
Rotor resistance starter can be used only for slip ring induction motor. All the other
starters can be used for both slip ring and squirrel cage induction motor.

Torque and power limitation in DC motors for speeds above and below the rated
speed

To get wide range of speed control combined armature voltage and flux control is
is used. Armature voltage control retains the maximum torque capability of motor at all

speeds. It is therefore employed wherever it can be, and field control is used only for
getting speeds which can not be obtained by armature control. In such drives base speed
is defined as the normal armature voltage full field speed. This is the speed at which
motor runs on the natural speed torque characteristics.
Speeds from standstill to base speed are obtained by the armature voltage control,
and field is maintained constant at the rated value. Speeds above the rated value can not
be obtained by armature voltage control. Because motor armature voltage must not be
increased beyond the rated value. therefore speed above the base speed are obtained by
field control, provided the load torque demands at these speeds can be met even with the
reduced torque capability of the motor.
The variation of T and Pm for speed above and below base speed are given in the
above Fig. the armature current rating is assumed to be constant at all speeds.
Below the base speed motor operates as a constant torque drive. Above the base
speed motor operates as a constant power drive
Maximum, Continuous and Transient, Torque and power limitations of drives in
four quadrants

Ratings of Converters and Motors

During transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal, speed
changing, and so on, the motor current can be allowed to be higher than its rated current,
due to its large thermal capacity. For example, depending on the design of the motor and
the duration of the transient operation, a dc motor may be allowed to carry 2 to 3.5 times
the rated current. The flow of current equal to the maximum permissible value allows full
use of the motor torque capability both during motoring and braking. Consequently, the
transients are completed in the shortest possible period, and the motor does not stall due

to short-time overloads. When fast response during transient operations is not necessary,
then the motor current need not be allowed to exceed the rated current.
Converters use semiconductor elements which do not have any capacity for
overload, due to their low thermal capacity. Therefore, their current rating is chosen as
equal to the maximum current that may be required to flow through the motor. When the
motor current is allowed to be K times (K>1) the rated current, to get fast response
during transient operations, the converter rating must be K times the motor rating.
Consequently, the converter cost, and hence the drive cost, increases substantially. The
increase in the cost of the drive is well accepted as a price to be paid for the increase in
the total work done by the drive, which may ultimately lead to an increase in production
or financial return. Almost all converter drives are provided with some kind of current
control, the purpose of which is to prevent the current from exceeding a permissible
value. When the motor current is allowed to be K times its rated current, the current
control will fail to protect the motor against sustained overloads. In this case, additional
thermal protection will be required to protect against sustained overloads.
When fast response is not necessary during transient operations, the motor current
is restricted to its rated value. This minimizes the cost of the converter and the drive. The
current control now provides protection against the sustained overloads as well.
The continuous torque and power limitations of a drive in the four quadrants of
operation are shown by the solid lines in figure for speeds below and above base speed
mb. The base speed is the highest drive speed available at the rated flux (or without
weakening of flux). From standstill to base speed, both for motoring and braking
operations and for rotation in either direction, operation at the rated current imposes a
limitation on the maximum available torque. The available power increases linearly with
speed and generally reaches maximum value equal to the continuous power rating of
the motor at base speed. Usually the motor is operated at a reduced voltage below base
speed. Above base speed, the motor terminal voltage is maintained at the rated value.
Motor operation at the rated current (and rated voltage) imposes a limitation on the
maximum developed power, and the maximum available torque decrease with the
increase in speed. One of the factors which imposes a limitation on the maximum speed
is the mechanical strength of the motor load system. Other factors, which are applicable
to specific motors, are described in the relevant chapters.
As explained in the previous section, when fast response is desired, the motor
current is allowed to exceed the rated current during transient operations. When the
converter rating is chosen to match the motor transient current rating, the torque and
power limitations shown by the dotted lines are obtained). During transient operation, the
current may be forced to reach maximum permissible value, thus causing the drive to
operate on the dotted curves. This is done to make full use of the motor torque and power
capabilities.

Speed transition during speed reduction

Decrease in speed in the same direction:

Let the drive be initially operating at point S1 (fig.1.9a) for which the speed is ml
If the drive has been running in steady-state at this point, the motor torque will be
equal to the load torque. We now desire to change the operation to a lower speed m2.
As soon as the command for speed change is received, the converter transfers the
operation to point A in the braking quadrant. Since the transition from S1 to A is done
in a very brief time, the motor speed does not change appreciably due to its inertia.
Now the motor is braked at the maximum current, which involves braking at the
maximum power from A to B and braking at the maximum torque from B to C. At C
the desired speed is reached. The converter therefore transfers the operation back to
motoring, and the drive settles at point S2 at which the motor torque equals the load
torque. When the transition from S1 to S2 must be done in the least possible time, the
braking is carried out at the maximum transient power and torque limits
Speed transition during speed reversal

Speed reversal:
Let the speed of the drive be changed from ml to -m2 , which means the transfer
of the operation from S1 to S2 as shown in the above figure. Soon after the command for
the speed change is received, the operation is transferred to point A in the braking
quadrant. The motor is braked to zero speed, initially at maximum power and then at
maximum torque. At zero speed the converter transfers the operation to reverse motoring.
The drive is accelerated at maximum torque to point D for which the motor speed is
-m2 . At D, the motor is permitted to change its torque. Figure 1.9b also shows the
transition from speed -m1 to -m1 , which occurs along the path S 1, A,B,C,D,E,F and S1.
In the speed reversal also, when the transition from a given operating point to another
operating point is to be achieved in a minimum time, braking and acceleration are done at
the maximum transient torque and power limits.

Speed transition during increase in speed

Increase in speed in the same direction: The above figure shows the transition
from point S2 at speed m2 to point S1 at speed ml . When the speed command is
received, the operation is transferred to point A in the same quadrant. The drive is
accelerated initially at maximum torque and then at maximum power until the operation
reaches point C for which the speed is ml . The motor is now allowed to change its
power. The operation finally settles at point S1. In this case also, for the fast response, the
maximum transient torque and power limits can be used.

Speed transition when single quadrant converter is used

A single quadrant converter can be used where slow response to decrease in speed
command can be tolerated. When a single quadrant converter is employed, the motor
torque can at the most be made zero. The path followed for the decrease in speed
command from ml to m2 is shown in the above Fig.

Problems
1.1. Figure P1.1 shows the speed-torque curves of the motor and load in the four
quadrants. Comment on the stability of the equilibrium points A, B, C and D.

A, B unstable
1.2.

C, D stable

A motor operating with a suitable control system develops a torque given by the
relation T = am-b. The motor drives a load for which the torque is given by the
expression TL = c2m, where a, b and c are positive real constants. (a) Find the

equilibrium speeds. What relation must exist between the constants for the drive to
have two positive real speeds? (b) Determine the stability of equilibrium points.
T = am b
TL = c2m , a,b,c are positive constants
Equilibrium speed is obtained when
T = TL
am b = c2m
c2m - am+ b = 0
m = aa2 4bc
2c
The equilibrium speeds are
ma = a + a2 4bc
2c
mb = a - a2 4bc
2c
The equilibrium speeds are real if a2 4bc >0.
The equilibrium speeds are positive real when a2 4bc >0
Also - sign before the radical will give a positive speed only if
Stability
Consider ma = a + a2 4bc
2c
To get stable equilibrium speed dTL / d > dT / d
dT / d = a
dTL / d = 2c.
From ma = a + a2 4bc
Therefore for positive real speed 2c ma > a
So ma is a stable equilibrium point.
For mb = a - a2 4bc
2c
Therefore 2cmb = a - a2 4bc
Therefore 2cmb < a . So it is an unstable equilibrium point.

a > a2 4bc
2c
2c

1.3. Figure shows the speed-torque curves of four motor-load combinations. Comment on
the stability of the equilibrium points A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

A, C, E, G Unstable
B, D, F, H - Stable
1.4.

A motor having a suitable control circuit develops a torque given by the relationship
Tm=a+b, where a and b are positive constants. This motor is used to drive a load
whose torque is expressed as TL=c2+d, where c and d are some other positive
constants. The total inertia of the rotating masses is J.
a) Determine the relations amongst the constants a, b, c and d in order that the
motor can start together with the load and have an equilibrium operating speed.
b) Calculate the equilibrium operating speed.

c) Will the drive be stable at this speed.

d) Determine the initial acceleration of the drive.
e) Determine the maximum acceleration of the drive.
(a)
(b)

At = 0, Tm = b and TL = d
Hence the motor can start with the load only if b> d.
At Tm = TL equilibrium speed is obtained.
a+b = c2+d
c2 - a - b + d = 0
1 = a + a2 4c(d b)
2c
2 = a - a2 4c(d b)
2c
To get positive real speeda2 4c(d b) > 0
a
a2 4c(d b)
Also to get positive speed
>
2c
2c

(c)

To get stable equilibrium speed dTL / d > dT / d

dTm / d = a
dTL / d = 2c.
ie.
2c > a
From 1 equation 2c1 = a + a2 4c(d b)
From 2 equation, 2c2 = a - a2 4c(d b)
So 1 is stable because 2c1 > a
So 2 is unstable because 2c2 < a

(d)

Accelerating torque

Jd
= Tm - TL
dt

Initialy Tm = b,

TL = d

So initial acceleration

b-d
=

dt
(e)

Jd
= Tm - TL
dt
Jd
= - c2 + a + b - d
dt
- c2 + a + b - d

Jd
Acceleration A =

=
dt

Acceleration will be maximum at the speed (dA/ d) = 0

Applying this condition

= a/2c

Substituting this un the acceleration equation

A2+4c(b d)
Amax =
4cJ