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The simplest way to convey a fluid, in a contained system from Point A to Point B, is by means of a conduit or pipe (Fig.
1).
(/File%3AVol3_Page_319_Image_0001.png)
Paragon).
Contents
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1 Piping design
2 Bernoulli equation
6 Multiphase flow
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6.1.1 Bubble
6.3 Simplified friction pressure drop approximation for two phase flow
8 Nomenclature
9 References
11 External links
12 See also
Piping design
The minimum basic parameters that are required to design the piping system include, but are not limited to, the following.
The distance between Point A and Point B (or length the fluid must travel) and equivalent length (pressure losses)
These basic parameters are needed to design a piping system. Assuming steadystate flow, there are a number of
equations, which are based upon the general energy equation, that can be employed to design the piping system. The
variables associated with the fluid (i.e., liquid, gas, or multiphase) affect the flow. This leads to the derivation and
development of equations that are applicable to a particular fluid. Although piping systems and pipeline design can get
complex, the vast majority of the design problems encountered by the engineer can be solved by the standard flow
equations.
Bernoulli equation
The basic equation developed to represent steadystate fluid flow is the Bernoulli equation which assumes that total
mechanical energy is conserved for steady, incompressible, inviscid, isothermal flow with no heat transfer or work done.
(/File%3AVol3_page_319_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 1)
where
Z
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= pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
and
(/File%3AVol3_Page_320_Image_0001.png)
of AMEC Paragon).
(/File%3AVol3_page_319_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 2)
and
(/File%3AVol3_page_319_eq_003.PNG) (Eq. 3)
where
= velocity, ft/sec,
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
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The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is useful in characterizing the degree of turbulence in the flow
(/File%3AVol3_page_320_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 4)
where
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
= viscosity, lbm/ftsec.
(/File%3AVol3_page_320_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 5)
where
= viscosity, cp,
and
= velocity, ft/sec.
(/File%3AVol3_page_321_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 6)
where
= viscosity, cp,
= specific gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
and
The Moody friction factor, f, expressed in the previous equations, is a function of the Reynolds number and the roughness
of the internal surface of the pipe and is given by Fig. 3. The Moody friction factor is impacted by the characteristic of
the flow in the pipe. For laminar flow, where Re is < 2,000, there is little mixing of the flowing fluid, and the flow
velocity is parabolic; the Moody friction factor is expressed as f = 64/Re. For turbulent flow, where Re > 4,000, there is
complete mixing of the flow, and the flow velocity has a uniform profile; f depends on Re and the relative roughness
(/D). The relative roughness is the ratio of absolute roughness, , a measure of surface imperfections to the pipe internal
diameter, D. Table 9.1 lists the absolute roughness for several types of pipe materials.
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(/File%3AVol3_Page_321_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_322_Image_0001.png)
Paragon).
If the viscosity of the liquid is unknown, Fig. 4 can be used for the viscosity of crude oil, Fig. 5 for effective viscosity of
crudeoil/water mixtures, and Fig. 6 for the viscosity of natural gas. In using some of these figures, the relationship
(/File%3AVol3_page_321_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 7)
where
and
SG = specific gravity.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_324_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_325_Image_0001.png)
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(/File%3AVol3_Page_327_Image_0001.png)
General equation
Eq. 3 can be expressed in terms of pipe inside diameter (ID) as stated next.
(/File%3AVol3_page_323_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 8)
where
and
The HazenWilliams equation, which is applicable only for water in turbulent flow at 60F, expresses head loss as
(/File%3AVol3_page_323_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 9)
where
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Ql
and
(/File%3AVol3_Page_327_Image_0001.png)
Table 2
General equation
where
= length, ft,
and
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Assumptions: no work performed, steadystate flow, and f = constant as a function of the length.
Simplified equation
where
= flowing temperature, R,
and
= length, ft.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_328_Image_0001.png)
Suppliers Assn.).
Three simplified derivative equations can be used to calculate gas flow in pipelines:
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All three are effective, but the accuracy and applicability of each equation falls within certain ranges of flow and pipe
Weymouth equation
This equation is used for highReynoldsnumber flows where the Moody friction factor is merely a function of relative
roughness.
where
= length, ft,
and
Panhandle equation
This equation is used for moderateReynoldsnumber flows where the Moody friction factor is independent of relative
where
= efficiency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average operating conditions: 0.85),
Lm = length, miles,
and
Spitzglass equation
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where
and
Assumptions:
= 520R,
P1 = 15psia,
= 1.0,
and
P = < 10% of P 1 .
As previously discussed, there are certain conditions under which the various formulas are more applicable. A general
Weymouth equation
The Weymouth equation is recommended for smallerdiameter pipe (generally, 12 in. and less). It is also recommended
for shorter lengths of segments ( < 20 miles) within production batteries and for branch gathering lines, mediumto
highpressure (+/100 psig to > 1,000 psig) applications, and a high Reynolds number.
Panhandle equation
This equation is recommended for largerdiameter pipe (12in. diameter and greater). It is also recommended for long
runs of pipe ( > 20 miles) such as crosscountry transmission pipelines and for moderate Reynolds numbers.
Spitzglass equation
The Spitzglass equation is recommended for lowpressure vent lines < 12 in. in diameter (P < 10% of P1).
The petroleum engineer will find that the general gas equation and the Weymouth equation are very useful. The
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Weymouth equation is ideal for designing branch laterals and trunk lines in field gasgathering systems.
Multiphase flow
Flow regimes
Fluid from the wellbore to the first piece of production equipment (separator) is generally twophase liquid/gas flow.
The characteristics of horizontal, multiphase flow regimes are shown in Fig. 8. They can be described as follows:
Bubble: Occurs at very low gas/liquid ratios where the gas forms bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe.
Plug: Occurs at higher gas/liquid ratios where the gas bubbles form moderatesized plugs.
Stratified: As the gas/liquid ratios increase, plugs become longer until the gas and liquid flow in separate layers.
Wavy: As the gas/liquid ratios increase further, the energy of the flowing gas stream causes waves in the flowing
liquid.
Slug: As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact
Spray: At extremely high gas/liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowinggas stream.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_331_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 9[1] shows the various flow regimes that could be expected in horizontal flow as a function of the superficial
velocities of gas and liquid flow. Superficial velocity is the velocity that would exist if the other phase was not present.
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(/File%3AVol3_Page_332_Image_0001.png)
Griffith).[1]
The multiphase flow in vertical and inclined pipe behaves somewhat differently from multiphase flow in horizontal pipe.
The characteristics of the vertical flow regimes are shown in Fig. 10 and are described next.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_333_Image_0001.png)
Bubble
Where the gas/liquid ratios are small, the gas is present in the liquid in small, variablediameter, randomly distributed
bubbles. The liquid moves at a fairly uniform velocity while the bubbles move up through the liquid at differing
velocities, which are dictated by the size of the bubbles. Except for the total compositefluid density, the bubbles have
Slug flow
As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the
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Transition flow
The fluid changes from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase. The liquid slugs virtually disappear and are
entrained in the gas phase. The effects of the liquid are still significant, but the effects of the gas phase are predominant.
The gas phase is continuous, and the bulk of the liquid is entrained within the gas. The liquid wets the pipe wall, but the
effects of the liquid are minimal as the gas phase becomes the controlling factor. Fig. 11[2] shows the various flow
regimes that could be expected in vertical flow as a function of the superficial velocities of gas and liquid flow.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_334_Image_0001.png)
Taitel et al.).[2]
The calculation of pressure drop in twophase flow is very complex and is based on empirical relationships to take into
account the phase changes that occur because of pressure and temperature changes along the flow, the relative velocities
of the phases, and complex effects of elevation changes. Table 3 lists several commercial programs that are available to
model pressure drop. Because all are based to some extent on empirical relations, they are limited in accuracy to the data
sets from which the relations were designed. It is not unusual for measured pressure drops in the field to differ by 20%
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(/File%3AVol3_Page_335_Image_0001.png)
Table 3
Eq. 16 provides an approximate solution for friction pressure drop in twophaseflow problems that meet the assumptions
stated.
where
= length, ft,
and
where
and
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where
= operating temperature, R,
and
There are several notable characteristics associated with pressure drop because of elevation changes in twophase flow.
In downhill lines, flow becomes stratified as liquid flows faster than gas.
The depth of the liquid layer adjusts to the static pressure head and is equal to the friction pressure drop.
In low gas/liquid flow, the flow in uphill segments can be liquid "full" at low flow rates. Thus, at low flow rates,
the total pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drops for all of the uphill runs.
With increased gas flow, the total pressure drop may decrease as liquid is removed from uphill segments.
The pressure drop at low flow rates associated with an uphill elevation change may be approximated with Eq. 19.
where
and
The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill segment.
One of the most important parameters affecting pressure drop in piping systems is pressure loss in the fittings and valves,
which is incorporated in the system. For piping systems within production facilities, the pressure drop through fittings
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and valves can be much greater than that through the straight run of pipe itself. In long pipeline systems, the pressure
Resistance coefficients
The head loss in valves and fittings can be calculated with resistance coefficients as
where
and
= velocity, ft/sec.
The resistance coefficients Kr for individual valves and fittings are found in tabular form in a number of industry
publications. Most manufacturers publish tabular data for all sizes and configurations of their products. One of the best
sources of data is the Crane Flow of Fluids, technical paper No. 410. [3] The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.
(NGPSA) Engineering Data Book[4] and IngersollRands Cameron Hydraulic Data Book[5] are also good sources of
references for the information. Some examples of resistance coefficients are listed in Tables 4 and 5.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_336_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_337_Image_0001.png)
Table 4
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Table 5
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(/File%3AVol3_Page_338_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_339_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_340_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Flow coefficients
The flow coefficient for liquids, CV, is determined experimentally for each valve or fitting as the flow of water, in gal/min
at 60F for a pressure drop of 1 psi through the fitting. The relationship between flow and resistance coefficients can be
expressed as
In any fitting or valve with a known CV, the pressure drop can be calculated for different conditions of flow and liquid
where
and
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Again, the CV is published for most valves and fittings and can be found in Crane Flow of Fluids,[3] Engineering Data
Book,[4] Cameron Hydraulic Data Book,[5] as well as the manufacturers technical data.
Equivalent lengths
The head loss associated with valves and fittings can also be calculated by considering equivalent "lengths" of pipe
segments for each valve and fitting. In other words, the calculated head loss caused by fluid passing through a gate valve
is expressed as an additional length of pipe that is added to the actual length of pipe in calculating pressure drop.
All of the equivalent lengths caused by the valves and fittings within a pipe segment would be added together to compute
the pressure drop for the pipe segment. The equivalent length, Le, can be determined from the resistance coefficient, Kr,
and the flow coefficient, CV, using the formulas given next.
and
where
and
Table 6 shows equivalent lengths of pipe for a variety of valves and fittings for a number of standard pipe sizes.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_342_Image_0001.png)
Table 6
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Nomenclature
= pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
= viscosity, lbm/ftsec.
Ql
= specific gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
= absolute viscosity, cp
Ql
P1
P2
= operating temperature, R,
Kr
Kr
References
1. 1.0 1.1 Griffith, P. 1984. Multiphase Flow in Pipes. J Pet Technol 36 (3): 361367. SPE12895PA.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895PA (http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895PA).
2.0
2.1
2.
Taitel, Y., Bornea, D., and Dukler, A.E. 1980. Modelling flow pattern transitions for steady upward
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(http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304).
3.
3.0 3.1 Crane Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410. 1976. New York City: Crane Manufacturing Co.
4.
4.0 4.1 Engineering Data Book, ninth edition. 1972. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.
5.
5.0 5.1 Westway, C.R. and Loomis,A.W. ed. 1979. Cameron Hydraulic Data Book, sixteenth edition. Woodcliff
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See also
Pipelines (/Pipelines)
PEH:Piping_and_Pipelines (/PEH%3APiping_and_Pipelines)
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